God in Islam - Wikipedia

God in Islam (Arabic: ٱللَّٰه, romanized: Allāh, contraction of ٱلْإِلَٰه al-'Ilāh, lit. "the God") is the eternal Supreme Being who originated the creation ... GodinIslam FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch IslamicconceptionofGod PartofaseriesonGodinIslamAllahJallaJalālahinArabiccalligraphy List Allah Names Phrasesandexpressions Theology Oneness Islamiccreed Transcendence DenialofDivineattributes Anthropomorphism Islamportal ·Categoryvte PartofaseriesonIslam Beliefs OnenessofGod Prophets RevealedBooks Angels DayofResurrection Predestination Practices ProfessionofFaith Prayer Almsgiving Fasting Pilgrimage TextsFoundations Quran Sunnah(Hadith,Sirah) Tafsir(exegesis) Aqidah(creed) Fiqh(jurisprudence) Sharia(law) History Timeline Muhammad Ahlal-Bayt Sahabah Rashidun Caliphate Imamate MedievalIslamicscience SpreadofIslam SuccessiontoMuhammad Cultureandsociety Academics Animals Art Calendar Children Circumcision Demographics Denominations Economics Education Spiritpossessionandexorcism Feminism Festivals Finance LGBT Madrasa Moralteachings Mosque Mysticism Philosophy Poetry Politics Proselytizing Science Slavery Socialwelfare Women Relatedtopics Apostasy Criticism Muhammad Quran Hadith Otherreligions Islamism Violence terrorism war Islamophobia Jihad Jihadism Lawsofwar Glossary  Islamportalvte GodinIslam(Arabic:ٱللَّٰه,romanized: Allāh,contractionofٱلْإِلَٰهal-’Ilāh,lit."theGod")[1]istheeternalSupremeBeingwhooriginatedthecreation,[2]preservesallthings[1][3][4][5]andthenwillrepeatit.[6]AllahisGod’smostuniqueName,grandlyreferredtoasLafẓal-Jalālah(TheWordofMajesty).ItoccursintheQur’an2,697timesin85ofits114suras.[7]InIslam,Godisconceivedasabsolutelyone,unique,andperfect,freefromallfaults,deficiencies,anddefects,andfurtherheldtobeomnipotent,omniscient,andcompletelyinfiniteinallofhisattributes,whohasnopartnerorequal,beingthesolecreatorofeverythinginexistence.[1][3][5][8]IslamemphasizesthatGodisstrictlysingular,all-mercifulandall-compassionate,whosemercyembraceseverything;[9]whoneitherslumbersnorsleeps,norisobnoxioustodecaynordeath.[10][11] AccordingtoIslamictheology,Godhasnophysicalbodyorgender(neithermalenorfemale),althoughheisalwaysreferredtowithmasculinegrammaticalarticlesonly,[12]andthereisabsolutelynothinglikehiminanywaywhatsoever.Therefore,Islamrejectsthedoctrineoftheincarnationandthenotionofapersonalgodasanthropomorphic,becauseitisseenasdemeaningtothetranscendenceofGod.TheQuranprescribesthefundamentaltranscendentalcriterioninthefollowingverse:"(Heis)theCreatoroftheheavensandtheearth.Hehasmadeforyoufromyourselves,mates,andamongthecattle,mates;Hemultipliesyouthereby.ThereisnothingwhateverlikeuntoHim,andHeistheOnethathearsandsees(allthings)"(42:11).Therefore,IslamstrictlyandcategoricallyrejectsallformsofanthropomorphismandanthropopathismoftheconceptofGod.[13][14][15][16] TheIslamicconceptofGodemphasizesthatheisabsolutelypureandfreefromassociationwithotherbeings,whichmeansattributingthepowersandqualitiesofGodtohiscreation,andviceversa.InIslam,Godisneverportrayedinanyimage.TheQuranspecificallyforbadeascribingpartnerstosharehissingularsovereignty,asheisconsideredtobetheabsoluteonewithoutasecond,indivisible,andincomparablebeing,whoissimilartonothingandnothingiscomparabletohim.ThusGodisabsolutelytranscendent,uniqueandutterlyotherthananythinginoroftheworldastobebeyondallformsofhumanthoughtandexpression.[17][18]ThebriefestandthemostcomprehensivedescriptionofGodinIslamisfoundinSuratal-Ikhlas.[19] AccordingtomainstreamMuslimtheologians,GodisdescribedasQadim [ar][17][20](Eternal,timeless,andinfinite,whichliterallymeans:"ancient"),havingnofirst,withoutbeginningorend;absolute,notlimitedbytimeorplaceorcircumstance,norissubjecttoanydecreesoastobedeterminedbyanypreciselimitsorsettimes,butistheFirstandtheLast.Heisnotaformedbody,norasubstancecircumscribedwithlimitsordeterminedbymeasure;neitherdoesheresemblebodiesastheyarecapableofbeingmeasuredordivided.Neitherdosubstancesexistinhim;neitherisheanaccident,nordoaccidentsexistinhim.Neitherisheliketoanythingthatexists,norisanythingliketohim;norishedeterminateinquantity,norcomprehendedbybounds,norcircumscribedbydifferencesofsituation,norcontainedintheheavens,andtranscendsspatialandtemporalbounds,andremainsbeyondtheboundsofhumancomprehensionandperceptions.[21][22][19] Contents 1Etymology 2Othernames 3Attributes 3.1Oneness 3.1.1Argumentofantagonism 3.2Uniqueness 3.3Creator 3.3.1God'screationofhumanacts 3.4Mercy 3.5Omniscience 4Relationshipwithcreation 5ConceptsinIslamictheology 5.1Sunnis 5.1.1Atharis 5.1.2Ash'arisandMaturidis 5.1.3Sufis 5.2Mu'tazilis 5.3Shi'is 5.3.1Isma'ilis 5.3.2Twelvers 6Wahdatal-wujud 7Notes 8Seealso 9References 10Bibliography 11Externallinks Etymology[edit] Mainarticle:Allah AllāhistheArabicwordreferringtoGodinAbrahamicreligions.[23][24][25] IntheEnglishlanguage,thewordgenerallyreferstoGodinIslam.TheArabicwordAllāhisthoughttobederivedbycontractionfromal-ʾilāh,whichmeans"theGod",[1](i.e.,theonlyGod)andisrelatedtoElandElah,theHebrewandAramaicwordsforGod.[26][27]Itisdistinguishedfromʾilāh(Arabic:إِلَٰه),theArabicwordmeaningdeity,whichcouldrefertoanyofthegodsworshippedinpre-IslamicArabiaortoanyotherdeity.[28] Othernames[edit] Mainarticle:NamesofGodinIslam GodisdescribedandreferredtointheQuranandhadithby99namesthatreflecthisattributes.[29]TheQuranreferstotheattributesofGodas"mostbeautifulnames".[30][31]AccordingtoGerhardBöwering, Theyaretraditionallyenumeratedas99innumbertowhichisaddedasthehighestName(al-ismal-ʾaʿẓam),theSupremeNameofAllāh.ThelocusclassicusforlistingtheDivineNamesintheliteratureofQurʾāniccommentaryis17:110[32]“CalluponAllah,orcalluponTheMerciful;whichsoeveryoucallupon,toAllahbelongthemostbeautifulNames,”andalso59:22-24,[33]whichincludesaclusterofmorethanadozenDivineepithets."— GerhardBöwering,GodandGod'sAttributes[34] SomeMuslimsmayusedifferentnamesasmuchasAllah,forinstance"God"inEnglish.WhetherornotAllahcanbeconsideredasthepersonalnameofGodbecamedisputedincontemporaryscholarship.[35] Attributes[edit] Oneness[edit] Mainarticles:TawhidandTanzih Islam'smostfundamentalconceptisastrictmonotheismcalledtawhid,affirmingthatGodisoneandTanzih(wāḥid).ThebasiccreedofIslam,theShahada[36](recitedunderoathtoenterthereligion),involvesلَاإِلَٰهَإِلَّاٱللَّٰهُ(lāʾilāhaʾillallāh),or"ItestifythereisnodeityotherthanGod." MuslimsrejecttheChristiandoctrineoftheTrinityanddivinityofJesus,comparingittopolytheism.[37]Jesusisinsteadbelievedtobeaprophet. TawhidconstitutestheforemostarticleoftheMuslimprofession.[38]ThedeificationorworshipofanyoneoranythingotherthanGod(shirk)isthegreatestsininIslam.TheentiretyoftheIslamicteachingrestsontheprincipleofTawhid.[39] AccordingtoVincentJ.Cornell,[40]theQuranalsoprovidesamonistimageofGodbydescribingtherealityasaunifiedwhole,withGodbeingasingleconceptthatwoulddescribeorascribeallexistingthings:"HeistheFirstandtheLast,theEvidentandtheImmanent:andHehasfullknowledgeofallthings."[41] Argumentofantagonism[edit] ThereisanargumentforDivineunitythathaslongbeenfavoredbyMuslimtheologians(mutakallimūn)knownastheDalilal-Tamanu' [ar](orBurhanal-Tamanu').Itcanbetranslatedasthe"prooffromhypotheticalmutualprevention"orthe"argumentfromhypotheticalmutualhindrance".Theargumentisdesignedtorefutethesuggestionthattherecouldbetwoormoregodsinexistence.Theproofstatesthatifthereweretwogods,theworldwouldnotbecreated,becausetheywouldpreventeachotherfromacting.Butsinceanorderly,harmoniousworldexists,itscreatormustbeone.ThisproofhasitsbasisinQur'anicverses,suchasthefollowing:[42][43] Say:"Iftherewere,astheyassert,deitiesapartfromHim,surelytheywouldseekawaytotheMasteroftheSupremeThrone(thedominionofthecreation)."— Quran 17:42 (Translatedby AliÜnal) ButthefactisthathadtherebeenintheheavensandtheearthanydeitiesotherthanGod,both(ofthoserealms)wouldcertainlyhavefallenintoruin.All-GlorifiedGodis,theLordoftheSupremeThrone,inthatHeisabsolutelyaboveallthattheyattributetoHim.— Quran 21:22 (Translatedby AliÜnal) GodhasnevertakentoHimselfachild,noristhereanydeityalongwithHim;otherwise,eachdeitywouldsurelyhavesoughtabsoluteindependencewithhiscreaturesunderhisauthority,andtheywouldsurelyhavetriedtooverpoweroneanother.All-GlorifiedisGod,inthatHeisfarabovewhattheyattributetoHim,— Quran 23:91 (Translatedby AliÜnal) Asisevidentintheseverses,thefactthatpolytheismisnotcompatiblewiththecreationoftheuniverseanditsorderisproved.Consequently,theexistenceoftheuniverseandtheexcellenceofitsorderisthereflectionandtheproofofexistenceofGodandhisoneness,andthattherecanbeonlyonetranscendentwill.However,iftherehadbeenmultipledeities,eachdeitywouldhavetriedtooverpowerotherdeities;andthustherewouldhavebeenconflicts,disputes,andclashesbetweenthem.Ifthereweresuchgods,theywoulddesireandattempttobelordoftheuniversethemselvesor,atleast,tohaveapartinthecreationandadministrationofthings.Theorderandoperationoftheuniversealsocontradictsthis;becauseiftherehadbeenmultiplesdeities,inorderforonedeitiestoimposeitsauthority,arestrictionwhichlimitstheauthoritiesofotherdeitiesshouldbeenmade.[44] Forexample,ifthereweretwogods,thefirstoneisgodwhichcreatedtheSun,andthesecondoneisgodwhichcreatedtheMoon.Inordertocreateaconsistencywithinthelawofphysicsintheuniverse,themovementsofboththeSunandtheMoonmustberestrictedinsuchafashionthatthemovementsofboththeSunandMoondonotinflictanyharmtowardhumanbeingslivingoftheEarth.Thisimpliesthattheactsofbothgodsconcerninghowtheycontroltheirowncreationsmustbesuppressed.Ontheotherhand,beingrestrictedisanattributewhichisnotbefittingtoanydeity.Thus,eachgodwouldhavetriedtotakefullydominanceuponitsowncreations.Thiscouldhaveresultedininconsistencywithinthelawofphysicsintheuniverse,possiblyharminghumanbeingsonEarth.Nonetheless,ascanbeclearlyunderstoodfromtheQur'anchapter21verse22,andchapter41verse37,sinceAllahistheonlyGodwhocreatedtheSun,theMoon,andotherheavenlybodies,allofthembehaveconsistently,andbringmanybenefitstohumanbeings.[45] Thesecondexampleisexplainedasfollows.Ifthereweretwogods,thefirstoneisgodwhichcreates,andthesecondisgodwhichdestroy.Whenthefirstgodimposesitsauthority,whichistocreate,thesecondgodmustbesuppressedsothatitdoesnotoperate.Otherwise,thefirstgodcannotsuccessfullyoperate,becauseitscreationwillbesoongetdestroyedbythesecondgod.Beingsuppressedorbeinglimitedisnotabefittingattributetoadeity.Thus,iftherehadbeenmultipledeities,eachdeitywouldhavetriedtooverpowerotherdeities.Therefore,inrealitythereisonlyonedeity,andthatisAllah.[46]Furthermore,thisexplanationwasemphasizedintheQur'anicverse(7:158).ItwasexplicitlystatedthatthereisnootherdeitiesbesidesAllah.Allahistheowneroftheheavensandtheearth.AllahistheGodwhocreates,andAllahistheGodwhodestroys.[45] Uniqueness[edit] IslamemphasisestheabsoluteuniquenessandsingularityofGodinhisessence,attributes,qualities,andacts.[47]AsstatedinSuratal-Ikhlas:GodisAhad[48](theuniqueoneofabsoluteoneness,whoisindivisibleinnature,andtherecanbenootherlikehim);Godisal-Samad[49](theultimatesourceofallexistence,theuncausedcausewhocreatedallthingsoutofnothing,whoiseternal,absolute,immutable,perfect,complete,essential,independent,andself-sufficient;whoneedsnothingwhileallofcreationisinabsoluteneedofhim;theoneeternallyandconstantlyrequiredandsought,dependeduponbyallexistenceandtowhomallmatterswillultimatelyreturn);hebegetsnot,norishebegotten(HeisUnbornandUncreated,hasnoparents,wifeoroffspring);andcomparable/equaltohim,thereisnone.