Islam - Wikipedia

God Islam FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch AbrahamicmonotheisticreligioncenteredonteachingsofMuhammad Thisarticleisaboutthereligion.Forotheruses,seeIslam(disambiguation). PartofaseriesonIslam Beliefs OnenessofGod Prophets RevealedBooks Angels DayofResurrection Predestination Practices ProfessionofFaith Prayer Almsgiving Fasting Pilgrimage TextsFoundations Quran Sunnah(Hadith,Sirah) Tafsir(exegesis) Aqidah(creed) Fiqh(jurisprudence) Sharia(law) History Timeline Muhammad Ahlal-Bayt Sahabah Rashidun Caliphate Imamate MedievalIslamicscience SpreadofIslam SuccessiontoMuhammad Cultureandsociety Academics Animals Art Calendar Children Circumcision Demographics Denominations Economics Education Spiritpossessionandexorcism Feminism Festivals Finance LGBT Madrasa Moralteachings Mosque Mysticism Philosophy Poetry Politics Proselytizing Science Slavery Socialwelfare Women Relatedtopics Apostasy Criticism Muhammad Quran Hadith Otherreligions Islamism Violence terrorism war Islamophobia Jihad Jihadism Lawsofwar Glossary  Islamportalvte Islam(/ˈɪslɑːm/;[a]Arabic:اَلْإِسْلَامُ,romanized: al-’Islām,[ɪsˈlaːm](listen))isanAbrahamic,monotheistic,anduniversalreligionteachingthatMuhammadisamessengerofGod.[1][2]Itistheworld'ssecond-largestreligionwith1.9 billionfollowersor24.9%oftheworld'spopulation,[3][4]knownasMuslims.[5]IslamteachesthatGodismerciful,all-powerful,andunique,[6]andhasguidedhumanitythroughprophets,revealedscriptures,andnaturalsigns.[2][7]TheprimaryscripturesofIslamaretheQuran,believedtobetheverbatimwordofGod,aswellastheteachingsandpractices(sunnah),intraditionalaccounts(hadith)ofMuhammad(c.570–632 CE).[8] MuslimsbelievethatIslamisthecompleteanduniversalversionofaprimordialfaiththatwasrevealedmanytimesbeforethroughprophetssuchasAdam,Abraham,Moses,andJesus.[9]MuslimsconsidertheQuran,inArabic,tobetheunalteredandfinalrevelationofGod.[10]LikeotherAbrahamicreligions,Islamalsoteachesafinaljudgmentwiththerighteousrewardedinparadiseandtheunrighteouspunishedinhell.[11]ReligiousconceptsandpracticesincludetheFivePillarsofIslam,whichareobligatoryactsofworship,aswellasfollowingIslamiclaw(sharia),whichtouchesonvirtuallyeveryaspectoflifeandsociety,frombankingandwelfaretowomenandtheenvironment.[12][13]ThecitiesofMecca,MedinaandJerusalemarehometothethreeholiestsitesinIslam.[14] Fromahistoricalpointofview,Islamoriginatedinearly7th century CEintheArabianPeninsula,inMecca.[15]andbythe8thcentury,theUmayyadCaliphateextendedfromtheIberianPeninsulainthewesttotheIndusRiverintheeast.TheIslamicGoldenAgereferstotheperiodtraditionallydatedfromthe8th centurytothe13th century,duringtheAbbasidCaliphate,whenmuchofthehistoricallyMuslimworldwasexperiencingascientific,economic,andculturalflourishing.[16][17][18]TheexpansionoftheMuslimworldinvolvedvariousstatesandcaliphatessuchastheOttomanEmpire,trade,andconversiontoIslambymissionaryactivities(dawah).[19] MostMuslimsareofoneoftwodenominations:Sunni(85–90%)[20]orShia(10–15%),[21][22][23]andmakeupamajorityofthepopulationin49countries.[24][25]SunniandShiadifferencesarosefromdisagreementoverthesuccessiontoMuhammadandacquiredbroaderpoliticalsignificance,aswellastheologicalandjuridicaldimensions.[26]About12%ofMuslimsliveinIndonesia,themostpopulousMuslim-majoritycountry;[27]31%liveinSouthAsia;[28]20%intheMiddleEast–NorthAfricaand15%insub-SaharanAfrica.[29]SizableMuslimcommunitiescanalsobefoundintheAmericas,China,andEurope.[30][31]Islamisthefastest-growingmajorreligionintheworld.[32][33] Contents 1Etymology 2Articlesoffaith 2.1God 2.2Angels 2.3Books 2.4Prophets 2.5Resurrectionandjudgment 2.6Divinepredestination 3Actsofworship 3.1Testimony 3.2Prayer 3.3Charity 3.4Fasting 3.5Pilgrimage 3.6Quranicrecitationandmemorization 3.7Supplicationandremembrance 4History 4.1Muhammad(610–632) 4.2Caliphateandcivilstrife(632–750) 4.3Classicalera(750–1258) 4.4Pre-Modernera(1258–18thcentury) 4.5Modernera(18th–20thcenturies) 4.6Contemporaryera(20thcentury–present) 5Demographics 6Denominations 6.1Sunni 6.2Shia 6.3Ibadi 6.4Otherdenominations 6.5Non-denominationalMuslims 7Mysticism 8Lawandjurisprudence 8.1Schoolsofjurisprudence 9Society 9.1Religiouspersonages 9.2Governance 9.3Dailyandfamilylife 9.4Personalcharacter 9.5Artsandculture 10Derivedreligions 11Criticism 12Seealso 13Notes 14References 14.1CitationsofQur'anandhadith 14.2Citations 14.3Booksandjournals 14.4EncyclopediasandDictionaries 15Furtherreading Etymology Seealso:Muslims§ Etymology TheKaabainMeccaisthedirectionofprayeranddestinationofpilgrimage InArabic,Islam(Arabic:إسلامlit. 'submission[toGod]')istheverbalnounoriginatingfromtheverbسلم(salama),fromtriliteralrootس-ل-م(S-L-M),whichformsalargeclassofwordsmostlyrelatingtoconceptsofwholeness,submission,sincerity,safeness,andpeace.[34]IslamistheverbalnounofFormIVoftherootandmeans"submission"or"totalsurrender".Inareligiouscontext,itmeans"totalsurrendertothewillofGod".[35][36]AMuslim(Arabic:مُسْلِم),thewordforafollowerofIslam,istheactiveparticipleofthesameverbform,andmeans"submitter(toGod)"or"onewhosurrenders(toGod)".Theword"Islam"("submission")sometimeshasdistinctconnotationsinitsvariousoccurrencesintheQuran.SomeversesstressthequalityofIslamasaninternalspiritualstate:"WhoeverGodwillstoguide,HeopenstheirhearttoIslam."[i][36] OthersdescribeIslamasanactionofreturningtoGod—morethanjustaverbalaffirmationoffaith.[ii]IntheHadithofGabriel,Islamispresentedasonepartofatriadthatalsoincludesimān(faith),andihsān(excellence).[37][38] Theword"silm"(Arabic:سِلْم)inArabicmeansbothpeaceandalsothereligionofIslam.[39]Acommonlinguisticphrasedemonstratingitsusageis"heenteredintoas-silm"(Arabic:دَخَلَفِيالسِّلْمِ)whichmeans"heenteredintoIslam,"withaconnotationoffindingpeacebysubmittingone'swilltotheWillofGod.[39]Theword"Islam"canbeusedinalinguisticsenseofsubmissionorinatechnicalsenseofthereligionofIslam,whichalsoiscalledas-silmwhichmeanspeace.