[16] God'sabsolutetranscendenceoverhiscreation,aswellashisunlimitedindividualitywereassertedandemphasizedwithsupportfromappropriatequotationsfromtheQur'anasfollows: (Heis)theLordoftheheavensandtheearthandallthatisbetweenthem;soworshipHimalone,andbeconstantandpatientinHisworship.DoyouknowofanywhosenameisworthytobementionedalongwithHis(asDeityandLordtoworship)?— Quran 19:65 (Translatedby AliÜnal) TheQur'anicverse(19:65),"DoyouknowofanythatcanbenamedwithHisName?"emphasizesthatasAllahisUnique,Hisnameissharedbynoneother.[50] TothosewhodonotbelieveintheHereafterappliesthemostevilofattributes,andtoGodappliesthemostsublimeattribute,andHeistheAll-Gloriouswithirresistiblemight,theAll-Wise.— Quran 16:60 (Translatedby AliÜnal) Suchasthatdescribedinthepreviousthreeverses(16:57-59).ForthedisbelieversintheHereafter,thereisanevildescription,orinotherwords,themostevilattribute(i.e.,themostvile),whichistheirignoranceandingratitude,andtheirburyingaliveofnewborngirls,despitethefactthattheyareneededforthepurposesofmarriageandnotallowingwomentoeveninheritproperty,andtheirascribingfemalegendertoangelsandclaimingthattheangelsarethedaughtersofGodwhilesopreferringsonsforthemselves(thisisalsomentionedintheverses37:149-155);whereastoGodbelongthehighestattribute,namely,thatthereisnodeityexcepthim,immenselyexaltedbeyondandaboveallcomparisonandlikeness.[51][52] So,donotinventsimilitudesforGod(donotlikenHimtootherstoassociatepartnerswithHim,forthereisnothingsimilartoHim).SurelyGodknowsandyoudonotknow(theexacttruthaboutHimandtheexactnatureofthings).— Quran 16:74 (Translatedby AliÜnal) TheOriginatoroftheheavensandtheearth(eachwithparticularfeaturesandonorderedprinciples):Hehasmadeforyou,fromyourselves,mates,andfromthecattlemates(oftheirownkind):bythismeansHemultipliesyou(andthecattle).ThereisnothingwhateverlikeHim.HeistheAll-Hearing,theAll-Seeing.— Quran 42:11 (Translatedby AliÜnal) TheQur'anicverse(42:11)emphasizesthatthereisnosimilaritywhatsoeverbetweenthecreatorandhiscreationinessence,inattributesorinactions,andtherefore,Godisbeyondallhumanconceptsofhim.Sohehasnomatesandnothingislikehim,nordoeshebeget,norishebegotten.Nothing–neithermatter,norspace,nortime–canrestrictorcontainhim.AndthisiswhyhisAttributes–hishearing,seeing,knowledge,will,power,creating,andsoon–arealsobeyondanythingwecanconceive.[53] ThesamesentimentisexpressedintheQur'anicverse(6:103)whichstates:[16]"Visionperceives/comprehendsHimnot,andHeperceives/comprehends(evaluates)allvision."Insomeinterpretations,thisversealsoassertsthatthesensesandintellectscannotfullycomprehendGod.[54]Likewise,theQur'analsosays:"whereastheycannotcomprehendHimwiththeirknowledge."[Quran 20:110 (Translatedby AliÜnal)] TheHanafijuristandtheologian,al-Tahawi(d.321/933),wroteinhistreatiseontheology,commonlyknownasal-'Aqidaal-Tahawiyya:[55][17]"WhoeverdescribesAllahevenwithasinglehumanquality/attribute,hasdisbelieved/blasphemed.Sowhoeverunderstandsthis,willtakeheedandrefrainfromsuchstatementsasthoseofdisbelievers,andknowsthatAllahinHisattributesisutterlyunlikehumanbeings." Al-Tahawialsostatedthat:[55][17]"Heisexalted/transcendentbeyondhavinglimits,ends,organs,limbsandparts(literally:tools).Thesixdirectionsdonotencompass/containHimliketherestofcreatedthings." Thesixdirectionsare:above,below,right,left,frontandback.Theabovestatementofal-Tahawirefutestheanthropomorphist'sdogmasthatimagineAllahhasaphysicalbodyandhumanform,andbeingoccupiedinaplace,directionortrajectory.[55] Creator[edit] AccordingtotheteachingsofIslam,Godisthecreatoroftheworldsandallthecreaturestherein.Hehascreatedeverythingintheworldsinaccordancewithadefiniteplanandforaparticularpurpose.Thereisnoshortcomingordefectofanysortinanyofhiscreations.[56]TheQur'anconfirmsthisinthefollowingverses: GodistheCreatorofallthings,andHeistheGuardian(withpowerofdisposition)overallthings.— Quran 39:62 (Translatedby AliÜnal) Surely,Wehavecreatedeachandeverythingby(precise)measure.— Quran 54:49 (Translatedby AliÜnal) Dothosewhodisbelieveeverconsiderthattheheavensandtheearthwereatfirstonepiece,andthenWepartedthemasseparateentities;andthatWehavemadeeverylivingthingfromwater?Willtheystillnotcometobelieve?— Quran 21:30 (Translatedby AliÜnal) TheQur'analsosaysinverse(25:2):"andHehascreatedeverythinganddesigneditinaperfectmeasure(andordaineditsdestinyinaprecisemanner)."Andinanotherverse(25:59)itisemphasized:"ItisHewhocreatedtheheavensandtheearth,andallthatisbetweenthem." TheQur'anstatesthatGodistheRabbal-'Alamin.WhenreferringtoGod,theArabicterm"Rabb"isusuallytranslatedas"Lord",andcanincludeallofthefollowingmeanings:[57][58]"owner,master,ruler,controller,creator,upbringer,trainer,sustainer,nourisher,cherisher,provider,protector,guardianandcaretaker."Thesameterm,Rabb,isusedinalimitedsenseforhumansasinthe"head"ofthefamily,"master"ofthehouse,or"owner"ofthelandorcattle.TheArabicword"al-'Alamin"canbetranslatedasthe"Worlds"or"Universes".[59]Therearemanyworlds,astronomicalandphysicalworlds,worldsofthought,spiritualworlds,everythinginexistenceincludingangels,jinn,devils,humans,animals,plants,andsoon.[60]The"Worlds"mayalsobetakentorefertodifferentdomainsorkingdomswithinthisearthlyworld,orotherworldsbeyondthisearth.Thus,theQur'anicexpressionRabbal-'Alaminreallymeansthe"CreatoroftheWorlds",[61]the"RuleroftheUniverses",[62]the"CreatorandSustainerofallthepeoplesandUniverses".[63] God'screationofhumanacts[edit] AccordingtoSunniTheology(Kalam),Godisthecreatorofhumanactionsandmanistheacquisitor.TheyaffirmsthatGodisthecreatorofallactions.However,hehasgivenmanpoweranddesiresothathehimselfmaychoosewhethertodoacertainactionornot.Godcreatesinmanthepowertoactandalsogiveshimanabilitytomakeafreechoicebetweenthetwoalternatives—rightandwrong.Whenhedoeschoosetodoit,Godcreatesthatact.[64]AsitisrevealedintheQur'an: "WhileitisGodWhohascreatedyouandallthatyoudo?"— Quran 37:96 (Translatedby AliÜnal) ThismeansthatitisGodWhocreatesusandenablesustodothings.Hehasgivenuswillandpowersothatweareabletowillsomethinganddoit.However,itishewhocreatesandgivesexternalexistencetowhatwedo.Ourperforminganactiondoesnotmeanthatactionmustcomeabout.Wereitnotforhiscreation,wecoulddonothing.Wearedoersoragents,whileGodisthecreator.IfwehadnoabilitytodosomethingandGoddidnotcreateouractions,thenourhavingfreewillwouldbemeaninglessandwewouldhavenoresponsibilityforourdeeds.[65] Mercy[edit] ThemostcommonlyusednamesintheprimarysourcesareAl-Rahman,meaning"MostCompassionate"andAl-Rahim,meaning"MostMerciful".[66]Theformercompassesthewholecreation,thereforeapplyingtoGod'smercyinthatitgiveseverynecessaryconditiontomakelifepossible.ThelatterappliestoGod'smercyinthatitgivesfavorforgooddeeds.ThusAl-Rahmanincludesboththebelieversandtheunbelievers,butAl-Rahimonlythebelievers.[67][68]Godissaidtoloveforgiving,withahadithstatingGodwouldreplaceasinlesspeoplewithonewhosinnedbutstillaskedrepentance.[69] HismercytakesmanyformsashesaysintheQuran"andMyMercyembracesallthings."[7:156]ThisisshowninSahihMuslimnarratedfromAbuHurairah,whosaidtheProphetsaid: {{Quote|Allahhasonehundredpartsofmercy,ofwhichHesentdownonebetweenthejinn,mankind,theanimalsandtheinsects,bymeansofwhichtheyarecompassionateandmercifultooneanother,andbymeansofwhichwildanimalsarekindtotheiroffspring.AndAllahhaskeptbackninety-ninepartsofmercywithwhichtobemercifultoHisslavesoftheDayofResurrection.[70] God'smercy,accordingtoIslamictheology,iswhatgetsapersonintoparadise.AccordingtoahadithinSahihAlBukhari"Noone'sdeedswilleveradmithimtoParadise."Theysaid,"Notevenyou,OMessengerofAllah?"Hesaid,"No,notevenmeunlessAllahshowersmewithHisMercy.Sotrytobeneartoperfection.Andnooneshouldwishfordeath;heiseitherdoinggoodsohewilldomoreofthat,orheisdoingwrongsohemayrepent."[71] Omniscience[edit] God'somniscienceistheknowledgeofallthings,[72]whethertheyareactualorpossiblewhethertheyarepast,present,orfuture.Italsoincludeshisknowledgeofpeople,places,events,circumstances,etc.Godhasfullknowledgeofeverything,everywhere,alwaysandfrometernitypast,andheisfullyawareofwhateveronethinks,intends,anddoes,andthereinsofallthingsandeventsareinhispower.Heknowswhateverhappensintheuniverse,downtothefallofaleaf,andheknowsallthedeeds,thought,andintentionsofhumankind.Hisappointedangelsrecordthese,andpeoplewillbecalledtoaccountfortheseactsintheotherworld.[73]Hisknowledgeiseternalinthesenseofbeingtimeless,i.e.,atemporal.SosinceGod'sknowledgeiseternalandunchanging,itislikewiseself‐existentandinfinite.Itisself‐existentinthatitisnotdependentonanything,noteventime.AccordingtotheQur'an,God(Allah)isomniscient;heeternallyknowswhatevercomesintobeing,beituniversalorparticularincharacter.Hehasknownallthingsfrombeforethecreationoftheworld.Hisknowledgeofthingsbeforetheircomingintoexistenceandafterwardsisexactlythesame.Hence,thereisnodiscoveryorsurprisewithGod.Muslimtheologiansthereforeconsideredthat“omniscience”isanecessaryand“ignorance”isanimpossiblepropertyforGod.VariousQur'anicversesdesignatethisbasicintuition,suchas:3:5,6:59,65:12,and24:35.[74] Relationshipwithcreation[edit] Seealso:Islamicholybooks,Quran,andQuraniccreatedness Furtherinformation:Salat,Taqwa,andPredestination MuslimsbelievethatGodistheonlytruerealityandsolesourceofallcreation.EverythingincludingitscreaturesarejustaderivativerealitycreatedoutofloveandmercybyGod'scommand,[75]"..."Be,"anditis."[10][76]andthatthepurposeofexistenceistoworshiportoknowGod.[77][78][79]ItisbelievedthatGodcreatedeverythingforadivinepurpose;theuniversegovernedbyfixedlawsthatensuretheharmoniousworkingofallthings.Everythingwithintheuniverse,includinginanimatedobjects,praisesGod,andisinthissenseunderstoodasamuslim.[80]Anexceptionarehumans,whoareendowedwithfree-willandmustlivevoluntarilyinaccordancewiththeselawstolivetofindpeaceandreproduceGod'sbenevolenceintheirownsocietytoliveinaccordancewiththenatureofallthings,knownassurrendertoGodintheIslamicsense.[80][81] AsintheotherAbrahamicreligions,GodisbelievedtocommunicatewithhiscreationviarevelationsgiventoprophetstoremindpeopleofGod.TheQur'aninparticularisbelievedbyMuslimstobetheverbatimwordofGodasrevealedtoMuhammad.HaditharetherecordsofMuhammad'ssayingsandexample,andHadithQudsiisasub-categoryofhadith,whichMuslimsregardasthewordsofGodrepeatedbyMuhammad.Accordingtoal-Sharifal-Jurjani(d.816/1413),theHadithQudsidifferfromtheQur'aninthattheformerare"expressedinMuhammad'swords",whereasthelatterarethe"directwordsofGod".[82] InIslam,therearenointermediariesbetweenGodandpeople,soMuslimsaddress/contactGoddirectlyintheirprayers,supplicationsanddhikr,andalsoseekforgivenessandrepentancefromsinsdirectlyfromGod,astheQur'anstates:"Andwhen(OMessenger)MyservantsaskyouaboutMe,thensurelyIamnear:IanswertheprayerofthesuppliantwhenhepraystoMe."[Quran 2:186 (Translatedby AliÜnal)]Therefore,accordingtothisverse,Godanswersalltheprayersdonesincerely.However,heanswerssometimesbygivingwhateverisaskedfor,sometimesbygivingwhatisbetter,sometimesbypostponinggivingtotheafterlife,andsometimesbynotgivingatall,sinceitwillnotturnoutinfavoroftheonewhoprays.ThewaythatGodanswersaprayerdependsonhiswisdom.[83] Al-Bukhari,inhisṢaḥīḥBukhārī,narratesahadithqudsithatGodsays,"IamasMyservantthinks(expects)Iam."[84][85]WhenSufisclaimunionwithGod,itisnotthattheybecomeoneinessence,ratherthewilloftheSufiisfullycongruenttoGod.[86]TheSufisareinfactcarefultosay,nomatterwhatdegreeofunionisrealized,"theslaveremainstheslave,andtheLordremainstheLord".[87] TheQur'anaffirmsthatGoddoesnotstandinneedofanythingoutsidehim,andnothingexternaltohimcanaffectorinfluencehiminanyway.Allhiscreaturesareresponsibletohimanddependentonhim.Thereisnootherbeingtowhomhecanberesponsibleoronwhomhecanbedependent.[88]Hehastherighttodowhateverhewantswithhispossessions/creatures–itisunderGod'sowntotalsovereignty.Accordingly,heisnotanswerableforhisactions,duetohiswisdomandjustice,greatnessanduniquenessofDivinity,whileallothers(jinn,humans,orfalsedeities)[89]areaccountableforwhattheydo(anddon'tdo),asGodsaysintheQur'an:[90]"HeshallnotbequestionedaboutwhatHedoes,buttheyshallbequestioned."[Quran 21:23 (Translatedby RoyalAalal-BaytInstitute)] Whiletheexistenceofthecreationisdependent,contingent,temporal,andreceivedfrombeyonditself,theexistenceorrealityofGodiseternal,independent,self-sufficient,andself-existentbeingwhoneedsnootherbeingforhisexistence,andconsequentlyexistsbyandthroughhimselfalone.Thedivinenameal-Samad(thesupremelyindependent,self-sufficientbeingendowedwithalltheattributesofperfectiontowhichallelseturnsinneedforexistence,life,guidance,help,forgiveness,etc.)impliesthatthereisablessedlinkagebetweenthecreatorandhiscreationwheretheonecreatorwillsustainthecreationbylookingafterit.ThisrelationshipalsosignifiesthatsinceGodisthesustainer,heisinneedofnothing,andevenashegives,nothingisdiminishedfromhistreasury.[91][92] ConceptsinIslamictheology[edit] Sunnis[edit] Atharis[edit] Seealso:Traditionalisttheology(Islam)andAhlal-Hadith ForAtharisthenamesandattributesofGodaretobeunderstoodwiththeformulaofbilakayfa(lit.“withouthow”,i.e.,“withoutmodality”,[93][94]“withoutfurtherenquiry”[95]or“withoutfurtherspecifyingtheirmannerormodality”),[96][97]whichistounquestioninglyaccepttheDivineattributesofGodwithoutta'wil(allegoricalinterpretation),orta'til(lit.“suspension”,i.e.,“divestingGodofHisattributes”),ortashbih(anthropomorphism,immanenceorcomparison,whichistobelievethatGodresembleshiscreations,orattributingtheattributesofhumanbeingstoGod).[98]Anyanthropomorphicexpressionsofthesenamesandattributesisnegatedusingtheadmissionthattheirmeaningscanneverbeknown.ThemeaningislefttotheknowledgeofGodhimself,andtheysimplysaythatthemeaningisasbefitshismajestyandperfection.ThismethodoftafwidisthatofAhmadibnHanbal(eponymousfounderofAtharism),al-Ash'ari,IbnQudama,andIbnKathir.[99] UsuallyAtharisarevehementlyopposedtoengaginginta'wil(allegoricalinterpretations)andrejectbatin(innermeaning)orhidden/esoteric(Sufi)interpretationsoftheQur'anandGod'sdivineattributes.[100]InmaintainingthatoneisnotpermittedtointerpretthemeaningoftheQur'anicversesortheProphetictraditionsthatmentionvariousattributesofGod,IbnQudama(d.620/1223)inhisworkLum'atal-I'tiqad [ar](“TheLuminanceofCreed”)isendorsingtheprincipleofbilakayfa('without[askingorknowing]how')inIslamictheology.[101]Accordingtothisprinciple,onehastoacceptthesacredtextasitis,indissolublylinkedwithtanzih(God'sincomparabilityandtranscendence),withouttryingtointerpretitsmeaning.Inotherwords,onemustacceptthesacredtextsthatrefertoGodwithoutpositivelyascribingcorporealfeaturestohim.[102][103] Ibnal-Jawzi(d.597/1201)tookthequestionofpeopleassociatinganthropomorphismwithHanbalismsoseriouslythathewroteabook,Daf'Shubahal-Tashbihbi-Akaffal-Tanzih(“RebuttaloftheInsinuationsofAnthropomorphismattheHandsofDivineTranscendence”),refutingthisheresyandexoneratingAhmadibnHanbalofanyassociationwithit.[Note1]Accordingtohim,suchwordswhosemeaningscouldgivetheimpressionthatGodresembleshiscreationsshouldn'tbeunderstoodliterally,suchasGod'sface,hands,eyes,andthelike.[104][105][106] AnotherbookwaswrittenbytheShafi'ischolar,Taqial-Dinal-Hisni [ar](d.829/1426),titledDaf'ShubahmanShabbahawaTamarradwaNasabadhalikilaal-Sayyidal-Jalilal-ImamAhmad [ar](“RebuttaloftheInsinuationsofhimwhomakesAnthropomorphismsandRebels,andAscribesthattotheNobleMasterImamAhmad”),defendingAhmadibnHanbalagainsttheinnovatedbeliefslaterascribedtohimbyIbnTaymiyyaandthosewhoclaimedtofollowhisschool.[107][108] IbnKathir(d.774/1373)appearstoofferadefinitionsimilartothatofal-Ash'ari(d.324/936)whenhediscussestafwidinhisexegesisoftheQur'anicverse(7:54)pertainingtoGod'sistiwa'.Hestates:[99][109] Peoplehavesaidagreatdealonthistopic,andthisisnottheplacetoexpoundonwhattheyhavesaid.Onthismatter,wefollowthegoodancestors(i.e.,thewayoftheearliestMuslims,dubbedthepiousancestors,inArabic,al-salafal-salih[Note2]):Malik,al-Awza'i,al-Thawri,al-LaythibnSa'd,al-Shafi'i,Ahmad,IshaqibnRahwayh,andothersamongtheimamsoftheMuslims,bothancientandmodern—thatis:toletit(theverseinquestion)passasithascome,withoutsayinghowitismeant(minghayrtakyif),withoutlikeningittocreatedthings(walatashbih),andwithoutnullifyingit(walata'til).Theexternal,literalmeaning(zahir)[Note3]thatoccurstothemindsofanthropomorphists(al-mushabbihīn)isnegatedofAllah,fornothingfromhiscreationresembleshim:"ThereisnothingwhatsoeverlikeuntoHim,andHeistheAll-Hearing,theAll-Seeing"[Qur'an42:11]. HereIbnKathirisdivertingthemeaningofthetextfromitsapparentmeaning,andimplicitlyaffirmingthatonevaliddefinitionofthetermzahirisitsliterallinguisticmeaning,whichisanthropomorphic.However,somemodernfollowersofIbnTaymiyyaclaimthatbilātakyīfwouldonlymeantafwidofmodalitynotofmeaning(ma'na),butaccordingtotheAsh'ari/Maturidiposition,modality(kayfiyya)isapartofmeaningandwithoutdetailingwhichaspectofmeaningremainsafterde-anthropomorphizingaterm,oneendsupwithtafwid.Inadditiontothattheimamsofthesalaf(therighteousearlygenerationsofMuslims)usedtosaybilakayf(withouthowormodalityatall).Ontheotherhand,bothIbnTaymiyya(d.728/1328)andhisstudentIbnal-Qayyim(d.751/1350)arguedthattheanthropomorphicreferencestoGod,suchasGod'shandsorface,aretobeunderstoodliterallyandaffirmativelyaccordingtotheirapparentmeanings.[99][110][111]IntheirfootstepsandfollowingthemcometheSalafigroupsofmoderntimessuchasthefollowersofMuhammadibn'Abdal-Wahhab(d.1201/1787)whocloselyfollowIbnTaymiyya'sapproachregardingtheDivinenamesandattributes.[112] ThedoctrineoftheSalaf[Note4]thatIbnTaymiyyaderivesfromhistraditionalistsourcesconsistsindescribingGodashedescribeshimselfandashismessengerdescribeshim,neitherstrippingtheattributesaway(ta'til)inthefashionofkalam(rationalorspeculativetheology),norlikening(tamthil)themtotheattributesofcreaturesbecausethereisnothinglikeGod[Q.42:11].ForIbnTaymiyya,thismeansthattheSalafknewthemeaningsoftheDivineattributes,andtheydonotmerelydelegatethemtoGod.However,certainformulaicstatementsattributedtothemdonotappeartosupporthispositionunequivocally.IbnTaymiyyanotesthatal-Awza'i(d.157/774),Sufyanal-Thawri(d.161/778),andotherssaidconcerningtheattributes,"Letthempassbyastheycame",and"Letthempassbyastheycame,withouthow".Heexplainsthatlettingtheattributespassby(imrār)meansleavingthemintactandnotstrippingawaytheirmeanings,whileaffirmingtheattributes"withouthow"or"withoutmodality"(bi-lākayf)meansnotassimilatingthemtotheattributesofcreatures.Withthis,IbnTaymiyyaholdsaffirmationofthemeaningsofGod'sattributestogetherwithdenialoftheirlikenesstocreaturesinadoubleperspectivebydrawingadistinctionbetweentheknownmeaningsoftheattributesandtheirinscrutablemodalities.[115][111] IbnTaymiyyadoesnotclarifyhowmodality(kayfiyya)andmeaning(ma'na)relatetoeachothersemantically.Rather,hedeploysthetwotermsintandemtomaintaintheseeminglyparadoxicalconvictionthatGodiscompletelydifferentandbeyondhumanexperienceontheonehandwhileGod'sattributesdosignifysomethingrealandmeaningfulinhumanlanguageontheother.Indenyingknowledgeofthemodalityandaffirmingknowledgeofthemeaning,IbnTaymiyyadoesnotresolvetheparadox,norevenacknowledgeit,butsimplyholdsitstwosidestogetherintheconvictionthatthisisthemostfaithfulandrationalsetofbeliefs.[115] ItisoftenassumedthatthequestionofGod'snaturehasoccupiedthemindsofearlyMuslims,andassuchMuhammadforbadethemfromthinkingaboutit,ashesaid:"ThinkaboutGod'sbounties,butdonotthinkaboutGod'sessence(dhat).Otherwise,youwillvanish/perish."Accordingly,MuslimsshouldnotthinkaboutwhatGodis,butabouthisattributesandhisblessingsgrantedtohumanity,becauseGod'sessence(dhat)cannotbeunderstoodbythelimitedhumancapacity.[116]InthisregardithasbeenmentionedinsomenarrationsthatareascribedtoAhmadibnHanbal(d.241/855),[117][118]ithasbeenreportedthathesaid:[Note5]"Whatevercomestoyourmind(i.e.,regardingGodandHisnature),Godisdifferentthanthat."[119]Orinthewords:"GodiscompletelydifferentfromwhatevercomestoyourmindconcerningHim." Accordingtoal-Shahrastani(d.548/1154)inhisal-Milalwaal-Nihal(“ReligiousSectsandDivisions”),AhmadibnHanbalandDawudal-Zahiri(d.270/884)andagroupofimamsoftheSalaf,theyfollowedthewayoftheearlytradionalists(ashabal-hadith),suchasMalikibnAnas(d.179/795).Theytookasafepath,saying"WebelieveinwhateverisreportedfromtheBookandtheSunna,andwedonottrytointerpretit,knowingforcertainthatGoddoesnotresembleanycreatedthings,andthatalltheimagesweformofHimarecreatedbyHimandformedbyHim".Theyavoidedanthropomorphism(tashbih)tosuchanextentthattheysaidthatifamanmovedhishandwhilereadingtheQur'anicversethatspeaksofGod'screatingAdamusinghisown“hands”[Q.38:75];orifhepointedwithhistwofingerswhilereportingthehadith:"Theheartofthebelieverisbetweenthetwofingersofal-Rahman(theMostCompassionate)",hishandmustbecutoffandthetwofingerstornout.[120][121] TheseearlyscholarswereoftencalledthePeopleofTradition(Ahlal-Hadith),orSalafsuchasAbuHanifa,Malik,al-Shafi'iandAhmadibnHanbal.TheylefttheversesoftheQur'aninquestionaswellastherelatedhadithssimplyastheywere,acceptingthepoeticalstatementsjustastheyoccurred,withoutapplyingmuchreasoneithertocriticizeorexpanduponthem.TheirpositionwasthattheseambiguousversesmustbeunderstoodinlightoftheQur'anicdictumthat,“ThereisnothingwhateverlikeHim”[Q.42:11]hencenegatingallpossibilitiesofanthropomorphism.Atthesametime,theyusedandmaintainedthesamephrasesorterminologyimpliedbytheQur'anwithregardstoGodsuchasGod'sfacewithoutlookingfurtherintotheirmeaningorexegesis.Andthisiswhatisbeingreferredtobyuseoftheirphrasebilakayfawalatashbih,meaningwithoutinquiringhowandwithoutanthropomorphismorcomparison.[98] However,accordingtosomescholars,AhmadibnHanbal,liketheotherearlyMuslims,alsogavesomefigurativeinterpretations(ta'wil)toscripturalexpressionsthatmightotherwisehavebeenmisinterpretedanthropomorphically,whichiswhatneo-SalafiscondemntheAsh'ariandMaturidischoolsfordoing.Forexample,IbnKathirreportsthatal-Bayhaqi(d.458/1066)relatedfromal-Hakim(d.405/1014),fromAbu'Amribnal-Sammak(d.344/955),fromHanbal[ibnIshaqal-Shaybani](d.273/886),thesonofthebrotherofAhmadibnHanbal'sfather,that"AhmadibnHanbal(d.241/855)figurativelyinterpretedthewordofAllahMostHigh,‘AndyourLordcomes...’[Q.89:22],asmeaning‘Hisrecompense(thawab)shallcome’."Al-Bayhaqithensaid,"Thischainofnarratorshasabsolutelynothingwronginit".