[39] IslamitselfwashistoricallycalledMohammedanismintheEnglish-speakingworld.Thistermhasfallenoutofuseandissometimessaidtobeoffensive,asitsuggeststhatahumanbeing,ratherthanGod,iscentraltoMuslims'religion,paralleltoBuddhainBuddhism.[40]Someauthors,however,continuetousethetermMohammedanismasatechnicaltermforthereligioussystemasopposedtothetheologicalconceptofIslamthatexistswithinthatsystem. Articlesoffaith Mainarticles:AqidahandIman TheIslamiccreed(aqidah)requiresbeliefinsixarticles:God,angels,books,prophets,theDayofResurrectionandinthedivinedecree. God Mainarticle:GodinIslam PartofaseriesonGodinIslamAllahJallaJalālahinArabiccalligraphy List Allah Names Phrasesandexpressions Theology Oneness Islamiccreed Transcendence DenialofDivineattributes Anthropomorphism Islamportal ·Categoryvte ThecentralconceptofIslamistawḥīd(Arabic:توحيد),theonenessofGod.Usuallythoughtofasaprecisemonotheism,butalsopanentheisticinIslamicmysticalteachings.[41]GodisseenasimcomparableandwithoutpartnerssuchasintheChristianTrinity,[42]andassociatingpartnerstoGodorattributingGod'sattributestoothersisseenasidolatory,calledshirk.Godisseenastranscendentofcreationandsoisbeyondcomprehension.Thus,thereforeMuslimsarenoticonodulesanddonotattributeformstoGod.Godisinsteaddescribedandreferredtobyseveralnamesorattributes,themostcommonbeingAr-Rahmān(الرحمان)meaning"TheEntirelyMerciful,"andAr-Rahīm(الرحيم)meaning"TheEspeciallyMerciful"whichareinvokedatthebeginningofmostchaptersoftheQuran.[43][44] IslamteachesthatthecreationofeverythingintheuniversewasbroughtintobeingbyGod'scommandasexpressedbythewording,"Be,anditis,"[iii][45]andthatthepurposeofexistenceistoworshipGod.[iv][46][47]Heisviewedasapersonalgod[v][45]andtherearenointermediaries,suchasclergy,tocontactGod.ConsciousnessandawarenessofGodisreferredtoasTaqwa.AllāhisatermwithnopluralorgenderbeingascribedtoitandisalsousedbyMuslimsandArabic-speakingChristiansandJewsinreferencetoGod,whereasʾilāh(Arabic:إله)isatermusedforadeityoragodingeneral.[48]Othernon-ArabMuslimsmightusedifferentnamesasmuchasAllah,forinstance"Tanrı"inTurkishor"Khodā"inPersian. Angels Mainarticle:AngelsinIslam MuhammadreceivinghisfirstrevelationfromtheangelGabriel.FromthemanuscriptJami'al-TawarikhbyRashid-al-DinHamadani,1307. BeliefinangelsisfundamentaltoIslam.TheQuranicwordforangel(Arabic:ملكmalak)deriveseitherfromMalaka,meaning"hecontrolled",duetotheirpowertogoverndifferentaffairsassignedtothem,[49]orfromthetriliteralroot’-l-k,l-’-korm-l-kwiththebroadmeaningofa"messenger",justasitscounterpartinHebrew(malʾákh).UnliketheHebrewword,however,thetermisusedexclusivelyforheavenlyspiritsofthedivineworld,asopposedtohumanmessengers.TheQuranreferstobothangelicandhumanmessengersasrasulinstead.[50] TheQuranistheprincipalsourcefortheIslamicconceptofangels.[51]Someofthem,suchasGabrielandMichael,arementionedbynameintheQuran;othersareonlyreferredtobytheirfunction.Inhadithliterature,angelsareoftenassignedtoonlyonespecificphenomenon.[52]AngelsplayasignificantroleintheliteratureabouttheMi'raj,whereMuhammadencountersseveralangelsduringhisjourneythroughtheheavens.[52]FurtherangelshaveoftenbeenfeaturedinIslamiceschatology,theologyandphilosophy.[53]Dutiesassignedtoangelsinclude,forexample,communicatingrevelationsfromGod,glorifyingGod,recordingeveryperson'sactions,andtakingaperson'ssoulatthetimeofdeath. InIslam,justasinJudaismandChristianity,angelsareoftenrepresentedinanthropomorphicformscombinedwithsupernaturalimages,suchaswings,beingofgreatsizeorwearingheavenlyarticles.[54]TheQurandescribes"AngelsasHismessengerswithwings—two,three,orfour."[vi][55]Commoncharacteristicsforangelsaretheirmissingneedsforbodilydesires,suchaseatinganddrinking.[56]Theirlackofaffinitytomaterialdesiresisalsoexpressedbytheircreationfromlight:angelsofmercyarecreatedfromnūr('light')[57]inoppositiontotheangelsofpunishmentcreatedfromnār('fire').[58]Muslimsdonotgenerallysharetheperceptionsofangelicpictorialdepictions,suchasthosefoundinWesternart. Books Mainarticles:Quran,Wahy,andIslamicholybooks Seealso:HistoryoftheQuran ThefirstchapteroftheQuran,Al-Fatiha(TheOpening),issevenverses TheIslamicholybooksaretherecordsthatMuslimsbelievevariousprophetsreceivedfromGodthroughrevelations,calledwahy.Muslimsbelievethatpartsofthepreviouslyrevealedscriptures,suchastheTawrat(Torah)andtheInjil(Gospel),hadbecomedistorted—eitherininterpretation,intext,orboth,[59]whiletheQuran(lit."Recitation")[60][61]isviewedasthefinal,verbatimandunalteredwordofGod. MuslimsbelievethattheversesoftheQuranwererevealedtoMuhammadbyGod,throughthearchangelGabriel(Jibrīl),onmultipleoccasionsbetween610 CEand632,theyearMuhammaddied.[62]WhileMuhammadwasalive,theserevelationswerewrittendownbyhiscompanions,althoughtheprimemethodoftransmissionwasorallythroughmemorization.[63]TheQuranisdividedinto114chapters(suras)whichcombinedcontain6,236verses(āyāt).Thechronologicallyearlierchapters,revealedatMecca,areconcernedprimarilywithspiritualtopicswhilethelaterMedinanchaptersdiscussmoresocialandlegalissuesrelevanttotheMuslimcommunity.[45][60]Muslimjuristsconsultthehadith('accounts'),orthewrittenrecordofProphetMuhammad'slife,tobothsupplementtheQuranandassistwithitsinterpretation.ThescienceofQuraniccommentaryandexegesisisknownastafsir.[64][65]Thesetofrulesgoverningproperelocutionofrecitationiscalledtajwid.Inadditiontoitsreligioussignificance,itiswidelyregardedasthefinestworkinArabicliterature,[vii][viii]andhasinfluencedartandtheArabiclanguage.[68] Prophets Mainarticles:ProphetsandmessengersinIslam,Sunnah,andHadith PartofaseriesonIslamIslamicprophets ProphetsintheQuranListedbyIslamicnameandBiblicalname. ʾĀdam(Adam) ʾIdrīs(Enoch) Nūḥ(Noah) Hūd(Eber) Ṣāliḥ(Selah) ʾIbrāhīm(Abraham) Lūṭ(Lot) ʾIsmāʿīl(Ishmael) ʾIsḥāq(Isaac) Yaʿqūb(Jacob) Yūsuf(Joseph) Ayūb(Job) Shuʿayb(Jethro) Mūsā(Moses) Hārūn(Aaron) Dhul-Kifl(Ezekiel) Dāūd(David) Sulaymān(Solomon) Yūnus(Jonah) ʾIlyās(Elijah) Alyasaʿ(Elisha) Zakarīya(Zechariah) Yaḥyā(John) ʿĪsā(Jesus) Muḥammad(Muhammad) Mainevents StoriesoftheProphets TheThreeMessengers Views Jews,ChristiansandMuslimsprophets Abrahamicprophets  Islamportalvte APersianminiaturedepictsMuhammadleadingAbraham,Moses,Jesusandotherprophetsinprayer. Prophets(Arabic:أنبياء,anbiyāʾ)arebelievedtohavebeenchosenbyGodtoreceiveandpreachadivinemessage.Additionally,aprophetdeliveringanewbooktoanationiscalledarasul(Arabic:رسول‎,rasūl),meaning"messenger".