[122]IbnHazm(d.456/1064)inhisbookal-Faslfial-Milalwaal-Ahwa'waal-Nihal [ar](“TheDistinctionConcerningReligions,Heresies,andSects”)saidalsothatAhmadibnHanbalfigurativelyinterpreted‘AndyourLordcomes...’[Q.89:22],butasmeaning"AndyourLord'scommand/decreehascome."[123] AmongthemostsignificantAtharitheologicalworksare: Lawami'al-Anwaral-BahiyyawaSawati'al-Asraral-AthariyyabyAl-Saffarini(d.1188/1774). Bahjatal-NazirinwaAyatal-Mustadillin(TheDelightofOnlookersandtheSignsforInvestigators)byMar'ial-Karmi(d.1033/1624),oncosmologyandtheaffairsoftheLastJudgmentandtheAfterlife.[124] Ash'arisandMaturidis[edit] Seealso:Ahlal-Ra'yandKalam Arockcarvedwiththetextof"al-'Aqidaal-Murshida"(theGuidingCreed)byIbnTumart(d.524/1130)—thestudentofal-Ghazali(d.505/1111)andthefounderoftheAlmohaddynasty—praisedandapprovedbyFakhral-DinIbn'Asakir(d.620/1223),locatedatal-SalahIslamicsecondaryschoolinBaalbek,Lebanon. Ash'arisandMaturidisareinagreementthatGod'sattributesareeternalandaretobeheldtobemetaphorically.[125]Referencestoanthropomorphicattributescanprobablynotbeunderstoodcorrectlybyhumans.[126]AlthoughGod'sexistenceisconsideredtobepossiblyknownbyreason,humanmindcannotfullyunderstandGod'sattributes.Ash'ariandMaturidischolarshavetwopositionsregardingtheMutashabihattexts(ambiguouspassagesintheQur'anandHadith)relatedtoGod'sattributes:[127]Tafwid(affirmingtheattributesofGod,butconsigning/entrustingboththeirmeaningandmodalitytoGod,orinotherwords,leavingtheinterpretationofanthropomorphicexpressionstoGod)andTa'wil(metaphoricalinterpretation).ThetwopositionsdisregardtheliteralmeaningofthetextsduetothedefinitiveevidencesdenotingthetranscendenceofGodabovetheattributesofhiscreatedbeingsasperhiswords:"ThereisnothingwhateverlikeHim."[Quran 42:11 (Translatedby AliÜnal)]and"AndcomparabletoHimthereisnone."[Quran 112:4 (Translatedby AliÜnal)]Forexample,whenbelieversinparadiseseeGod,theydonotseeGodinthewayhumansareabletoseeonEarth.[126]Ash'arisandMaturidisasserts,sinceGodisthecreatorofeverythingthatexistsandcreationdoesnotaffectnoralterGod,theThroneofGodisnotadwellingplaceforGod.[128] AbuMansural-Baghdadi(d.429/1037)inhisal-Farqbaynal-Firaq(TheDifferencebetweentheSects)reportsthat'AliibnAbiTalib,thefourthCaliph,said:"AllahcreatedtheThroneasanindicationofHispower,notfortakingitasaplaceforHimself."[129]Accordingly,expressionssuchasGod'sistiwa'ontheThronemeansbyta'wilorfigurativeinterpretation,exerciseofhispowerupontheuniverse,thisdenoteshisassumptionofauthorityofhiscreatedworld,thethronebeingasymbolofauthorityanddominion,whileintafwid,theyjustsay:AllahuA'lam(Godknowsbest),togetherwiththeirunderstandingofTanzih(God'sincomparabilityandtranscendence),whichmeansthathisistiwa'uponthethrone,inthemannerwhichhehimselfhasdescribed,andinthatsamesensewhichhehimselfmeans,whichisfarremovedfromanynotionofcontact,orrestingupon,orlocalsituation.Itisimpermissibletosaythatheestablishedhimselfwithacontactorameetingwithit.BecauseGodisnotsubjecttochange,substitution,norlimits,whetherbeforeorafterthecreationofthethrone.[130] Ash'arisandMaturidisareingeneralagreementthatGodisfreefromallimperfectionsandflaws.HehasDivineattributes.DivineattributesarecharacteristicsorqualitiesthatGodalonepossesses.TheDivineattributesareclassifiedinto:negativeandpositive.Bythe“NegativeAttribute”theymeanthenegationofthenegative,i.e.negationofimperfection.Amongthemostimportantarethefollowing:[131] Thenegativedivineattributesareoftwokinds;firstlythosewhicharemeanttodenyallimperfectionsinGod'sBeing,e.g.,thathehasnoequalandnorival,noparentsandnochildren;secondlythosewhichindicatehisbeyondness,e.g.,thatheisnotbodyorphysical,isneithersubstancenorattribute,isnotspaceorspatial,isnotlimitedorfinite,hasneitherdimensionsnorrelations,i.e.,heisabovetheapplicationofourcategoriesofthought. Thepositivedivineattributesaresuchaslife,knowledge,power,will,hearing,seeing,andspeaking.[132] TheAsh'ariandMaturidischolarsemphasisethattheQur'anexpressesthatGoddoesnotneedanyofhiscreationasheisperfect.[133]Heisimmutable(doesnotchange),self-subsistingandself-sufficient,withoutfigure,form,colourorparts.Hisexistencehasneitherbeginningnorend.Heisnotabodycomposedofsubstancesorelements.Heisnotanaccidentinherentinabodyordwellinginaplace.[134]Heisunique,unlikeanythinginhiscreation.Heisineffable,beyondhumanunderstanding,comprehensionandthereforehumandescription,[135]asperhiswords:"ThereisnothingwhateverlikeHim."[Quran 42:11 (Translatedby AliÜnal)] Heisomnitemporalinthewaythatheisomnipresent,asperhiswords:"AndHeiswithyou,whereveryoumaybe."[Quran 57:4 (Translatedby AliÜnal)]Heiseverywherebyhisknowledgeandpower,andnowhere,withoutbeinginaplace,directionorlocation,becauseHeexistedeternallybeforeallthecreations(includingtimeandspace)andisclearfromchange.Heisalwaysinthepresent,yettranscendstime.Godisnotwithintime;timeisoneofhiscreationsanddoesn'taffecthim,soforhimthereisnopast,presentandfuture. TheHanafi-Maturidischolar,'Alial-Qari(d.1014/1606)inhisSharhal-Fiqhal-Akbarstates:"AllahtheExaltedisnotinanyplaceorspace,norisHesubjecttotime,becausebothtimeandspaceareamongstHiscreations.HetheExaltedwaspresentinpre-existenceandtherewasnothingofthecreationwithHim".[55] Thus,accordingtoMaturidisandAsh'aris,Godisbeyondtimeandspace,andistranscendent,infinite(notlimited)andeternal,withoutbeginningorend,asperhiswords:"HeistheFirst,theLast,theAll-Outward,andtheAll-Inward."[Quran 57:3 (Translatedby AliÜnal)]AhadithmentionedinSahihMuslimexplainsthispartoftheverseasfollows:[136][137] OAllah,YouaretheFirst,thereisnonethatprecedesYou.YouaretheLast,thereisnonethatwilloutliveYou.Youareal-Zahir(theManifestortheMostHigh),andthereisnothingaboveYou.Youareal-Batin(theHiddenortheMostNear),andthereisnothingbelowYou(ornearerthanYou). Atthesametime,heisneartoeverythingthathasbeing;nay,heisnearertomenthantheirjugularveins(thisisalludedtointheverse50:16),andiswitnesstoeverything—thoughhisnearnessisnotlikethenearnessofbodies,asneitherishisessenceliketheessenceofbodies.Neitherdoesheexistinanythingordoesanythingexistinhim;butheisbeyondspaceandtime;forheisthecreatorofspaceandtime,andwasbeforespaceandtimewerecreated,andisnowafterthesamemannerasHealwayswas(i.e.,withoutplacenortime). Heisalsodistinctfromthecreaturesinhisattributes,neitheristhereanythingbesideshimselfinhisessence,norishisessenceinanyotherbesideshim.Heistooholytobesubjecttochangeoranylocalmotion;neitherdoanyaccidentsdwellinhim,noranycontingenciesbeforehim;butheabideswithhisgloriousattributes,freefromalldangerofdissolution.Astotheattributeofperfection,hewantsnoaddition.Astobeing,heisknowntoexistbytheapprehensionoftheunderstanding;andheisseenasheisbyimmediateintuition,whichwillbevouchsafedoutofhismercyandgracetothebelieversintheparadise,completingtheirjoybythevisionofhisgloriouspresence.[138] ThepossibilityofseeingGodintheafterlifebecameapillaroftheAsh'ariandtheMaturidischools.Al-Ash'ariholdsthatGodwillbeseeninthenextworldbysight.Al-MaturidialsoacceptsthevisibilityofGod,howeverhisexplanationisqualified:peoplewillseeGodinwaythatitisincomprehensibletohumansinthislifeandisnotlikethenormalsightthatweusetosenselightanddistance.Al-GhazalipromisedthatpeoplewouldenjoythepleasureoflookingonGod'snobleface.[139] Ash'arisandMaturidisinsistedontherealityofthatvisioneveniftheyadmittedtheirinabilitytofullyexplainhowitwillhappen.Accordingtothem,Godcanbeseenevenifhecannotbeperceivedthroughvision.Al-Ghazaliinhisal-Iqtisadfial-I'tiqad(ModerationinBelief)explainstheAsh'aripositionthatGodwillbeseenintheafterlifedespitethefactthathehasnophysicalbody,noranylocationordirection.[140] Mu'tazilisandShi'isdenythatGodcanbeseenforthesimplereasonthatvisibility,asmanunderstandsitrequirestheobjectofvisiontobeinplaceandthisisinconceivableinreferencetoGod.Ash'arisandMaturidisagreewiththisproposition,butonlyiftheyaretalkingofvisionhereonEarthandwithinthephysicallawsapplicablehere.However,ifitisgoingtohappensomewhereelseandunderadifferentsetoflaws,visibilityispossible,forwhateverexistscanbeseenunderproperconditions.[141] Ash'arisandMaturidisunanimouslyagreethatitisonlyintheHereafterthatGodwillbeseen.AmongtheevidencesthathavebeenusedbytheminestablishingthepermissibilityofseeingGodarethefollowing: TheQuran,chapter75(Al-Qiyama),verses22–23:[142] 22.SomefacesonthatDaywillberadiant(withcontentment),23.LookinguptowardtheirLord.— translatedbyAliÜnal TheQuran,chapter10(Yunus),verse26:[143] Forthosewhodogoodisthegreatestgood,andevenmore.— translatedbyNureddinUzunoğlu Goodness(orihsan,husna)istoactinaccordancewiththewisecommandmentsofGod.MuhammaddefineditasbeingaservanttoGodasthoughonesawhim.Thegreatestgoodshallbeforthem(i.e.,Paradise),andalso"evenmore";thedelightofgazingupontheineffableandblessedCountenanceofGod.[144] ItwasnarratedthatSuhaybsaid:[145] "TheMessengerofAllahrecitedthisverse:'Forthosewhohavedonegoodisthebest(reward)andevenmore.'Thenhesaid:'WhenthepeopleofParadiseenterParadise,andthepeopleoftheFireentertheFire,acallerwillcryout:"OpeopleofParadise!YouhaveacovenantwithAllahandHewantstofulfillit."Theywillsay:"Whatisit?"HasAllahnotmadetheBalance(ofourgooddeeds)heavy,andmadeourfacesbright,andadmittedustoParadiseandsavedusfromHell?"ThentheVeilwillbeliftedandtheywilllookuponHim,andbyAllah,Allahwillnotgivethemanythingthatismorebelovedtothemordelightful,thanlookinguponHim.'"— NarratedbyIbnMajah,al-Tirmidhi,andMuslim. DuringthelifetimeofMuhammadsomepeopleasked:[146] "OAllah'sMessenger!ShallweseeourLordontheDayofResurrection?"TheProphetsaid:"Doyouhaveanydifficultyinseeingthemoononafullmoonnight?"Theysaid:"No,OAllah'sMessenger."Hesaid:"Doyouhaveanydifficultyinseeingthesunwhentherearenoclouds?"Theysaid:"No,OAllah'sMessenger."Hesaid:"Soverily,youwouldseeHimlikethis(i.e.,aseasyasyouseethesunandthemoonintheworldwhenitisclear)."— NarratedbyAl-Bukhari,Muslim,AbuDawud,andIbnMajah. MuhammadsaidalsoinanauthentichadithmentionedinSahihal-Bukhari,SahihMuslim,Jami'al-Tirmidhi,SunanAbiDawud,andSunanibnMajah:"Certainly,youwillseeyourRubb(ontheDayofResurrection)asyouseethis(full)moon,andyouwillhavenodifficulty(ortrouble)inseeingHim."[147][148] Inaddition,theQur'analsoconfirmsin83:15that:"No!Indeed,from(thesightandmercyof)theirLord,thatDay,theywillbeveiled/blocked(i.e.,ontheDayofJudgment,thedisbelieverswillnotbeabletoseeHim)."[Quran 83:15] AmongthemostsignificantAsh'ari-Maturiditheologicalworksare: Kitabal-TawhidbyAbuMansural-Maturidi(d.333/944). Al-InsaffimaYajibI'tiqaduhbyAbuBakral-Baqillani(d.403/1013). AGuidetoConclusiveProofsforthePrinciplesofBeliefbyAbual-Ma'alial-Juwayni(d.478/1085). TheModerationinBeliefbyAbuHamidal-Ghazali(d.505/1111). Tabsiratal-AdillabyAbual-Mu'inal-Nasafi(d.508/1114). Asasal-TaqdisbyFakhral-Dinal-Razi(d.606/1209). TheCommentariesonAl-'Aqidaal-Tahawiyya. Sufis[edit] Seealso:SufismandHuwa(Sufism) ThemajorityofSufisadheretothesamebeliefsandpracticesoforthodoxtheologyofSunniIslam,[149]boththeAsh'ariandMaturidischools,theessentialdifferenceintheologybeingthatSufisbelieveMa'iyyatAllah(God'spresence,togetherness,companionship)–derivedfromtheQur'anicverse4inSuratal-Hadidwhichstates:"andHeiswithyouwheresoeveryoumaybe."[Quran 57:4 (Translatedby NureddinUzunoğlu)]–isnotonlybyknowledge,comprehensionandpower,butalsobynatureandessence,whichisGodhimself,beingeverywherebypresence.AccordingtoAhmadibn'Ajiba(d.1224/1809)inhisal-Bahral-Madid:[150]Ahlal-Batin(peopleoftheinnerknowledgewhofollowtheesotericinterpretation,i.e.,theSufis)haveaconsensusonthatGodiseverywherebypresenceandessence(inallplacesatoncewithhisentirebeingdespitehisspacelessness),butwithoutHulul(God'sindwelling,fusion/infusion,incarnationincreation)andwithoutIttihad(God'sidentification,unification,unionwithcreation),[151]unlikeAhlal-Zahir(peopleoftheoutwardobservance;theuninitiated),whoareunanimouslyagreedthatGodisomnipresentonlybyknowledgeandpower.[150] AmongtheversesthatSufisrelyontoproveGod'somnipresenceare:[151]2:115;2:255(Ayatal-Kursi);6:3;43:84;57:4;and58:7.BasedontheseQur'anicverses,God'somnipresenceisnotlimitedtocertainareas,butispresenteverywhere,all-pervasive,andall-knowing.[152][153] AccordingtoMuhammadMetwallial-Sha'rawi(d.1419/1998)inhisinterpretation(betterknownasTafsiral-Sha'rawi [ar])oftheQur'anicverses56:83-85,whicharementionedinSuratal-Waqi'ah:"83.Whythen(areyouhelpless)whenit(i.e.,thesoulofadyingpersonatthemomentofdeath)reachesthethroat,84.Whileyouarelookingon,85.AndWe(i.e.,Godand/orHisangels)arenearer/closertohim(thedyinghuman)thanyouare,butyoudonotsee." Al-Sha'rawistatedthatGod'sstatementinverse56:85"butyoudonotsee"provesclearlyandunequivocallythatMa'iyyatullah(meaning'companionshipofGod',literally:'togethernesswithGod')istrue/realwithhisessence(dhat),whichisnotliketheessenceofcreatedbeings,andhiscompanionshipisnotonlywithknowledge,ifso,thenGodwouldn'tsay"butyoudonotsee".[154] SinceGodinIslamistranscendentalandsovereignbutalsoimmanentandomnipresent,theSufiviewholdsthatinreality,onlyGodexists.ThuseverythingincreationisreflectinganattributeofGod'snames.YettheseformsarenotGodthemselves.[155]TheSufiSaintIbnArabistated:ThereisnothingbutGod.ThisstatementwasmistakenlyequalizedtoPantheismbycritics;however,IbnArabialwaysmadeacleardistinctionbetweenthecreationandthecreator.[156]SinceGodistheAbsoluteReality,[157] thecreatedworldsandtheirinhabitantsaremerelyillusions.TheyjustexistbecauseofGod'scommandKun,buteverythingthatwouldbe,wasalreadyknownbyGod.[158] BothbeliefsHulul(incarnation)andIttihad(unification)hadbeenseverelydenouncedbymoderateSunniSufis,suchas'Abdal-Ghanial-Nabulsi(d.1143/1731),whichhedescribedasheresies.[159] AmongthemostsignificantSufitheologicalworksare: Al-Ta'arufli-MadhhabAhlal-Tasawwuf(InquiryintotheTenetsoftheSufis)byAbuBakral-Kalabadhi(d.385/995),recognisedasanauthoritativetreatiseonthemysticaldoctrines.[160] Al-Risalaal-Qushayriyyabyal-Qushayri(d.465/1072). Futuhal-Ghayb(RevelationsoftheUnseen)by'Abdal-Qadiral-Jilani(d.561/1166). Al-Burhanal-Mu'ayyad(TheAdvocatedProof)byAhmadal-Rifa'i(d.578/1182). Mu'tazilis[edit] TheMu'tazilisrejecttheanthropomorphicattributesofGodbecauseaneternalbeing"mustbeunique"andattributeswouldmakeGodcomparable.ThedescriptionsofGodintheQuranareconsideredtobeallegories.[161]Nevertheless,theMuʿtazilitesthoughtGodcontainsoneness(tawhid)andjustice.OthercharacteristicslikeknowledgearenotattributedtoGod;rathertheydescribehisessence.OtherwiseeternalattributesofGodwouldgiverisetoamultiplicityentitiesexistingeternalbesidesGod.[162] AmongthemostsignificantMu'tazilitheologicalworksare: Sharhal-Usulal-Khamsa(ExplainingtheFivePrinciples)byal-Qadi'Abdal-Jabbar(d.415/1025). Al-MinhajfiUsulal-Din(TheCurriculum/MethodintheFundamentalsofReligion)byal-Zamakhshari(d.538/1144). Shi'is[edit] TheShi'isagreedwiththeMu'tazilisanddenythatGodwillbeseenwiththephysicaleyeseitherinthisworldorinthenext.[163][164][165] Isma'ilis[edit] AccordingtoIsma'ilism,Godisabsolutelytranscendentandunknowable;[166]beyondmatter,energy,space,time,change,imaginings,intellect,positiveaswellasnegativequalities.AllattributesofGodnamedinrituals,scripturesorprayersrefersnottoqualitiesGodpossesses,buttoqualitiesemanatedfromGod,thusthesearetheattributesGodgaveasthesourceofallqualities,butGoddoesnotconsistononeofthesequalities.[167]OnephilosophicaldefinitionoftheworldAllahis"TheBeingWhoconcentratesinHimselfalltheattributesofperfection"[168]or"thePersonWhoistheEssentialBeing,andWhoencompassesalltheattributesofperfection".[168]SinceGodisbeyondallwordings,Isma'ilismalsodeniestheconceptofGodasthefirstcause.[169] InIsmailism,assigningattributestoGodaswellasnegatinganyattributesfromGod(vianegativa)bothqualifyasanthropomorphismandarerejected,asGodcannotbeunderstoodbyeitherassigningattributestohimortakingattributesawayfromhim.The10th-centuryIsmailiphilosopherAbuYaqubal-Sijistanisuggestedthemethodofdoublenegation;forexample:“Godisnotexistent”followedby“Godisnotnon-existent”.ThisglorifiesGodfromanyunderstandingorhumancomprehension.[170] Twelvers[edit] Mainarticle:TheologyofTwelvers TheTwelverShi'isbelievethatGodhasnoshape,nophysicalhand,nophysicalleg,nophysicalbody,nophysicalface.TheybelieveGodhasnovisibleappearance.Goddoesnotchangeintime,nordoesheoccupyaphysicalplace.Undernocircumstances,theShi'isargues,doesGodchange.ThereisalsonotimeframeregardingGod.Assupportfortheirview,Shi'ischolarsoftenpointtotheQur'anicverse6:103whichstates:"EyescomprehendHimnot,butHecomprehendsalleyes.HeistheAll-Subtle(penetratingeverythingnomatterhowsmall),theAll-Aware."ThusonefundamentaldifferencebetweenSunnisandShi'isisthattheformerbelievesthatfollowerswill“see”theirLordontheDayofResurrection,whilethelatterholdsthatGodcannotbeseenbecauseheisbeyondspaceandtime.[171] Ibn'AbbassaysthatabedouinoncecametotheMessengerofAllahandsaid,"OMessengerofAllah!Teachmeofthemostunusualofknowledge!"Heaskedhim,"Whathaveyoudonewiththepeakofknowledgesothatyounowaskaboutitsmostunusualthings?!"Themanaskedhim,"OMessengerofAllah!Whatisthispeakofknowledge?!"Hesaid,"ItisknowingAllahasHedeservestobeknown."Thebedouinthensaid,"AndhowcanHebeknownasHeoughttobe?"TheMessengerofAllahanswered,"ItisthatyouknowHimashavingnomodel,nopeer,noantithesis,andthatHeisWahid(One,Single)andAhad(Unique,AbsolutelyOne):ApparentyetHidden,theFirstandtheLast,havingnopeernorasimilitude;thisisthetrueknowledgeaboutHim."[172]— MuhammadBaqiral-Majlisi,"KnowingAllah",Biharal-Anwar[173] AmongthemostsignificantShi'itheologicalworksare: Kitabal-Tawhid(BookofMonotheism)byIbnBabawayh–alsoknownasal-Shaykhal-Saduq–(d.381H/991). Tajridal-I'tiqad(SublimationofBelief)byNasiral-Dinal-Tusi(d.672/1274). Wahdatal-wujud[edit] Furtherinformation:WujudandSufiphilosophy Thetermwahdatal-wujudwhichliterallymeans"theunityofbeing"or"theonenessofexistence"isacontroversial[174][175]mysticalnotionmostlyspokenofinconnectionwithIbn'Arabi(d.638/1240),[176][177][178][179]eventhoughhedidnotemployitinhiswritings.[180][181][182][183][184]ItseemstohavebeenascribedtohimforthefirsttimeinthepolemicsofIbnTaymiyya(d.1328).[184][185][186] Althoughthephrasereferstoasubjectivestateordirect,inwardexperienceattainedbySufis,ithasalsobeenunderstoodanddiscussedasaphilosophicalconceptand,assuch,interpretedindifferentways.[187]AccordingtoWilliamChittick,thereareatleastasmanyassevenpossiblewaysofunderstandingit,dependingonwhetherthepersonwhousesitisprooranti-Ibn'Arabi.[177]Somesuggestthattheideaofwahdatal-wujudcanbeunderstoodinanecologicalorenvironmentalcontext.InthissenseitwouldmeanthefeelingofwholenessandholynessoftheuniverseasthecreationofGod,whichmeansthatallmenarethecreaturesofoneGod—theyareallequal.[188] Ibn'Arabi,however,hasalwaysbeenahighlycontroversialfigureforMuslims,asmanyhaveaccusedhimofholdingpantheistormonistviewsincompatiblewithIslam'spuremonotheism.[189][190][191][192][193]However,accordingtoanumberofscholarsincludingal-Sha'rani(d.573/1565)and'Abdal-Ra'ufal-Munawi(d.1031/1621),thebooksofIbn'Arabihavebeenalteredanddistortedbysomeanonymousapostatesandheretics,andthereforemanysayingsandbeliefswereattributedtohim,whicharenottruetowhatheactuallywrote.[194][195] Proponentsofwaḥdatal-wujūdsuchas'Abdal-Ghanial-Nabulsi,'Abdal-Ra'ufb.'Alial-Fansuri,SeyyedHosseinNasr,MirValiuddin [de]andTitusBurckhardtdisagreethatwaḥdatal-wujūdisidentifiedwithpantheism.Nasr,forexample,considersthatthetermpantheismandmonismcannotbeusedtoequatewithwaḥdatal-wujūd.[196][197] Notes[edit] ^Ibnal-Jawzi'sDaf'Shubahal-TashbihisarefutationofthehistoricalanthropomorphicleaningsofsomeoftheHanbalischolars. ^Inreligioususage,itreferstotheearliestMuslimgenerations,therighteousancestors,inArabical-salafal-salih. ^TheArabicwordzahir,meaningobvious,apparent,externalorliteral. ^“Salaf”isacontestedterm,butgenerallyandquiteliterallymeansancestor,andisusuallyusedaspartoftheexpressional-salafal-salih,i.e.,“thevirtuousforefathers.”[113]TheSalafincludedthecompanionsofMuhammadandtheearlyfirstthreegenerationsofIslam,conventionallyendingwithAhmadibnHanbalintheninthcentury,althoughanumberoflaterIslamicscholarsareincluded,suchasal-Tahawi(d.321/933),al-Ash'ari(d.324/935)andal-Maturidi(d.333/944).However,thisisnottobeconfusedwiththeSalafimovement.[114] ^ThisstatementalsoattributedtoDhual-Nunal-Misri(d.246/861). Seealso[edit] Islamportal Religionportal AttributesofGodinIslam ConceptionsofGod Ethicalmonotheism ExistenceofGod GodinAbrahamicreligions GodintheBaháʼíFaith GodinChristianity GodinJudaism GodinMormonism Jehovah'sWitnessesbeliefs§God Religioninpre-IslamicArabia References[edit] ^abcdGardet,Louis(1960)."Allāh".InBosworth,C.E.;vanDonzel,E.J.;Heinrichs,W.P.;Lewis,B.;Pellat,Ch.;Schacht,J.(eds.).EncyclopaediaofIslam,SecondEdition.Vol. 1.Leiden:BrillPublishers.doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0047.ISBN 978-90-04-16121-4. ^"SurahAl-Anbya-30".quran.com.Retrieved2022-02-08. ^abBöwering,Gerhard(2006)."GodandhisAttributes".InMcAuliffe,JaneDammen(ed.).EncyclopaediaoftheQurʾān.Vol. II.Leiden:BrillPublishers.doi:10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQCOM_00075.ISBN 90-04-14743-8. ^ •Treiger,Alexander(2016)[2014]."PartI:IslamicTheologiesduringtheFormativeandtheEarlyMiddleperiod–OriginsofKalām".InSchmidtke,Sabine(ed.).TheOxfordHandbookofIslamicTheology.OxfordandNewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.pp. 27–43.doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199696703.013.001.ISBN 9780199696703.LCCN 2016935488. •Abrahamov,Binyamin(2016)[2014]."PartI:IslamicTheologiesduringtheFormativeandtheEarlyMiddleperiod–ScripturalistandTraditionalistTheology".InSchmidtke,Sabine(ed.).TheOxfordHandbookofIslamicTheology.OxfordandNewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.pp. 264–279.doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199696703.013.025.ISBN 9780199696703.LCCN 2016935488. ^abEsposito,JohnL.(2016)[1988].Islam:TheStraightPath.ChoiceReviewsOnline.Vol. 26(Updated5th ed.).Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.pp. 22,88.doi:10.5860/choice.26-4446.ISBN 9780190632151.S2CID 153364691. ^"SurahAl-'Ankabut-19-20".quran.com.Retrieved2022-02-07. ^"TranslationofthemeaningsAyah1SurahAl-Fātihah-Dr.WaleedBleyheshOmary-EnglishTranslation".TheNobleQur'anEncyclopedia.Retrieved2022-02-01. ^DepartmentofPhilosophy,OgunStateUniversity;DepartmentofPhilosophy,OlabisiOnabanjoUniversity(2001)."JournalofPhilosophyandDevelopment".7.DepartmentofPhilosophy,OgunStateUniversity:132.{{citejournal}}:Citejournalrequires|journal=(help) ^Ibn'Arabi(2015).TheSecretsofVoyaging.TranslatedbyAngelaJaffray.AnqaPublishing.p. 51.ISBN 9781905937431. ^ab"Allah."EncyclopædiaBritannica.2007.EncyclopædiaBritannica ^SimonOckley(1757).TheHistoryoftheSaracens.p. xlix(49). ^Christiano,KevinJ.;Kivisto,Peter;Swatos,Jr.,WilliamH.,eds.