[69]Muslimsbelieveprophetsarehumanandnotdivine.AlloftheprophetsaresaidtohavepreachedthesamebasicmessageofIslam–submissiontothewillofGod–tovariousnationsinthepastandthatthisaccountsformanysimilaritiesamongreligions.TheQuranrecountsthenamesofnumerousfiguresconsideredprophetsinIslam,includingAdam,Noah,Abraham,MosesandJesus,amongothers.[45] MuslimsbelievethatGodsentMuhammadasthefinalprophet("Sealoftheprophets")toconveythecompletedmessageofIslam.InIslam,the"normative"exampleofMuhammad'slifeiscalledthesunnah(literally"troddenpath").MuslimsareencouragedtoemulateMuhammad'smoralbehaviorsintheirdailylives,andtheSunnahisseenascrucialtoguidinginterpretationoftheQuran.[70]Thisexampleispreservedintraditionsknownashadith,whichareaccountsofhiswords,actions,andpersonalcharacteristics.HadithQudsiisasub-categoryofhadith,regardedasGod'sverbatimwordsquotedbyMuhammadthatarenotpartoftheQuran.Ahadithinvolvestwoelements:achainofnarrators,calledsanad,andtheactualwording,calledmatn.Therearevariousmethodologiestoclassifytheauthenticityofhadiths,withthecommonlyusedgradingbeing:"authentic"or"correct"(صَحِيْح,ṣaḥīḥ);"good",hasan(حَسَن,ḥasan);or"weak"(ضَعِيْف,ḍaʻīf),amongothers.TheKutubal-Sittahareacollectionofsixbooks,regardedasthemostauthenticreportsinSunnism.AmongthemisSahihal-Bukhari,oftenconsideredbySunnistobeoneofthemostauthenticsourcesaftertheQuran.[71][72]AnotherfamoussourceofhadithsisknownasTheFourBooks,whichShiasconsiderasthemostauthentichadithreference.[73][74][75] Resurrectionandjudgment Mainarticle:Islamiceschatology Beliefinthe"DayofResurrection"orYawmal-Qiyāmah(Arabic:يومالقيامة),isalsocrucialforMuslims.ItisbelievedthatthetimeofQiyāmahispreordainedbyGodbutunknowntoman.TheQuranandthehadith,aswellasinthecommentariesofscholars,describethetrialsandtribulationsprecedingandduringtheQiyāmah.TheQuranemphasizesbodilyresurrection,abreakfromthepre-IslamicArabianunderstandingofdeath.[76] OnYawmal-Qiyāmah(Arabic:يومالقيامة),MuslimsbelieveallhumankindwillbejudgedbytheirgoodandbaddeedsandconsignedtoJannah(paradise)orJahannam(hell).TheQuraninSuratal-Zalzalahdescribesthisas:"Sowhoeverdoesanatom'sweightofgoodwillseeit.Andwhoeverdoesanatom'sweightofevilwillseeit."TheQuranlistsseveralsinsthatcancondemnapersontohell,suchasdisbeliefinGod(كفر,kufr),anddishonesty.However,theQuranmakesitclearthatGodwillforgivethesinsofthosewhorepentifhewishes.Gooddeeds,likecharity,prayer,andcompassiontowardsanimals,[77][78]willberewardedwithentrytoheaven.Muslimsviewheavenasaplaceofjoyandblessings,withQuranicreferencesdescribingitsfeatures.MysticaltraditionsinIslamplacetheseheavenlydelightsinthecontextofanecstaticawarenessofGod.[79]Yawmal-QiyāmahisalsoidentifiedintheQuranasYawmad-Dīn(Arabic:يومالدين"DayofReligion");[ix]as-Sāʿah(Arabic:الساعة"theLastHour");[x]andal-Qāriʿah(Arabic:القارعة"TheClatterer");[xi] Divinepredestination Mainarticle:PredestinationinIslam TheconceptofdivinedecreeanddestinyinIslam(Arabic:القضاءوالقدر,al-qadāʾwal-qadar)meansthateverymatter,goodorbad,isbelievedtohavebeendecreedbyGod.Al-qadar,meaning"power",derivesfromarootthatmeans"tomeasure"or"calculating".[80][81]Muslimsoftenexpressthisbeliefindivinedestinywiththephrase"Insha-Allah"meaning"ifGodwills"whenspeakingonfutureevents.[82][83]Inadditiontoloss,gainisalsoseenasatestofbelievers–whethertheywouldstillrecognizethatthegainoriginatesonlyfromGod.[84] Actsofworship Mainarticles:FivePillarsofIslamandIbadah Therearefiveobligatoryactsofworship–theShahada,thefivedailyprayers,theZakatalms-giving,fastingduringRamadanandtheHajjpilgrimage–collectivelyknownas"ThePillarsofIslam"(Arkānal-Islām).[85]Apartfromthese,Muslimsalsoperformothersupplementalreligiousacts. Testimony SilvercoinoftheMughalEmperorAkbar,inscribedwiththeShahadah Mainarticle:Shahada Theshahadah,[86]isanoathdeclaringbeliefinIslam.Theexpandedstatementis"ʾašhaduʾal-lāʾilāhaʾillā-llāhuwaʾašhaduʾannamuħammadanrasūlu-llāh"(أشهدأنلاإلهإلااللهوأشهدأنمحمداًرسولالله),or,"ItestifythatthereisnodeityexceptGodandItestifythatMuhammadisthemessengerofGod."[87]Islamissometimesarguedtohaveaverysimplecreedwiththeshahadabeingthepremisefortherestofthereligion.Non-MuslimswishingtoconverttoIslamarerequiredtorecitetheshahadainfrontofwitnesses.[88][89][90] Prayer Mainarticle:Salat Seealso:MosqueandJumu'ah Muslimmenprostratinginprayer,attheUmayyadMosque,Damascus. PrayerinIslam,calledsalahorṣalāt(Arabic:صلاة|صلاة),isseenasapersonalcommunicationwithGodandconsistsofrepeatingunitscalledrakatthatincludebowingandprostratingtoGod.Performingprayersfivetimesadayiscompulsory.TheprayersarerecitedintheArabiclanguageandconsistofversesfromtheQuran.[91]TheprayersaredoneindirectionoftheKa'bah.Salatrequiresritualpurity,whichinvolveswudu(ritualwash)oroccasionally,suchasfornewconverts,ghusl(fullbodyritualwash).Themeansusedtosignaltheprayertimeisavocalcallcalledtheadhan. AmosqueisaplaceofworshipforMuslims,whooftenrefertoitbyitsArabicnamemasjid.Althoughtheprimarypurposeofthemosqueistoserveasaplaceofprayer,itisalsoimportanttotheMuslimcommunityasaplacetomeetandstudywiththeMasjidan-Nabawi("PropheticMosque")inMedina,SaudiArabia,havingalsoservedasashelterforthepoor.[92]Minaretsaretowersusedtochanttheadhan.[93] Charity Mainarticle:Zakat Seealso:Sadaqah Zakāt(Arabic:زكاة,zakāh)isameansofwelfareinaMuslimsociety,characterizedbythegivingofafixedportion(2.5%annually)[94]ofaccumulatedwealthbythosewhocanaffordittohelpthepoororneedy,suchasforfreeingcaptives,thoseindebt,orfor(stranded)travellers,andforthoseemployedtocollectzakat.[xii][95]Itisconsideredareligiousobligationthatthewell-offowetotheneedybecausetheirwealthisseenasa"trustfromGod'sbounty"andisseenasa"purification"ofone'sexcesswealth.Conservativeestimatesofannualzakatarethatitamountsto15timesglobalhumanitarianaidcontributions.[96]Sadaqah,asopposedtoZakat,isamuchencouragedsupererogatorycharity.[97][98]Awaqfisaperpetualcharitabletrust,whichfinancedhospitalsandschoolsinMuslimsocieties.[99][100] Fasting Afast-breakingfeast,knownasIftar,isservedtraditionallywithdates Mainarticle:FastinginIslam Seealso:FastingduringRamadan DuringthemonthofRamadan,itisobligatoryforMuslimstofast.TheRamadanfast(Arabic:صوم,ṣawm)precludesfoodanddrink,aswellasotherformsofconsumption,suchassmoking,andisperformedfromdawntosunset.ThefastistoencourageafeelingofnearnesstoGodbyrestrainingoneselfforGod'ssakefromwhatisotherwisepermissibleandtothinkoftheneedy.Certaingroupsareexempt,includingpregnantwomen.[101][better source needed]Inaddition,thereareotherdayswhenfastingissupererogatory. Pilgrimage Mainarticles:HajjandUmrah Seealso:HoliestsitesinIslam PilgrimsattheGreatMosqueofMeccaduringtheHajjseason TheobligatoryIslamicpilgrimage,calledthe"ḥajj"(Arabic:حج),istobedoneatleastoncealifetimebyeveryMuslimwiththemeanstodosoduringtheIslamicmonthofDhual-Hijjah.RitualsoftheHajjmostlyimitatethestoryofthefamilyofAbraham.PilgrimsspendadayandanightontheplainsofMina,thenadayprayingandworshippingintheplainofMountArafat,thenspendinganightontheplainofMuzdalifah;thenmovingtoJamarat,symbolicallystoningtheDevil,[102]thengoingtothecityofMeccaandwalkingseventimesaroundtheKaaba,whichMuslimsbelieveAbrahambuiltasaplaceofworship,thenwalkingseventimesbetweenMountSafaandMountMarwahrecountingthestepsofAbraham'swife,Hagar,whileshewaslookingforwaterforherbabyIshmaelinthedesertbeforeMeccadevelopedintoasettlement.[103]AllMuslimmenshouldwearonlytwosimplewhiteunstitchedpiecesofclothcalledihram,intendedtobringcontinuitythroughgenerationsanduniformityamongpilgrimsdespiteclassororigin.[104][105]Anotherformofpilgrimage,umrah,issupererogatoryandcanbeundertakenatanytimeoftheyear.MedinaisalsoasiteofIslamicpilgrimageandJerusalem,thecityofmanyIslamicprophets,containstheAl-AqsaMosque,whichusedtobethedirectionofprayerbeforeMecca. Quranicrecitationandmemorization Mainarticle:Quran§ Recitation MuslimmenreadingtheQuran MuslimsreciteandmemorizethewholeorpartsoftheQuranasactsofvirtue.RecitingtheQuranwithelocution(tajwid)hasbeendescribedasanexcellentactofworship.[106]PiousMuslimsrecitethewholeQuranduringthemonthofRamadan.[107]InMuslimsocieties,anysocialprogramgenerallybeginswiththerecitationoftheQuran.[107]OnewhohasmemorizedthewholeQuraniscalledahafiz("memorizer")who,itissaid,willbeabletointercedefortenpeopleontheLastJudgmentDay.[106]Apartfromthis,almosteveryMuslimmemorizessomeportionoftheQuranbecausetheyneedtoreciteitduringtheirprayers. Al-Ikhlas(0:22) SincerityistheQuran's112thchapterasrecitedbyImamMisharyRashidAlafasy Problemsplayingthisfile?Seemediahelp. PortraitoftheMughalEmperorAkbarsupplicatingtoGod. Supplicationandremembrance Mainarticles:DuaandDhikr SupplicationtoGod,calledinArabicduʿāʾ(Arabic:اَلدُّعَاءُ IPA: [duˈʕæːʔ])hasitsownetiquettesuchasraisinghandsasifbeggingorinvokingwithanextendedindexfinger. RemebranceofGod(Arabic:ذِكْر,Dhikr')referstophrasesrepeatedreferencingGod.Commonly,thisincludesTahmid,declaringpraisebeduetoGod(Arabic:ٱلْحَمْدُلِلَّٰهِ,al-Ḥamdulillāh)duringprayerorwhenfeelingthankful,Tasbih,declaringglorytoGodduringprayerorwheninaweofsomethingandsaying'inthenameofGod'(Arabic:بَسْمَلَة,basmalah)beforestartinganactsuchaseating. History Mainarticles:HistoryofIslam,TimelineofIslamichistory,andSpreadofIslam Seealso:ListofMuslimempiresanddynasties ApanoramicviewofAl-Masjidal-Nabawi(theMosqueoftheProphet)inMedina,Hejazregion,today'sSaudiArabia,thesecondmostsacredMosqueinIslam Muhammad(610–632) PartofaseriesonMuhammad Life Mecca Hijrah Medina AfterConquestofMecca FarewellPilgrimage(FarewellSermon) Hadith Milestonesandrecords Career Military Diplomatic Miracles Quran(Firstrevelation) IsraandMi'raj Splittingofthemoon Others Views Jews Christians Perspectives Islam Bible Judaism MedievalChristian Historicity Criticism Succession Saqifah GhadirKhumm CompanionsofMuhammad Hadithofthepenandpaper Ahlal-Bayt Praise Salawat Naat Mawlid Related Al-Masjidan-Nabawi Possessions Relics Seal HistoryofIslam  Islamportal  Biographyportalvte Mainarticles:MuhammadandMuhammadinIslam Seealso:EarlysocialchangesunderIslam BorninMeccain571,Muhammadwasorphanedearlyinlife.NewtraderoutesrapidlytransformedMeccansocietyfromasemi-bedouinsocietytoacommercialurbansociety,leavingoutweakersegmentsofsocietywithoutprotection.Heacquiredthenickname"trustworthy"(Arabic:الامين),[108]andwassoughtafterasabanktosafeguardvaluablesandanimpartialarbitrator.Affectedbytheillsofsocietyandafterbecomingfinanciallysecurethroughmarryinghisemployer,thebusinesswomanKhadija,hebeganretreatingtoacavetocontemplate.Duringthelast22yearsofhislife,beginningatage40in610CE,MuhammadreportedreceivingrevelationsfromGod,conveyedtohimthroughthearchangelGabriel,[109][110]thusbecomingthesealoftheprophetssenttothemankindaccordingtoIslamictradition.[111][109] Duringthistime,whileinMecca,Muhammedpreachedfirstinsecretandtheninpublic,imploringthemtoabandonpolytheismandworshiponeGod.ManyearlyconvertstoIslamwerewomen,thepoor,foreigners,andslaveslikethefirstmuezzinBilalibnRabahal-Habashi.TheMeccaneliteprofitedfromthepilgrimagestotheidolsoftheKaabaandfeltMuhammadwasdestabilizingtheirsocialorderbypreachingaboutoneGodandthatintheprocesshegaveideastothepoorandslaves.