(2015)[2002]."ExcursusontheHistoryofReligions".SociologyofReligion:ContemporaryDevelopments(3rd ed.).WalnutCreek,California:AltaMiraPress.pp. 254–255.doi:10.2307/3512222.ISBN 978-1-4422-1691-4.JSTOR 3512222.LCCN 2001035412.S2CID 154932078. ^"DoesGodhaveashape?".www.dar-alifta.org.Daral-Ifta'al-Misriyya(EgyptianInstituteofFatwas).Archivedfromtheoriginalon29Jun2021. ^ZulfiqarAliShah(2012).AnthropomorphicDepictionsofGod:TheConceptofGodinJudaic,Christian,andIslamicTraditions:RepresentingtheUnrepresentable.InternationalInstituteofIslamicThought(IIIT).pp. 48–56.ISBN 9781565645837. ^ZafarIshaAnsari;Isma'ilIbrahimNawwab,eds.(2016).TheDifferentAspectsofIslamicCulture:TheFoundationsofIslam.Vol. 1.UNESCOPublishing.pp. 86–87.ISBN 9789231042584. ^abcAliÜnal."TheQur'anwithAnnotatedInterpretationinModernEnglish[Qur'an112:4]".mquran.org.TughraBooks.Archivedfromtheoriginalon4Jun2021. ^abcdAbuAminaElias(JustinParrott)."Al-Aqidahal-TahawiyyahinEnglishandArabic".www.abuaminaelias.com.Archivedfromtheoriginalon29Jun2021. ^MohammadIbrahimTeymori."TheCreedofImamTahawi"(PDF).AfghanIslamicCulturalCentreinLondon,UK. ^abCenapÇakmak,ed.(2017).Islam:AWorldwideEncyclopedia[4volumes].ABC-CLIO.pp. 115–116.ISBN 9781610692175. ^MohammadIbrahimTeymori."TheCreedofImamTahawi"(PDF).AfghanIslamicCulturalCentreinLondon,UK.p. 15. ^PatrickHughes;ThomasPatrickHughes(1995).DictionaryofIslam.AsianEducationalServices.pp. 144–146.ISBN 9788120606722. ^RezaAslan(2017).NogodbutGod(UpdatedEdition):TheOrigins,Evolution,andFutureofIslam.RandomHousePublishingGroup.p. 153.ISBN 9780679643777. ^"God".Islam:EmpireofFaith.PBS.Archivedfromtheoriginalon2014-03-27.Retrieved18December2010. ^"IslamandChristianity",EncyclopediaofChristianity(2001):Arabic-speakingChristiansandJewsalsorefertoGodasAllāh. ^Gardet,L."Allah".InBearman,P.;Bianquis,Th.;Bosworth,C.E.;vanDonzel,E.;Heinrichs,W.P.(eds.).EncyclopaediaofIslamOnline.BrillOnline.Retrieved2May2007. ^ ZekiSaritoprak(2006)."Allah".InOliverLeaman(ed.).TheQur'an:AnEncyclopedia.Routledge.p. 34.ISBN 9780415326391. ^VincentJ.Cornell(2005)."God:GodinIslam".InLindsayJones(ed.).EncyclopediaofReligion.Vol. 5(2nd ed.).MacMillanReferenceUSA.p. 724. ^"God".Islam:EmpireofFaith.PBS.Retrieved2010-12-18. ^Bentley,David(September1999).The99BeautifulNamesforGodforAllthePeopleoftheBook.WilliamCareyLibrary.ISBN 0-87808-299-9. ^Quran 7:180,Quran 17:110,Quran 20:8,Quran 59:24 ^"NamesofGod-OxfordIslamicStudiesOnline".oxfordislamicstudies.com.Retrieved2018-08-13.EncouragedbytheQuran(7:180;17:110;20:8),Muslimsselectedninety-nineattributesofGod,describinghisperfection,fromtheQuranandtraditions.Referredtoas“themostbeautifulnamesofGod,”theydescribearangeofcharacteristicsthatbalancesthepowerofGod(theCreator,theSovereign,andtheAll-Knowing)withhisloveandmercy(theAll-Loving,theMostGracious,andtheAll-Forgiving).Thenamesarefrequentlymemorizedandusedinsupplications.PrecededbythewordsAbdorAmat(maleorfemaleservant),theyareoftenusedinpropernames(e.g.,Abdal-Rahman,“servantoftheMerciful”). ^Quran 17:110 ^Quran 59:22–24 ^Böwering,Gerhard."GodandGodAttributes".EncyclopaediaoftheQurʾān. ^AndreasGörkeandJohannaPinkTafsirandIslamicIntellectualHistoryExploringtheBoundariesofaGenreOxfordUniversityPressinassociationwithTheInstituteofIsmailiStudiesLondonISBN 978-0-19-870206-1p.478 ^HosseinNasrTheHeartofIslam,EnduringValuesforHumanity(April.,2003),pp3,39,85,27–272 ^TheconciseOxforddictionaryofworldreligions.Bowker,John,1935-,OxfordUniversityPress.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.2000.ISBN 9780191727221.OCLC 49508601.{{citebook}}:CS1maint:others(link) ^D.Gimaret,Tawhid,EncyclopaediaofIslam ^TariqRamadan(2005),p.203 ^VincentJ.Cornell,EncyclopediaofReligion,Vol5,pp.3561-3562 ^Quran 57:3 (Translatedby YusufAli) ^BinyaminAbrahamov(2014).Ibnal-'ArabiandtheSufis.AnqaPublishing.p. 119.ISBN 9781905937523. ^MehmetOzalp(2016).GodandTawhidinClassicalIslamicTheologyandSaidNursi'sRisale-iNur.UniversityofSydney.p. 231.Archivedfromtheoriginalon24Jun2021. ^AliÜnal."TheQur'anwithAnnotatedInterpretationinModernEnglish[Qur'an17:42]".mquran.org.TughraBooks.Archivedfromtheoriginalon24Jun2021. ^abYanaMulyanaibnKomala(2020).EssentialKnowledgeinIslamExplainedbytheQuran.pp. 41–42.ISBN 9798687481892. ^EkremSefaGÜL."Burhânal-TamânuandTheProblemofItsCertainty".dergipark.org.tr.TekirdağNamıkKemalUniversity,FacultyofTheology.Archivedfromtheoriginalon24Jun2021.Al-MutakallimunmentionedvariousproofsinordertoprovetheonenessofAllah.ThemostimportantofthisproofsistheBurhanal-Tamanu.Thisproofrefutestheclaimthatthereismorethanonegod.Whenweassumethattherearegodsmorethanoneintheuniverse,discussionsandconflictsmustoccurbetweentwounlimitedwishes.Intheendofconflict,forinstancewhenonegodwantedsomethingtohappenandtheotherwanteditnottohappen,oneofthethreepossibilitieswouldhappen.Bothofthegods’wisheswouldtakeplace.Neitherofthegods'wisheswouldtakeplaceoroneofthegods’wishwouldtakeplaceandtheother’swishwouldnot.Allofthosepossibilitiesareinvalidandimpossible.Thus,allofthepossibilitiesturnedouttobeinvalid;andthethesisthattherearetwoormoregodsisprovedtobeinvalidspontaneously. ^MohammadRafi-ud-Din(1968).TheManifestoofIslam:AnExpositionofIslamastheInevitableWorldIdeologyoftheFuture.DinMuhammadiPress.p. 145.ISBN 9781597840002.IslamemphasisestheabsoluteonenessoruniquenessoftheCreatorinHispersonaswellinHisqualitiesandattributes... ^"IslamAwakened[Qur'an112:1]".IslamAwakened.com.Archivedfromtheoriginalon4Jun2021. ^"IslamAwakened[Qur'an112:2]".IslamAwakened.com.Archivedfromtheoriginalon4Jun2021. ^NureddinUzunoğlu."TheHolyQur'anwithTranslationandCommentaries[Qur'an19:65]".Semazen.NET.IslamicPublicationsfortheHolyQur'anAssociation.Archivedfromtheoriginalon4Jun2021. ^Jalalal-Dinal-Mahalli;Jalalal-Dinal-Suyuti."Tafsiral-Jalalayn".www.greattafsirs.com.TranslatedbyFerasHamza.RoyalAalal-BaytInstituteforIslamicThought.Archivedfromtheoriginalon11Jul2021. ^GurdofaridMiskinzoda;FarhadDaftary,eds.(2014).TheStudyofShi'iIslam:History,TheologyandLaw.BloomsburyPublishing.p. 218.ISBN 9780857723383. ^AliÜnal(2006).TheQur'anwithAnnotatedInterpretationinModernEnglish.TughraBooks.p. 989.ISBN 9781597840002. ^IbnKathir."TafsirIbnKathir[Qur'an6:103]".Altafsir.com.RoyalAalal-BaytInstituteforIslamicThought.Archivedfromtheoriginalon8Jun2021.وقيلالمرادبقوله{لاَّتُدْرِكُهُٱلأَبْصَـٰرُ}أيالعقول،... ^abcdMohammadIbrahimTeymori."TheCreedofImamTahawi"(PDF).AfghanIslamicCulturalCentreinLondon,UK.pp. 20–24. ^MuhammadShahabuddinNadvi(1997).HolyQur'anandtheNaturalWorld.FurqaniaAcademyTrust.p. 60. ^SaheehInternational."SaheehInternational[Qur'an1:2]".quranenc.com.Archivedfromtheoriginalon7Jun2021. ^AliÜnal."TheQur'anwithAnnotatedInterpretationinModernEnglish[Qur'an1:2]".mquran.org.TughraBooks.Archivedfromtheoriginalon7Jun2021. ^KhwajaKamaluddin(1939).TheIslamicReview.Vol. 27.WokingMuslimMissionandLiteraryTrust.p. 169.IftheotherPlanetsareinhabitedthepeoplethereareasmuchtheCreaturesofAllahasthoseuponthisEarth,andtheHolyQur-ánspeaksof“Alamien”(WorldsorUniverses). ^AbdullahYusufAli(2015).TheMeaningoftheHolyQur'an:CompleteTranslationwithSelectedNotes.KubePublishingLtd.p. 19.ISBN 9780860376118. ^SyedMahmud-un-Nasir(1981).Islam,ItsConcepts&History.KitabBhavan.p. 331.Thephrase"TheCreatoroftheWorlds"isprecededbythewordal-Hamd,whichfirstmeanspraise,eulogyandapprobation;and,secondly,oursubmissiontothewaysoftheCreator;forbysaying"hamd"weexpressourwillingnesstosubmittoHislawsandtheliteralinterpretationofIslamis"submission". ^M.R.BawaMuhaiyaddeen(2004).Islam&WorldPeace:ExplanationsofaSufi.TheFellowshipPress.p. 159.ISBN 9780914390657.Rabb(A)God;theLord;theCreatorandProtector.Rabbal-'alamin(A)TheRuleroftheuniverses. ^HayimGordon;LeonardGrob(1987).EducationforPeace:TestimoniesfromWorldReligions.OrbisBooks.p. 97.ISBN 9780883443590. ^MashhadAl-Allaf,ed.(2006).JournalofIslamicPhilosophy.Vol. 2.JournalofIslamicPhilosophy.p. 12. ^FethullahGülen(2015).EndeavorforRenewal.Vol. 12.TughraBooks.p. 170.ISBN 9781597846967. ^Bentley,David(September1999).The99BeautifulNamesforGodforAllthePeopleoftheBook.WilliamCareyLibrary.ISBN 0-87808-299-9. ^PrinceSorieContehTraditionalists,Muslims,andChristiansinAfrica:InterreligiousEncountersandDialogueCambriaPress2009ISBN 978-1-604-97596-3page80 ^MahmoudAyoubTheQur'anandItsInterpreters,Volume1SUNYPress1984ISBN 978-0-873-95727-4page43 ^"Allahwouldreplaceyouwithapeoplewhosin".islamtoday.net.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonOctober14,2013.RetrievedJuly23,2012. ^"MyMercyPrevailsOverMyWrath".www.onislam.net.Retrieved2015-10-04. ^"TheSpiritualSeasonPart3:Ramadan|Al-MadinaInstituteBlog".Retrieved2015-10-04. ^"BBC-Religions-Islam:Basicarticlesoffaith".Archivedfromtheoriginalon13August2018.Retrieved2018-08-13. ^AliÜnal(2008).TheQur'anwithAnnotatedInterpretationinModernEnglish.TughraBooks.p. 284.ISBN 9781597841443. ^GürbüzDeniz(December2009)."Al-FarabionDivineKnowledge"(PDF).ankara.edu.tr.IslamicUniversityofEurope.AccordingtotheQur’an,God(Allah)isomniscient;Heeternallyknowswhatevercanbeknown,beituniversalorparticularincharacter.Muslimtheologiansthereforeconsideredthat“omniscience”isanecessaryand“ignorance”isanimpossiblepropertyforGod.Nothingcanescapehisknowledge.VariousversesintheQur’ansuchas“Allahtrulyknowseverthing”(4/179),“NothingcanbehiddenfromHisknowledge”(34/3;10/62),“HeknowswhateverintheHeavensandtheEarth,evenaleafcannotfallwithoutHisawareness”(47/59)designatethisbasicintuition. ^SachikoMurataTheTaoofIslam:ASourcebookonGenderRelationshipsinIslamicThoughtSUNYPress1992ISBN 978-0-791-40913-8page77 ^Quran 2:117 ^"HumanNatureandthePurposeofExistence".Patheos.com.Retrieved2011-01-29. ^DavidLeemingTheOxfordCompaniontoWorldMythologyOxfordUniversityPress2005ISBN 978-0-195-15669-0page209 ^Quran 51:56 ^abRogerS.GottliebTheOxfordHandbookofReligionandEcologyOxfordUniversityPress,9Nov2006ISBN 9780199727698p.210 ^RebeccaStein,PhilipL.SteinTheAnthropologyofReligion,Magic,andWitchcraftRoutledge2017ISBN 9781315532158chapter:Islam ^[1]Archived2015-10-15attheWaybackMachine,3rdparagraph,October2015 ^AliÜnal(2008).TheQur'anwithAnnotatedInterpretationinModernEnglish.TughraBooks.p. 86.ISBN 9781597841443. ^"IamasMyServantThinks(expects)Iam".hadithaday.org.Retrieved2014-07-31. ^"CenterforMuslim-JewishEngagement".usc.edu.Archivedfromtheoriginalon2017-05-15.Retrieved2014-11-01. ^MahaElkaisy-FriemuthGodandHumansinIslamicThought:AbdAl-Jabbar,IbnSinaandAl-GhazaliRoutledge2006ISBN 978-1-134-14676-5page146 ^CyrilGlassé(2003).TheNewEncyclopediaofIslam.RowmanAltamira.p. 191.ISBN 9780759101906. ^AbdullahYusufAli(1975).TheGloriousQur'an:Text,TranslationandCommentary.p. 215. ^"TheMiraculousQuran-[21:23]".mquran.org.Archivedfromtheoriginalon23May2021. ^"RoyalAalal-BaytInstituteTranslation".Altafsir.com.Archivedfromtheoriginalon23May2021. ^HassanHasanSheikhSalimEl-Yacoubi;JaneBiddleMerrittEl-Yacoubi(1994).Islam:TheLanguageofOneness:Tawhid,theIslamicParadigm.Colorado:Boulder.p. 71.ASIN B001YVOZR8. ^ThomasF.Michel,ed.