[112][113]Muhammad,whowasaccusedofbeingapoet,amadmanorpossessed,presentedthechallengeoftheQurantoimitatethelikeoftheQuraninordertodisprovehim.TheMeccanauthoritiespersecutedMuhammadandhisfollowers,includingaboycottandbanishmentofMuhammadandhisclantostarvethemintowithdrawingtheirprotectionofhim.ThisresultedintheMigrationtoAbyssiniaofsomeMuslims(totheAksumiteEmpire). After12yearsofthepersecutionofMuslimsbytheMeccans,MuhammadandhiscompanionsperformedtheHijra("emigration")inAD 622tothecityofYathrib(current-dayMedina).There,withtheMedinanconverts(theAnsar)andtheMeccanmigrants(theMuhajirun),MuhammadinMedinaestablishedhispoliticalandreligiousauthority.TheConstitutionofMedinawassigned,[b]byallthetribesofMedinaagreeingtodefendMedinafromexternalthreatsandestablishingamongtheMuslim,Jewish,Christian,andpagancommunitiesreligiousfreedomsandfreedomtousetheirownlaws,securityofwomenandtheroleofMedinaasasacredplacebarredofweaponsandviolence.[119]Withinafewyears,twobattlestookplaceagainsttheMeccanforces:first,theBattleofBadrin624—aMuslimvictory—andthenayearlater,whentheMeccansreturnedtoMedina,theBattleofUhud,whichendedinconclusively.[citationneeded]TheArabtribesintherestofArabiathenformedaconfederation,andduringtheBattleoftheTrench(March–April 627)besiegedMedina,intentonfinishingoffIslam.In628,theTreatyofHudaybiyyahwassignedbetweenMeccaandtheMuslimsandwasbrokenbyMeccatwoyearslater.AftersigningtheTreatyofHudaybiyyah,manymorepeopleconvertedtoIslam.Atthesametime,MeccantraderouteswerecutoffasMuhammadbroughtsurroundingdeserttribesunderhiscontrol.[120]By629MuhammadwasvictoriousinthenearlybloodlessconquestofMecca,andbythetimeofhisdeathin632(atage62)hehadunitedthetribesofArabiaintoasinglereligiouspolity.[121] TheearliestthreegenerationsofMuslimsareknownastheSalaf,withthecompanionsofMuhammadbeingknownastheSahaba.Manyofthem,suchasthelargestnarratorofhadithAbuHureyrah,recordedandcompiledwhatwouldconstitutethesunnah. Caliphateandcivilstrife(632–750) Furtherinformation:SuccessiontoMuhammadandMuslimconquests Seealso:EventofGhadirKhummandSaqifa RashidunandUmayyadexpansion DomeoftheRockbuiltbycaliphAbdal-MalikibnMarwan;completedattheendoftheSecondFitna FollowingMuhammad'sdeathin632,Muslimsdisagreedoverwhowouldsucceedhimasleader.Thefirstsuccessors–AbuBakr,Umar,Uthmanibnal-Affan,AliibnAbiTalibandsometimesHasanibnAli[122]–areknowninSunniIslamasal-khulafā'ar-rāshidūn("RightlyGuidedCaliphs").[123]SometribesleftIslamandrebelledunderleaderswhodeclaredthemselvesnewprophetsbutwerecrushedbyAbuBakrintheRiddawars.[124]UnderUmar,thecaliphateexpandedrapidlyasMuslimsscoredmajorvictoriesoverthePersianandByzantineempires.[125]LocalpopulationsofJewsandindigenousChristians,persecutedasreligiousminoritiesandhereticsandtaxedheavily,oftenhelpedMuslimstakeovertheirlandsfromtheByzantinesandPersians,resultinginexceptionallyspeedyconquests.[126]Uthmanwaselectedin644.AlireluctantlyacceptedbeingelectedthenextCaliphafterUthman,whoseassassinationbyrebelsin656ledtotheFirstCivilWar.Muhammad'swidow,AisharaisedanarmyagainstAliaskingtoavengethedeathofUthmanbutwasdefeatedattheBattleoftheCamel.AliattemptedtoremovethegovernorofSyria,Mu'awiya,whowasseenascorrupt.Mu'awiyathendeclaredwaronAliafteraccusingAliofbeingbehindUthman'sdeath.AlidefeatedhimintheBattleofSiffinandthendecidedtoarbitratewithhim,whichangeredtheKharijites,anextremistsectwhofeltMu'awiyashouldbefought.Theyfeltthatbynotfightingasinner,AlibecameasinneraswellandtheyrebelledagainsthimandweredefeatedintheBattleofNahrawanbutaKharijiteassassinlaterkilledAliandAli'ssonHasanibnAliwaselectedCaliph.Toavoidfurtherfighting,HasansignedapeacetreatyabdicatingtoMu'awiyahinreturnforhimnotappointingasuccessor.[127]Mu'awiyahbegantheUmayyaddynastywiththeappointmentofhissonYazid IandthissparkedtheSecondCivilWar.DuringtheBattleofKarbala,HusaynibnAliandotherdescendantsofMuhammadweremassacredbyYazid;theeventhasbeenannuallycommemoratedbyShiaeversince.Sunnis,ledbyIbnal-Zubayr,whowereopposedtothecaliphateturningintoadynastyweredefeatedintheSiegeofMecca.ThesedisputesoverleadershipwouldgiverisetotheSunni-Shiaschism,[128]withtheShiabelievingleadershipbelongingtoAliandthefamilyofMuhammadcalledtheahlal-bayt[129]whiletheKharijitesdisagreedwithUthmanandAliandquietistformsledtotheemergenceofthethirdlargestdenominationinIslam,Ibadiyya. AbuBakr'sleadershipoversawthebeginningofthecompilationoftheQur'an.TheCaliphUmaribnAbdal-Azizsetuptheinfluentialcommittee,TheSevenFuqahaofMedina,[130][131]headedbyQasimibnMuhammadibnAbiBakr.[132]MalikibnAnaswroteoneoftheearliestbooksonIslamicjurisprudence,theMuwatta,[133]asaconsensusoftheopinionofthosejurists.[134][135][136]TheKharijitesbelievedthereisnocompromisedmiddlegroundbetweengoodandevilandanyMuslimcommittingagravesinbecomesanunbeliever,withthetermalsousedtorefertolatergroupssuchasIsis.[137]Conversely,anearlysect,theMurji'ahtaughtthatpeople'srighteousnesscouldbejudgedbyGodaloneandthatwrongdoersmightbeconsideredmisguidedbutnotdenouncedasunbelievers[138]andthisattitudecametoprevailintothemainstream.[139] TheUmayyaddynastyconqueredtheMaghreb,theIberianPeninsula,NarbonneseGaulandSindh.[140]TheUmayyadsstruggledwithalackoflegitimacyandreliedonaheavilypatronizedmilitary.[141]Sincethejizyataxwasataxpaidbynon-Muslimswhichexemptedthemfrommilitaryservice,theUmayyadsdeniedrecognizingtheconversionofnon-Arabsasitreducedrevenue.[139]WhiletheRashidunCaliphateemphasizedausterity,withUmarevenrequiringaninventoryofeachofficial'spossessions,[142]Umayyadluxurybreddissatisfactionamongthepious.[139]TheKharijitesledtheBerberRevoltleadingtothefirstMuslimstatesindependentoftheCaliphate.IntheAbbasidrevolution,non-Arabconverts(mawali),ArabsclanspushedasidebytheUmayyadclan,andsomeShi'aralliedandoverthrewtheUmayyads,inauguratingthemorecosmopolitanAbbasiddynastyin750.[143][144] Classicalera(750–1258) Furtherinformation:HadithstudiesandIslamicphilosophy Seealso:IslamicworldcontributionstoMedievalEuropeandTurco-Persiantradition Theeye,accordingtoHunainibnIshaqfromamanuscriptdatedc.1200 Al-Shafi'icodifiedamethodtodeterminethereliabilityofhadith.