(1984).AMuslimTheologian'sResponsetoChristianity.CaravanBooks.p. 6.ISBN 9780882060583. ^PhilipK.Hitti(2002).HistoryofTheArabs.MacmillanInternationalHigherEducation.p. 431.ISBN 9781137039828. ^SayedMahmudulHasan(1962).MuslimCreedandCulture:AnInterpretationofFundamentalInstitiutions.IdealPublications.p. 276. ^FaridEsack(2005).TheQur'an:AUser'sGuide.OneworldPublications.p. 110.ISBN 9781851683543. ^PeterGroff(2007).IslamicPhilosophyA-Z.EdinburghUniversityPress.p. 52.ISBN 9780748629275. ^J.vanLent;Hakeem-UddeenQureshi;PeriJ.Bearman,eds.(1995).TheEncyclopaediaofIslam,NewEdition:GlossaryandIndexofTechnicalTerms.E.J.Brill.p. 44.ISBN 9789004097780. ^abZulfiqarAliShah(2012).AnthropomorphicDepictionsofGod:TheConceptofGodinJudaic,Christian,andIslamicTraditions:RepresentingtheUnrepresentable.InternationalInstituteofIslamicThought(IIIT).p. 573.ISBN 9781565645752. ^abcAaronSpevack(2014).TheArchetypalSunniScholar:Law,Theology,andMysticismintheSynthesisofal-Bajuri.SUNYPress.pp. 129–130.ISBN 9781438453729. ^JosephJ.Kaminski(2017).TheContemporaryIslamicGovernedState:AReconceptualization.Springer.p. 41.ISBN 9783319570129. ^"SufficiencyinCreed(Lum'at-ul-'Itiqaad)–ImaamIbnQudaamah".abdurrahman.org.Archivedfromtheoriginalon7Oct2021. ^ImranAijaz(2018).Islam:AContemporaryPhilosophicalInvestigation.Routledge.p. 61.ISBN 9781317436591. ^FrancisE.Peters(1990).Judaism,Christianity,andIslam:TheClassicalTextsandTheirInterpretation.Vol. 3.PrincetonUniversityPress.pp. 303–305.ISBN 9780691020556. ^Ibnal-Jawzi(2006).TheAttributesofGod:Ibnal-Jawzi'sDaf'Shubahal-Tashbihbi-Akaffal-Tanzih.TranslatedbyAbdullahbinHamid'Ali.KhalidYahyaBlankinship(Introduction).AmalPress.ISBN 9780955235900. ^GibrilFouadHaddad(2015).TheBiographiesoftheEliteLivesoftheScholars,ImamsandHadithMasters.ZulfiqarAyub.p. 226. ^"UnderstandingTextsGivingtheImpressionthatAllahResemblesHisCreation".aliftaa.jo.TheGeneralFatwaDepartmentoftheHashemiteKingdomofJordan.Archivedfromtheoriginalon7Oct2021. ^GibrilFouadHaddad(2015).TheBiographiesoftheEliteLivesoftheScholars,ImamsandHadithMasters.ZulfiqarAyub.p. 323. ^ZameelurRahman.EbrahimDesai(ed.)."WhatisthebeliefsofImamAhmedandibnTaymiyya?".askimam.org.Askimam.Archivedfromtheoriginalon9Oct2021. ^"TafsirIbnKathironQur'an7:54".altafsir.com(inArabic).RoyalAalal-BaytInstituteforIslamicThought.Archivedfromtheoriginalon7Oct2021. ^KhaledEl-Rouayheb(2015).IslamicIntellectualHistoryintheSeventeenthCentury.CambridgeUniversityPress.p. 277.ISBN 9781107042964.IbnTaymiyyathusinsistedthattheapparent(zāhir)senseofpassagesthatstatethatGodhaseyes,hands,andfeet,andthatHeoccasionallydescendstothelowestheavens,shouldsimplybeaccepted–inthesamewaythatoneshouldacceptpassagesthatstatethatGodknowsorwillsorspeaks. ^abCarlSharifEl-Tobgui(2020).IbnTaymiyyaonReasonandRevelation.brill.com.IslamicPhilosophy,TheologyandScience.TextsandStudies.Brill.pp. 179–226.ISBN 9789004412866.Archivedfromtheoriginalon8Oct2021.Indiametricoppositiontothistendency,IbnTaymiyyainsiststhatthetruemeaningsoftherevealedtextsare,inonemanneroranother,entirelyembeddedinthelanguageofthosetextsthemselves.Thisobviates(oratleastminimizes)theneedtoappeal,foraproperunderstandingofrevelation,toanyfactorsorconsiderationsextrinsictothetexts,including—indeed,especially—thedeliverancesofabstractrationalspeculationaspracticedbythephilosophersandtheologians.3WehaveseeninpreviouschaptersthatIbnTaymiyya’soverridingconcernintheDarʾtaʿāruḍistovindicateaplain-senseunderstandingandstraightforwardaffirmationofthedivineattributespredicatedofGodinrevelationoveragainsttherationalists’negation(nafy)ornullification(taʿṭīl)ofanyofthesaidattributes.HeinsiststhatthiswayofaffirmationwastheconsensusapproachandunderstandingoftheSalaf,andforthatreasonitremainsuniquelyauthoritativethroughouttime.Thekindsofrationalobjections(muʿāriḍʿaqlī)raisedbyvarioustheologicalschoolsusuallyinvolvetheclaimthatagivenrevealedattribute(suchasthepossessionofahandorface,ortheactofdescendingorsettlinguponthethrone),ifaffirmedofGodinaccordancewiththeobvioussense(ẓāhir)ofthetexts,wouldentaila“likening”(tamthīl)or“assimilation”(tashbīh)ofGodtocreatedbeingsandthusinfringeupontheradicaluniquenessofGod’sdivinityandHisutterdissimilaritytoanythingtaintedbycreatureliness,contingency,orlimitationofanykind. ^ZulfiqarAliShah(2012).AnthropomorphicDepictionsofGod:TheConceptofGodinJudaic,Christian,andIslamicTraditions:RepresentingtheUnrepresentable.InternationalInstituteofIslamicThought(IIIT).p. 578.ISBN 9781565645752. ^FredericVolpi,ed.(2013).PoliticalIslam:ACriticalReader.Routledge.p. 58.ISBN 9781134722075. ^MohammedGamalAbdelnour(2021).AComparativeHistoryofCatholicandAsh'ariTheologiesofTruthandSalvation:InclusiveMinorities,ExclusiveMajorities.BRILL.p. 54.ISBN 9789004461765. ^abAymanShihadeh;JanThiele(2020).PhilosophicalTheologyinIslam:LaterAsh'arismEastandWest.BRILL.pp. 200–201.ISBN 9789004426610. ^HüseyinHilmiIşık(2014).IslamandChristianity.HakikatKitabevi.p. 362.ISBN 9781530501601. ^Al-Mawardi(2012).al-Sayyid'Abdal-Maqsudibn'Abdal-Rahim(ed.)."Tafsiral-Mawardi(al-Nukatwaal-'Uyun)"(inArabic).Beirut-Lebanon:Daral-Kutubal-'Ilmiyya.p. 71.وماأحسنمارويعنالإمامأحمدبنحنبلوالإمامالزاهدذيالنونالمصريرحمهمااللهتعالىأنهماقالا«مهماتصورتببالكفاللهبخلافذلك»لأنالتصورينشأعنالصوروالخيالاتواللهسبحانهوتعالىمنزهعنمشابهةكلالمخلوقات ^Al-Mawardi(2012).al-Sayyid'Abdal-Maqsudibn'Abdal-Rahim(ed.)."Tafsiral-Mawardi(al-Nukatwaal-'Uyun)"(inArabic).Beirut-Lebanon:Daral-Kutubal-'Ilmiyya.p. 470.فلقدثبتليبعضالرواياتعنالإمامأحمدبنحنبلإمامأهلالسنةوالجماعةأنهقال:«مهماتصورتببالكفاللهبخلافذلك»،وهذهالروايةأيضاًرويتعنالزاهدالصالحالشهيرذيالنونالمصري ^OliverLeaman,ed.(2006).TheQur'an:AnEncyclopedia.Routledge.p. 36.ISBN 9781134339754. ^Al-Shahrastani(2013).MuslimSectsandDivisions.TranslatedbyA.K.Kazi;J.G.Glynn.Routledge.p. 88.ISBN 9781136138829. ^NamiraNahouza(2018).WahhabismandtheRiseoftheNewSalafists:Theology,PowerandSunniIslam.BloomsburyPublishing.p. 49.ISBN 9781838609825. ^Husamb.HasanSarsour(2004).آياتالصفاتومنهجابنجريرالطبريفيتفسيرمعانيها(inArabic).Beirut-Lebanon:Daral-Kutubal-'Ilmiyya.p. 350.ISBN 9782745142092.قالابنكثير:«روىالبيهقيعنالحاكمعنأبيعمربنالسماكعنحنبلأنأحمدابنحنبلتأولقولاللهتعالى:(وجاءربك)أنهجاءثوابه.ثمقالالبيهقي:وهذاإسنادلاغبارعليه». ^MuhammadZahidal-Kawthari(2017).Al-'Aqidahwa'Ilmal-Kalam(inArabic).Beirut-Lebanon:Daral-Kutubal-'Ilmiyya.p. 233.ISBN 9782745143648.وقالابنحزمالظاهريفىفصله:وقدرويناعنأحمدبنحنبلرحمهاللهأنهقال:(وجاءربك)إنمامعناه:جاءأمرربكاهـ. ^HebrewUniversityofJerusalem(1954).ScriptaHierosolymitana:PublicationsofTheHebrewUniversityofJerusalem.Vol. 35.MagnesPress.p. 283. ^AbdullahSaeedIslamicThought:AnIntroductionRoutledge2006ISBN 978-1-134-22564-4chapterlegalthought ^abAndrewRippinMuslims:TheirReligiousBeliefsandPracticesPsychologyPress2005ISBN 978-0-415-34888-1page86 ^KhaledEl-Rouayheb(2015).IslamicIntellectualHistoryintheSeventeenthCentury.CambridgeUniversityPress.p. 276.ISBN 9781107042964. ^ImamAl-BayhaqiAllah'sNamesandAttributesISCA1999ISBN 978-1-930-40903-3page19 ^"Allah'sEstablishmentOvertheThrone".sunnah.org.As-SunnahFoundationofAmerica.Archivedfromtheoriginalon31May2021. ^Al-Bayhaqi(1999).Allah'sNamesandAttributes.Vol. 4.TranslatedbyGibrilFouadHaddad.As-SunnaFoundationofAmerica.p. 88.ISBN 9781930409033. ^BurhanAhmadFaruqi(2010).TheMujaddid'sConceptionofTawhid.p. 66.ISBN 9781446164020. ^HiroyukiMashita,ed.(2013).Theology,EthicsandMetaphysics:RoyalAsiaticSocietyClassicsofIslam.Routledge.p. 73.ISBN 9781136872051. ^NamiraNahouza(2018).WahhabismandtheRiseoftheNewSalafists:Theology,PowerandSunniIslam.I.B.Tauris.p. 16.ISBN 9781838609832. ^MuhammadIbrahimH.I.Surty(1990).TheQur'anAndAl-Shirk(Polytheism).Ta-HaPublishers.p. 103.ISBN 9780907461678. ^CoeliFitzpatrick;AdamHaniWalker,eds.(2014).MuhammadinHistory,Thought,andCulture:AnEncyclopediaoftheProphetofGod.ABC-CLIO.p. 476.ISBN 9781610691789. ^AliÜnal(2006).TheQur'anwithAnnotatedInterpretationinModernEnglish.TughraBooks.p. 1105.ISBN 9781597840002. ^"Allah—theManifestandtheHidden".ArabNews.Archivedfromtheoriginalon22May2021. ^Jami(2010).FlashesofLight:ATreatiseonSufism.TranslatedbyE.H.Whinfield;MuhammadKazvini.GoldenElixirPress.pp. 65–67.ISBN 9780984308224. ^GokhanBacik(2019).IslamandMuslimResistancetoModernityinTurkey.SpringerNature.pp. 80–81.ISBN 9783030259013. ^FrankGriffel(2021).TheFormationofPost-ClassicalPhilosophyinIslam.OxfordUniversityPress.p. 420.ISBN 9780190886349. ^KamilY.Avdich(1979).SurveyofIslamicDoctrine(2 ed.).UnityPublishingCompany.p. 153.ASIN B00DDVCR90. ^TheQur'an.CenterforMuslim–JewishEngagement,UniversityofSouthernCalifornia.2008.Archivedfromtheoriginalon18June2017. ^TheQur'an.CenterforMuslim–JewishEngagement,UniversityofSouthernCalifornia.2008.Archivedfromtheoriginalon18June2017. ^NureddinUzunoğlu."TheHolyQur'anwithTranslationandCommentaries[Qur'an10:26]".Semazen.NET.IslamicPublicationsfortheHolyQur'anAssociation.Archivedfromtheoriginalon15Jun2021. ^G.HusseinRassool(2021).IslamicPsychology:HumanBehaviourandExperiencefromanIslamicPerspective.Routledge.pp. 246–247.ISBN 9781000362923. ^GeneNetto(2019).SearchingForGodAndFindingAllah.YayasanBambuBiru(BlueBambooFoundation).p. 188. ^Al-Nawawi."Riyadal-Salihin(TheGardensoftheRighteous)".Sunnah.com.Archivedfromtheoriginalon15Jun2021. ^Al-Bukhari."Sahihal-Bukhari".Sunnah.com.Archivedfromtheoriginalon15Jun2021. ^"WhoAreSufiMuslimsandWhyDoSomeExtremistsHateThem?".TheNewYorkTimes.Archivedfromtheoriginalon26Jul2020.ThevastmajorityofSufisareSunni,thoughsomeareShiite. ^abAhmadibn'Ajiba."Al-Bahral-MadidfiTafsiral-Qur'anal-Majid[Qur'an57:4]".www.altafsir.com(inArabic).Altafsir.com.Archivedfromtheoriginalon30May2021.{وهومعكمأينماكنتم}بالعلموالقدرةوالإحاطةالذاتية،وماادعاهابنُعطيةمنالإجماعأنهبالعلم،فإنكانمرادهمنأهلالظاهرفمسلّم،وأمّاأهلالباطنفمجمِعونعلىخلافه،انظرالإشارة....وهومعكمأينماكنتمبذاتهوصفاته،علىمايليقبجلالقدسهوكمالكبريائهإذالصفةلاتُفارقالموصوففإذاكانتالمعيةبالعلملَزِمَأنتكونبالذات،فافهم،وسلِّمإنلمتذق.حدثنيشيخي،الفقيهالمحرر"الجنوي":أنَّعلماءمصراجتمعواللمناظرةفيصفةالمعية،فانفصلمجلسهمعلىأنهابالذات،علىمايليقبه.وسمعتُهأيضاًيقول:إنَّالفقيهالعلامة"سيديأحمدبنمبارك"لقيالرجلالصالحسيدي"أحمدالصقلي"،فقالله:كيفتعتقد:{وهومعكمأينماكنتم}؟فقال:بالذات،فقالله:أشهدأنكمنالعارفين.هـ.قلت:فبحرالذاتمتصل،لايتصورفيهانفصال،ولايخلومنهمكانولازمان،كانولازمانولامكان،وهوالآنعلىماعليهكان. ^abAhmadibn'Ajiba."Al-Bahral-MadidfiTafsiral-Qur'anal-Majid[Qur'an67:16]".www.altafsir.com(inArabic).Altafsir.com.Archivedfromtheoriginalon30May2021.واعلمأنذاتالحقـجلّجلالهـعمّتالوجود،فليستمحصورةفيمكانولازمان،{فأينماتُولوافَثَمّوجهالله}،فأسرارذاتهـتعالىـساريةفيكلشيء،قائمةبكلشيء،كماتقدّم،فهوموجودفيكلشيء،لايخلومنهشيء،أسرارالمعانيقائمةبالأواني،وإنماخصّالحقـتعالىـالسماءبالذكرلأنهامرتفعةمعظّمة،فناسبذكرالعظيمفيها،وعلىهذاتُحملالأحاديثوالآياتالواردةعلىهذاالمنوال.وليسهناحلولولااتحادإذليسفيالوجودإلاّتجلياتالحقومظاهرذاتهوصفاته،كاناللهولاشيءمعه،وهوالآنعلىماكانعليه ^StefanKalms;DorothéeZerwas;HaraldF.O.vonKortzfleisch(2013).UbiquitousEntrepreneurship.BoD–BooksonDemand.p. 14.ISBN 9783844102864. ^NureddinUzunoğlu."TheHolyQur'anwithTranslationandCommentaries[Qur'an2:115]".Semazen.NET.IslamicPublicationsfortheHolyQur'anAssociation.Archivedfromtheoriginalon30May2021. ^MuhammadMetwallial-Sha'rawi."Tafsiral-Sha'rawi[Qur'an56:85]".www.noor-book.com(inArabic).Akhbarel-Yom.pp. 14885–14886.