[145]DuringtheearlyAbbasidera,scholarssuchasBukhariandMuslimcompiledthemajorSunnihadithcollectionswhilescholarslikeAl-KulayniandIbnBabawayhcompiledmajorShiahadithcollections.ThefourSunniMadh'habs,theHanafi,Hanbali,Maliki,andShafi'i,wereestablishedaroundtheteachingsofAbūḤanīfa,AhmadibnHanbal,MalikibnAnasandal-Shafi'i.Incontrast,theteachingsofJa'faral-SadiqformedtheJa'farijurisprudence.Inthe9th centuryAl-TabaricompletedthefirstcommentaryoftheQuran,thatbecameoneofthemostcitedcommentariesinSunniIslam,theTafsiral-Tabari.SomeMuslimsbeganquestioningthepietyofindulgenceinworldlylifeandemphasizedpoverty,humility,andavoidanceofsinbasedonrenunciationofbodilydesires.AsceticssuchasHasanal-BasriwouldinspireamovementthatwouldevolveintoTasawwuforSufism.[146][147] Atthistime,theologicalproblems,notablyonfreewill,wereprominentlytackled,withHasanalBasriholdingthatalthoughGodknowspeople'sactions,goodandevilcomefromabuseoffreewillandthedevil.[148][c]GreekrationalistphilosophyinfluencedaspeculativeschoolofthoughtknownasMuʿtazila,firstoriginatedbyWasilibnAta.[150]CaliphssuchasMamunalRashidandAl-Mu'tasimmadeitanofficialcreedandunsuccessfullyattemptedtoforcetheirpositiononthemajority.[151]TheycarriedoutinquisitionswiththetraditionalistAhmadibnHanbalnotablyrefusingtoconformtotheMutazilaideaofthecreationoftheQuranandwastorturedandkeptinanunlitprisoncellfornearlythirtymonths.[152]However,otherschoolsofspeculativetheology–MāturīdismfoundedbyAbuMansural-MaturidiandAsh'arifoundedbyAl-Ash'ari–weremoresuccessfulinbeingwidelyadopted.PhilosopherssuchasAl-Farabi,AvicennaandAverroessoughttoharmonizeAristotle'smetaphysicswithinIslam,similartolaterscholasticismwithinChristianityinEurope,whileotherslikeAl-Ghazaliarguedagainstsuchsyncretismandultimatelyprevailed.[153] Thiseraissometimescalledthe"IslamicGoldenAge".[154]Avicennapioneeredthescienceofexperimentalmedicine,[155]andwasthefirstphysiciantoconductclinicaltrials.[156]Histwomostnotableworks,TheBookofHealingandTheCanonofMedicine,wereusedasstandardmedicinaltextsintheIslamicworldandlaterinEurope.Amongsthiscontributionsarethediscoveryofthecontagiousnatureofinfectiousdiseases,[155]andtheintroducingclinicalpharmacology.[157]Inmathematics,themathematicianMuhammadibnMusaal-Khwarizmigavehisnametotheconceptofthealgorithm,whilethetermalgebraisderivedfromal-jabr.[158]Publichospitalsestablishedduringthistime(calledBimaristanhospitals),areconsidered"thefirsthospitals"inthemodernsenseoftheword,[159][160]andissuedthefirstmedicaldiplomastolicensedoctors.[161][162]TheGuinnessWorldRecordsrecognizestheUniversityofAlKaraouine,foundedin859,astheworld'soldestdegree-grantinguniversity.[163]ThedoctorateisarguedtodatebacktothelicensestoteachinIslamiclawschools.[164]Standardsofexperimentalandquantificationtechniques,aswellasthetraditionofcitation,[165]wereintroduced.Animportantpioneerinthis,Ibnal-Haytham(c. 965–c. 040)isregardedasthefatherofthemodernscientificmethodandoftenreferredtoasthe"world'sfirsttruescientist".[166][167][168][169]Thegovernmentpaidscientiststheequivalentsalaryofprofessionalathletestoday.[165]ItisarguedthatthatAl-Jahiz(776–868/869)proposedatheoryofnaturalselection.[170][171]ThePersianpoetFerdowsi(940–1019/1025)wrotehisepicpoemShahnameh. ThevastAbbasidempireprovedimpossibletoholdtogether.[172]Soldiersestablishedtheirowndynasties,suchastheTulunids,SamanidandGhaznaviddynasty,[173]andthemillennialistIsma'iliShi'amissionarymovementtookadvantageofthesituation,[174]withtheFatimiddynastytakingcontrolofNorthAfricaandtheQarmatianssackingMeccaandstealingtheBlackStoneintheirunsuccessfulrebellion.[175]InwhatiscalledtheShi'aCentury,anotherIsmailigroup,theBuyiddynastyconqueredBaghdadandturnedtheAbbasidsintoafigureheadmonarchy.TheAlawitesandtheDruze,offshootsofShi'aIslamdatetothistime.TheSunniSeljukdynasty,campaignedtoreassertSunnism,notablywiththeconstructionofeducationalinstitutionsknownasNezamiyeh,whichareassociatedwithAl-GhazaliandSaadiShirazi.[176] ReligiousmissionsconvertedVolgaBulgariatoIslam.IntheIndianSubcontinent,duringtheDelhiSultanate,theIndianIslamicmissionariesachievedtheirgreatestsuccessintermsofdawahandthenumberofconvertstoIslam.[177][178]TheDelhiSultanateisknownforenthroningoneofthefewfemalerulersinIslamichistory,RaziaSultana.[179]ManyMuslimsalsowenttoChinatotrade,virtuallydominatingtheimportandexportindustryoftheSongdynasty.[180] Pre-Modernera(1258–18thcentury) Furtherinformation:SafavidconversionofIrantoShiaIslam GhazanKhan,7thIlkhanateruleroftheMongolEmpire,convertstoIslam ThroughMuslimtradenetworksandtheactivityofSufiorders,Islamspreadintonewareas.[36][181]UndertheOttomanEmpire,IslamspreadtoSoutheastEurope.[182]ConversiontoIslam,however,wasnotasuddenabandonmentofoldreligiouspractices;rather,itwastypicallyamatterof"assimilatingIslamicrituals,cosmologies,andliteraturesinto...localreligioussystems",[183]asillustratedbyMuhammad'sappearanceinHindufolklore.[184]TheTurksprobablyfoundsimilaritiesbetweenSufiritualsandShamanpractices.[185]MuslimTurksincorporatedelementsofTurkishShamanismbeliefstoIslam.[d][185]MuslimsinChina,whoweredescendedfromearlierimmigrants,wereassimilated,sometimesbyforce,byadoptingChinesenamesandculturewhileNanjingbecameanimportantcenterofIslamicstudy.[187][188] WhileculturalinfluenceusedtoradiateoutwardfromBaghdad,aftertheMongoldestructionoftheAbbasidCaliphate,Arabinfluencedecreased.[189]IranandCentralAsia,benefitingfromincreasedcross-culturalaccesstoEastAsiaunderMongolrule,flourishedanddevelopedmoredistinctivelyfromArabinfluence,suchastheTimuridRenaissanceundertheTimuriddynasty.[190]Nasiral-Dinal-Tusi(1201–1274)proposedthemathematicalmodelthatwaslateradoptedbyCopernicusunrevisedinhisheliocentricmodelandJamshīdal-Kāshī'sestimateofpiwouldnotbesurpassedfor180years.[191]ManyMuslimdynastiesinIndiachosePersianastheircourtlanguage. TheintroductionofgunpowderweaponsledtotheriseoflargecentralizedstatesandtheMuslimGunpowderempiresconsolidatedmuchofthepreviouslysplinteredterritories.ThecaliphatewasclaimedbytheOttomandynastyoftheOttomanEmpiresinceMurad I'sconquestofEdirnein1362,[192]anditsclaimswerestrengthenedin1517asSelim IbecametherulerofMeccaandMedina.[193]TheShiaSafaviddynastyrosetopowerin1501andlaterconqueredallofIran.[194]InSouthAsia,BaburfoundedtheMughalEmpire.TheMughalsmademajorcontributionstoIslamicarchitecture,includingtheTajMahalandBadshahimosque,andcompiledtheFatwaAlamgiri.MughalIndiasurpassedQingChinatobecometheworld'slargesteconomy,worth25%ofworldGDP,[195][196][197]withtheBengalSubahsignallingtheproto-industrializationandshowingsignsoftheIndustrialrevolution.[198] ThereligionofthecentralizedstatesoftheGunpowderempiresimpactedtheirconstituentpopulations.AsymbiosisbetweenOttomanrulersandSufismstronglyinfluencedIslamicreignbytheOttomansfromthebeginning.AccordingtoOttomanhistoriography,thelegitimationofarulerisattributedtoSheikhEdebaliwhointerpretedadreamofOsmanGaziasGod'slegitimationofhisreign.[199]TheMevleviOrderandBektashiOrderhadacloserelationtothesultans,[200]asSufi-mysticalaswellasheterodoxandsyncreticapproachestoIslamflourished.[201][202]TheoftenforcefulSafavidconversionofIrantotheTwelverShiaIslamoftheSafaviddynastyensuredthefinaldominanceoftheTwelversectwithinShiismovertheIsmailisectsandtheZaidi,[203]whichhadpreviouslybeenthemajorityandoldestgroupamongtheShia.[204][205][206]NaderShah,whooverthrewtheSafavids,attemptedtoimproverelationswithSunnisbypropagatingtheintegrationofTwelverismintoSunniIslamasafifthmadhhab,calledJa'farism,[207]whichfailedtogainrecognitionfromtheOttomans.[208] Modernera(18th–20thcenturies) AbdülmecidIIwasthelastCaliphofIslamfromtheOttomandynasty. Earlierinthe14thcentury,IbnTaymiyyapromotedapuritanicalformofIslam,[209]rejectingphilosophicalapproachesinfavorofsimplertheology[209]andcalledtoopenthegatesofitjihadratherthanblindimitationofscholars.[172]Hecalledforajihadagainstthosehedeemedheretics[210]buthiswritingsonlyplayedamarginalroleduringhislifetime.[211]Duringthe18th centuryinArabia,Muhammadibn'Abdal-Wahhab,influencedbytheworksofIbnTaymiyyaandIbnal-Qayyim,foundedamovement,calledWahhabiwiththeirself-designationasMuwahiddun,toreturntowhathesawasunadulteredIslam.[212][213]HecondemnedmanylocalIslamiccustoms,suchasvisitingthegraveofMuhammadorsaints,aslaterinnovationsandsinful[213]anddestroyedsacredrocksandtrees,Sufishrines,thetombsofMuhammadandhiscompanionsandthetombofHusaynatKarbala,amajorShiitepilgrimagesite.[214][215]HeformedanalliancewiththeSaudfamily,which,bythe1920s,completedtheirconquestoftheareathatwouldbecomeSaudiArabia.[216]MaWanfuandMaDebaopromotedsalafistmovementsinthenineteenthcenturysuchasSailaifengyeinChinaafterreturningfromMeccabutwereeventuallypersecutedandforcedintohidingbySufigroups.[217]OthergroupssoughttoreformSufismratherthanrejectit,withtheSenusiyyaandMuhammadAhmadbothwagingwarandestablishingstatesinLibyaandSudanrespectively.[218]InIndia,ShahWaliullahDehlawiattemptedamoreconciliatorystyleagainstSufismandinfluencedtheDeobandimovement.[219]InresponsetotheDeobandimovement,theBarelwimovementwasfoundedasamassmovement,defendingpopularSufismandreformingitspractices.[220][221]ThemovementisfamousforthecelebrationoftheMuhammad'sbirthdayandtoday,isspreadacrosstheglobe.[222] TheMuslimworldwasgenerallyinpoliticaldeclinestartingthe1800s,especiallyregardingnon-MuslimEuropeanpowers.Earlier,inthefifteenthcentury,theReconquistasucceededinendingtheMuslimpresenceinIberia.Bythe19th century;theBritishEastIndiaCompanyhadformallyannexedtheMughaldynastyinIndia.[223]AsaresponsetoWesternImperialism,manyintellectualssoughttoreformIslam.[224]Islamicmodernism,initiallylabelledbyWesternscholarsasSalafiyya,embracedmodernvaluesandinstitutionssuchasdemocracywhilebeingscripture-oriented.[225][226]NotableforerunnersincludeMuhammad'AbduhandJamalal-Dinal-Afghani.[227]AbulA'laMaududihelpedinfluencemodernpoliticalIslam.[228]Similartocontemporarycodification,Shariahwasforthefirsttimepartiallycodifiedintolawin1869intheOttomanEmpire'sMecellecode.[229] TheOttomanEmpiredisintegratedafterWorldWar IandtheCaliphatewasabolishedin1924[230]bythefirstPresidentoftheTurkishRepublic,MustafaKemalAtatürk,aspartofhissecularreforms.[231][232]Pan-IslamistsattemptedtounifyMuslimsandcompetedwithgrowingnationalistforces,suchaspan-Arabism.TheOrganisationofIslamicCooperation(OIC),consistingofMuslim-majoritycountries,wasestablishedin1969aftertheburningoftheAl-AqsaMosqueinJerusalem.[233] ContactwithindustrializednationsbroughtMuslimpopulationstonewareasthrougheconomicmigration.ManyMuslimsmigratedasindenturedservants(mostlyfromIndiaandIndonesia)totheCaribbean,formingthelargestMuslimpopulationsbypercentageintheAmericas.[234]MigrationfromSyriaandLebanonwasthebiggestcontributortotheMuslimpopulationinLatinAmerica.Theresultingurbanizationandincreaseintradeinsub-SaharanAfricabroughtMuslimstosettleinnewareasandspreadtheirfaith,likelydoublingitsMuslimpopulationbetween1869and1914.[235]MuslimimmigrantsbeganarrivinglargelyfromformercoloniesinseveralWesternEuropeannationssincethe1960s,manyasguestworkers. Contemporaryera(20thcentury–present) ForerunnersofIslamicmodernisminfluencedIslamistpoliticalmovementssuchastheMuslimBrotherhoodandrelatedpartiesintheArabworld,[236][237]whichperformedwellinelectionsfollowingtheArabSpring,[238]Jamaat-e-IslamiinSouthAsiaandtheAKParty,whichhasdemocraticallybeeninpowerinTurkeyfordecades.InIran,revolutionreplacedasecularmonarchywithanIslamicstate.OtherssuchasSayyidRashidRidabrokeawayfromIslamicmodernists[239]andpushedagainstembracingwhathesawasWesterninfluence.[240]Whilesomewerequietist,othersbelievedinviolenceagainstthoseopposingthemevenotherMuslims,suchastheIslamicStateofIraqandtheLevant,whowouldevenattempttorecreatethemoderngolddinarastheirmonetarysystem.[citationneeded] InoppositiontoIslamicpoliticalmovements,in20thcenturyTurkey,themilitarycarriedoutcoupstooustIslamistgovernments,andheadscarveswerelegallyrestriced,asalsohappenedinTunisia.