هذهالكلمة{ولكنﻻتبصرون}[الواقعة:85]حلتلناإشكاﻻتمتعددة،ﻷنالبعضيفهممسألةمعيةاللهفيمثل:{إناللهمعنا..}[التوبة:40]و{إناللهمعالذيناتقوا..}[النحل:128]أنهامعيةعلم،ولوكانتكذلكماقالسبحانه{ولكنﻻتبصرون}[الواقعة:85]إذن:هيمعيةحقيقيةولوكانعندكمبصرحديديُمكّنكممنالرؤيةلرأيتم،فلمﻻيتسعالتصورفيالمعيةبدونتحيّز،ولكفينفسكمثال:فالروحالتيتديرحركةحياتككلها،هلتعلمأينهيمنجسمك؟إذن:أنتﻻتدركهاوهيفيك،فمابالكبالحقسبحانهوتعالىالذييديرهذاالكونكله،فمعيةاللهبذاتهالتيليستكالذوات،فإذاكنتﻻتدركمخلوقاًللهفهلتطمعفيأنتدركمعيةاللهلك؛إذنفمخلوقللهﻻيُدرَك،فكيفتريدأنتدركمنخلقماﻻيُدْرَك !! ^KarinJironetTheImageofSpiritualLibertyintheWesternSufiMovementFollowingHazratInayatKhanPeetersPublishers2002ISBN 978-9-042-91205-2page32 ^J.I.LaliwalaIslamicPhilosophyofReligion:SynthesisofScienceReligionandPhilosophySarup&Sons2005ISBN 978-8-176-25476-2page39 ^Jean-LouisMichon,RogerGaetaniSufism:Love&WisdomWorldWisdom,Inc,2006ISBN 978-0-941-53275-4page207 ^WilliamC.ChittickIbn'Arabi:HeirtotheProphetsOneworldPublications2012ISBN 978-1-780-74193-2 ^ElizabethSirriyeh(2004).SufiVisionaryofOttomanDamascus:'Abdal-Ghanial-Nabulusi,1641-1731.Routledge.p. 51.ISBN 9781134294664. ^N.Hanif(2002).BiographicalEncyclopaediaofSufis:CentralAsiaandMiddleEast.Sarup&Sons.p. 229.ISBN 9788176252669. ^JohnRenardIslamicTheologicalThemes:APrimarySourceReaderUnivofCaliforniaPress2014ISBN 978-0-520-95771-8page138 ^PatrickHughes,ThomasPatrickHughesDictionaryofIslamAsianEducationalServices,1995ISBN 978-8-120-60672-2page425 ^M.Geijbels(1977).AnIntroductiontoIslam:MuslimBeliefsandPractices.Vol. 4.ChristianStudyCentre.p. 367. ^YasinT.al-Jibouri(2012).Allah:TheConceptofGodinIslam.Vol. 1.AuthorHouse.p. 37.ISBN 9781468532722. ^YasinJibouri(2014).Allah:theConceptofGodinIslam(aSelection).p. 18.ISBN 9781312490574.Sunnis,however,believe,asthereaderwillfindoutinalaterpartofthisbook,thatthebelieverswillbeableontheDayofJudgmenttoseeAllah.Shiasdisagreewiththemasyouwillreadlaterinthisbook,Insha-Allah. ^FarhadDaftaryIsmailiHistoryandIntellectualTraditionsRoutledge2017ISBN 978-1-351-97503-2 ^Gnostic,Ismaili(2016-01-22)."IsmailiTeachingsontheOnenessofGod(Tawhid):BeyondPersonalistTheismandModernAtheism–IsmailiGnosis".Ismailignosis.com.Retrieved2019-01-29. ^abTabatabai,MuhammadHusayn(2010).Tafsiral-Mizan.Vol. 1,2.pp. 45,140.ISBN 9783939416401. ^ArzinaR.LalaniDegreesofExcellence:AFatimidTreatiseonLeadershipinIslamI.B.Tauris2009ISBN 978-0-857-71202-8page3 ^Virani,ShafiqueN.(2010)."TheRightPath:APost-MongolPersianIsmailiTreatise".IranianStudies.43(2):197–221.doi:10.1080/00210860903541988.ISSN 0021-0862.S2CID 170748666. ^StephenJ.Vicchio(2008).BiblicalFiguresintheIslamicFaith.WipfandStockPublishers.p. 41.ISBN 9781498275583. ^YasinT.al-Jibouri(2012).Allah:TheConceptofGodinIslam.Vol. 1.AuthorHouse.pp. 28–29.ISBN 9781468532722. ^MuhammadBaqiral-Majlisi."Biharal-Anwar".www.islam4u.com.Archivedfromtheoriginalon4Jun2021. ^"Martyrdomofal-HallajandUnityoftheExistence:theCondemnersandtheCommenders"(PDF).UniversitiKebangsaanMalaysia(UKM).InternationalJournalofIslamicThought(IJIT).p. 106.Wahdatal-wujudisaverymostpolemicaltopicdiscussedintheworldofIslamicTasawwuforSufismsince2ndcenturyofIslamichistory.Thisissuecontinuedtobedebatedfromtimetotimeuntiltoday. ^"IbnʽArabī'sthoughtonwaḥdatal-wujudanditsrelevancetoreligiousdiversity"(PDF).www.iis.ac.uk.StateIslamicInstituteMataram.p. 30.THEHISTORYofthedevelopmentofIslamicthoughtwastingedbythecontroversyofSufiphilosophicalthinkingdevelopedbyIbnʽArabī,aprimeexponentofthedoctrineoftheunityofbeing(waḥdatal-wujūd). ^AminBanani;RichardHovannisian;GeorgesSabagh,eds.(1994).PoetryandMysticisminIslam:TheHeritageofRumi.CambridgeUniversityPress.p. 70.ISBN 9780521454766. ^abIbrahimM.Abu-Rabi'(2008).SpiritualDimensionsofBediuzzamanSaidNursi'sRisale-INur.SUNYPress.p. 295.ISBN 9780791474747.thenameofIbn'ArabiappearsofteninNursi'sworkinconnectionwiththedoctrineofwahdatal-wujud,adoctrinetobeavoidedinhisview.WhilethisphrasetendstobelinkedwithIbn'Arabi'snamebybothhissupportersanddetractors,ithastobeapproachedwithgreatcaution. ^WilliamC.Chittick."Wahdatal-WujudinIndia"(PDF).InstituteofPhilosophy,RussianAcademyofSciences.StonyBrookUniversity.Initself,waḥdatal-wujūddoesnotdesignateanyspecificdoctrine.Overhistory,itcametohaveavarietyofmeaningsdependingonwhowasusingit.Certainly,whenitcametobecontroversial,IbnʿArabī’snamewasusuallymentioned.Nonetheless,thereisnodoctrinethatheoranyofhisearlyfollowerscalledwaḥdatal-wujūd. ^"Wujud".www.iis.ac.uk.TheInstituteofIsmailiStudies.Archivedfromtheoriginalon10Sep2021.Ibnal–‘Arabi(d.638/1240)isregardedasthefatheroftheconceptofwahdatal–wujud(theunityofbeing). ^WilliamC.Chittick(2012).InSearchoftheLostHeart:ExplorationsinIslamicThought.SUNYPress.p. 73.ISBN 9781438439358.ButIbnal-'Arabihimself,sofarasisknown,neveremployedthetermwahdatal-wujudinhisenormouscorpusofwritings,“eventhoughhefrequentlydiscussedwujudandthefactthatitcanbedescribedaspossessingtheattributeofonenessorunity... ^DavidLee(2015)."PeterG.Riddell(Foreword)".ContextualizationofSufiSpiritualityinSeventeenth-andEighteenth-CenturyChina:TheRoleofLiuZhi(c.1662-c.1730).WipfandStockPublishers.p. 45.ISBN 9781498225229.Thehistoryofthetermwahdatal-wujudissummarizedbyChittick:ThetermisnotfoundinthewritingsofIbnal-'Arabi. ^AminBanani;RichardHovannisian;GeorgesSabagh,eds.(1994).PoetryandMysticisminIslam:TheHeritageofRumi.CambridgeUniversityPress.p. 81.ISBN 9780521454766.ButIbnal-'Arabīneveremploysthetermwahdatal-wujūd,whileQūnawionlymentionsitinpassing. ^"Ibn'Arabî(StanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy)".StanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy.Archivedfromtheoriginalon20Jun2013.Ibn‘Arabîhastypicallybeencalledthefounderofthedoctrineofwahdatal-wujûd,theOnenessofBeingortheUnityofExistence,butthisismisleading,forheneverusestheexpression. ^ab"OnenessofBeing(waḥdatal-wujūd)".TheMuhyiddinIbnArabiSociety(MIAS).Archivedfromtheoriginalon10Sep2021.ThereisbroadagreementamongstIbnʿArabīspecialiststhathedidnotusethetermwaḥdatal-wujūd(OnenessofBeingorUnityofExistence)inhisownwritings,andhencedidnotemploythisexpressioninhisSufiphilosophicaldoctrine.Thefirsttohaveusedit,severaldecadesafterthedeathofIbnʿArabīinthelate7thcenturyandearly8thcenturyoftheHijricalendar,wasIbnTaymiyya,whoemployedthetermnegatively,asacritiqueandcondemnation. ^"Ibn'Arabî(StanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy)".StanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy.Archivedfromtheoriginalon10Sep2021.ThefirstauthortosaythatIbn‘Arabîbelievedinwahdatal-wujûdseemstohavebeentheHanbalitepolemicistIbnTaymiyya(d.1328),whocalleditworsethanunbelief. ^AbdullahKartal."AhmadSirhindî'sCriticismofWahdatAl-WujûdanditsHistoricalBackground"(PDF).www.ijbssnet.com.InternationalJournalofBusinessandSocialScience.p. 171.Thedoctrineofwahdatal-wujûd(theunityofbeing),whichwasputforwardintheworkofIbn‘Arabî(d.638/1240),hasbeendefendedbyhisfollowers.However,itwascriticizednotonlybyMuslimscholars(ulama)butalsobysomeSufisatvaryingdegrees.Consequently,thereaccumulatedalargebodyofliteraturearoundthenameIbn‘Arabîandthedoctrineofwahdatal-wujûd.AmongMuslimscholars,themostimportantfigureinthisregardiscertainlyIbnTaymiyya(d.728/1328),whofirstinitiatedthedebate. ^FethullahGülen(2000).Questions&AnswersaboutIslam.Vol. 2.TughraBooks.p. 41.ISBN 9781932099256. ^JSTOR(Organization);IslamicResearchInstitute(Pakistan);CentralInstituteofIslamicResearch(Pakistan)(1998).IslamicStudies.Vol. 37.IslamicResearchInstitute.p. 153. ^RogerS.Gottlieb(2006).TheOxfordHandbookofReligionandEcology.OxfordUniversityPress.p. 210.ISBN 9780199727698. ^"IbnʽArabī'sthoughtonwaḥdatal-wujudanditsrelevancetoreligiousdiversity"(PDF).www.iis.ac.uk.StateIslamicInstituteMataram.pp. 60–61.ManyMuslimscholarsjudgeIbnʽArabīasapantheist.A.E.Affifi,forexample,considershimapantheist,andviewsthistypeofsufismasperfectpantheism.FazlurRahmanalsosaysthattheteachingsofIbnʽArabīareasystementirelymonisticandpantheisticcontrarytotheteachingsofIslamicorthodoxy.ThesameviewonthismatterisgivenbyHamkaandAhmadDaudy. ^RichardFoltz(2003).Worldviews,Religion,andtheEnvironment:AGlobalAnthology.CengageLearning.p. 360.ISBN 9780534596071. ^InternationalAssociationfortheHistoryofReligions,VrijeUniversiteitAmsterdam;InstituutvoorGodsdienstwetenschap,UniversityofLeeds(1987).ScienceofReligion.Vol. 12.InstitutefortheStudyofReligion,FreeUniversity[and]DepartmentofTheologyandReligiousStudies,UniversityofLeeds.p. 81.Wahdatal-wujud,"unityofbeing"isappliedtoIbn'Arabi's(560/1165-638/1240)mysticaldoctrine,whichbecameatargetofseverecriticismfromtheorthodoxy. ^IndianInstituteofIslamicStudies(1982).StudiesinIslam:QuarterlyJournaloftheIndianInstituteofIslamicStudies.Vol. 19.p. 233.Hismysticaltheoriesnotonlycametobesupportedbyalargefollowing,butalsobecameatargetofseverecriticismfromtheorthodoxy(ulamā-izāhir),forwhomtheirexpounderwasanhereticandanapostate. ^StephenHirtenstein;MichaelTiernan,eds.(1993).MuhyiddinIbn'Arabi(1165-1240A.D.):AVolumeofTranslationsandStudiesCommemoratingthe750thAnniversaryofHisLifeandWork.ElementBooksLtd.p. 311.ISBN 9781852303952. ^"حكممنيدعيإجماعأهلالسنةعلىتكفيرالإماممحييالدينبنالعربي".Egypt'sDaral-Ifta(inArabic).Archivedfromtheoriginalon23Jul2021. ^"IbnʽArabī'sthoughtonwaḥdatal-wujudanditsrelevancetoreligiousdiversity"(PDF).www.iis.ac.uk.StateIslamicInstituteMataram.pp. 61–62. ^FarzinVahdat(2015).IslamicEthosandtheSpecterofModernity.AnthemPress.p. 209.ISBN 9781783084388.Nasrthusrejectsaninterpretationoftheontologicaldoctrinesofwahdatal-wujud(unityofexistence)inwhichhumanstatuscanbeelevatedbythesymbolicjourneytowardstheDivinerealm:“ThepantheisticaccusationsagainsttheSufisaredoublyfalsebecause,firstofall,pantheismisaphilosophicalsystem,whereasMuhyial-Din[Ibn'Arabi]andotherslikehimneverclaimedtofolloworcreateany“system”whatsoever;andsecondly,becausepantheismimpliesasubstantialcontinuitybetweenGodandtheUniverse[includinghumans],whereastheShaikh[Ibnal-'Arabi]wouldbethefirsttoclaimGod'sabsolutetranscendenceovereverycategory,includingthatofsubstance.”Runningintodifficultiesinhisinterpretationofthenotionof“unityofexistence”Nasrfurtherwrotethatwahdatal-wujudisneitherpantheism,norpanentheism,norexistentialmonism... Bibliography[edit] Al-Bayhaqi(1999),Allah'sNamesandAttributes,ISCA,ISBN 1-930409-03-6 Hulusi,Ahmed(1999),"Allah"asintroducedbyMohammed,Kitsan,10thed.,ISBN 975-7557-41-2 Muhaiyaddeen,M.R.Bawa(1976),Asmāʼul-Husnā:the99beautifulnamesofAllah,TheBawaMuhaiyaddeenFellowship,ISBN 0-914390-13-9 Netton,IanRichard(1994),AllahTranscendent:StudiesintheStructureandSemioticsofIslamicPhilosophy,TheologyandCosmology,Routledge,ISBN 0-7007-0287-3 Externallinks[edit] Allah—byEncyclopædiaBritannica BeliefinGod,Allah—byAl-Azhar IslamicbeliefinGodonYouTube—byMusharrafHussain vteIslamtopicsOutlineofIslamBeliefs GodinIslam Tawhid Muhammad InIslam ProphetsofIslam Angels Revelation Qadar JudgementDay FivePillars Shahada Salah Sawm Zakat Hajj HistoryLeaders TimelineofIslamichistory SuccessiontoMuhammad Earlyconquests GoldenAge Historiography Sahaba Ahlal-Bayt Shi'aImams Caliphates Rashidun Umayyad Abbasid Córdoba Fatimid Almohad Sokoto Ottoman Religioustexts Quran Hadith Tafsir Seerah StoryofProphets 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