[241][242]Inotherplacesreligiouspowerwasco-opted,suchasinSaudiArabia,wherethestatemonopolizedreligiousscholarshipandareoftenseenaspuppetsofthestate[243]whileEgyptnationalizedAl-AzharUniversity,previouslyanindependentvoicecheckingstatepower.[244]Salafismwasfundedforitquietism.[245]SaudiArabiacampaignedagainstrevolutionaryIslamistmovementsintheMiddleEast,inoppositiontoIran,[246]Turkey[247]andQatar. Muslimminoritiesofvariousethnicitieshavebeenpersecutedasareligiousgroup.[248]ThishasbeenundertakenbycommunistforcesliketheKhmerRouge,whoviewedthemastheirprimaryenemytobeexterminatedsincetheystoodoutandworshipedtheirowngod[249]andtheChineseCommunistPartyinXinjiang[250]andbynationalistforcessuchasduringtheBosniangenocide. Theglobalizationofcommunicationhasincreaseddisseminationofreligiousinformation.Theadoptionofthehijabhasgrownmorecommon[251]andsomeMuslimintellectualsareincreasinglystrivingtoseparatescripturalIslamicbeliefsfromculturaltraditions.[252]Amongothergroups,thisaccesstoinformationhasledtotheriseofpopular"televangelist"preachers,suchasAmrKhaled,whocompetewiththetraditionalulemaintheirreachandhavedecentralizedreligiousauthority.[253][254]More"individualized"interpretationsofIslam[255]notablyincludeLiberalMuslimswhoattempttoreconcilereligioustraditionswithcurrentseculargovernance[256]andwomen'sissues.[257] Demographics WorldMuslimpopulationbypercentage(PewResearchCenter,2014). Mainarticles:MuslimworldandUmmah Seealso:IslambycountryandMuslimpopulationgrowth A2015demographicstudyreportedthat24.1%oftheglobalpopulation,or1.8billionpeople,areMuslims.[258]In1900,thisestimatewas12.3%,[259]in1990itwas19.9%[29]andprojectionssuggesttheproportionwillbe29.7%by2050.[260]Ithasbeenestimatedthat87–90%ofMuslimsareSunniand10–13%areShia,[23]withaminoritybelongingtoothersects.Approximately49countriesareMuslim-majority,[261][262]with62%oftheworld'sMuslimsliveinAsia,and683millionadherentsinIndonesia,Pakistan,India,andBangladeshalone.[263][264]MostestimatesindicateChinahasapproximately20to30millionMuslims(1.5%to2%ofthepopulation).[265][266]IslaminEuropeisthesecondlargestreligionafterChristianityinmanycountries,withgrowthratesdueprimarilytoimmigrationandhigherbirthratesofMuslimsin2005.[267]ReligiousconversionhasnonetimpactontheMuslimpopulationgrowthas"thenumberofpeoplewhobecomeMuslimsthroughconversionseemstoberoughlyequaltothenumberofMuslimswholeavethefaith".[268]Itisestimatedthat,by2050,thenumberofMuslimswillnearlyequalthenumberofChristiansaroundtheworld,"duetotheyoungageandhighfertility-rateofMuslimsrelativetootherreligiousgroups".[260] Denominations Mainarticle:IslamicschoolsandbranchesSeealso:Shia–Sunnirelations Sunni PartofaseriesonSunniIslam Beliefs God ProphetsandMessengers Holybooks SuccessiontoMuhammad Angels JudgementDay Predestination Sahaba FivePillars DeclarationofFaith Prayer Charity Fasting Pilgrimage Rightly-GuidedCaliphs AbuBakr Umaribnal-Khattab UthmanibnAffan AliibnAbiTalib Sunnischoolsoflaw Hanafi Maliki Shafi'i Hanbali Others Zahiri Awza'i Thawri Laythi Jariri Sunnischoolsoftheology Ahlal-Hadith(Atharis) Ahlal-Kalam(Ash'arisandMaturidis) IntermsofIhsan Ahlal-Wijdanwaal-Kashf(Sufis) Contemporarymovements al-Ahbash Ahl-iHadith Barelvi Deobandi Islamicmodernism Islamicneo-traditionalism SalafismandWahhabism Internationalpropagation bycountry/region Holysites Mecca Medina Quds Lists Literature Kutubal-Sittah History Persecution  Islamportalvte Mainarticle:SunniIslam TheninevolumesofSahihAl-Bukhari,oneofthesixSunnihadithbooks SunniIslamorSunnismisthenameforthelargestdenominationinIslam.[269]Thetermisacontractionofthephrase"ahlas-sunnawa'l-jamaat",whichmeans"peopleofthesunna(thetraditionsoftheprophetMuhammad)andthecommunity".[270]SunnisbelievethatthefirstfourcaliphsweretherightfulsuccessorstoMuhammadandprimarilyreferencesixmajorhadithworksforlegalmatters,whilefollowingoneofthefourtraditionalschoolsofjurisprudence:Hanafi,Hanbali,MalikiorShafi'i.[13][271] SunnischoolsoftheologyencompassAsharismfoundedbyAl-Ashʿarī(c.874–936),MaturidibyAbuMansural-Maturidi(853–944CE)andtraditionalisttheologyundertheleadershipofAhmadibnHanbal(780–855CE).TraditionalisttheologyischaracterizedbyitsadherencetoaliteralunderstandingoftheQuranandtheSunnah,thebeliefintheQuranisuncreatedandeternal,andoppositiontoreason(kalam)inreligiousandethicalmatters.[272]Ontheotherhand,Maturidismasserts,scriptureisnotneededforbasicethicsandthatgoodandevilcanbeunderstoodbyreasonalone,[273]butpeoplerelyonrevelation,formattersbeyondhuman'scomprehension.Asharismholdsthatethicscanderivejustfromdivinerevelationbutnotfromhumanreason.However,AsharismacceptsreasonregardingexegeticalmattersandcombinesMuʿtazilaapproacheswithtraditionalistideas.[274] Inthe18th century,MuhammadibnAbdal-WahhabledaSalafimovement,referredbyoutsidersasWahhabism,inmodern-daySaudiArabia.[275]AsimilarmovementcalledAhlal-Hadithalsode-emphasizedthecenturies'oldSunnilegaltradition,preferringtodirectlyfollowtheQuranandHadith.TheNurcuSunnimovementwasbySaidNursi(1877–1960);[276]itincorporateselementsofSufismandscience,[276][277]andhasgivenrisetotheGülenmovement. Shia Mainarticle:ShiaIslam TheImamHusseinShrineinIraqisaholysiteforShiaMuslims ShiaIslamorShi'ismisthesecond-largestbranchofIslam,havingsplitdoctrinallyfromSunnismintheearlycenturiesofIslamoverinthedesignationofAbuBakr,insteadofAliibnAbiTalib,asthesuccessortotheProphetMuhammad.[278] AlthoughtherearemanyShiasubsects,modernShiaIslamismainlydividedintothreemaingroupings:Twelvers(thelargestandmostinfluentialgroup),IsmailisandZaidi,dividedalongthelinesofcontrastingbeliefsaboutthesuccessionoftheimams.[279]TheZaydis,namedafterthegreat-grandsonofAli,thescholarZaydibnAli,usedtheHanafijurisprudence,asdidmostSunnis.[204][205][206] Ibadi Mainarticle:IbadiIslam IbadiIslamorIbadismispractisedby1.45 millionMuslimsaroundtheworld(~0.08%ofallMuslims),mostoftheminOman.[280]IbadismisoftenassociatedwithandviewedasamoderatevariationoftheKhawarijmovement,thoughIbadisthemselvesobjecttothisclassification.UnlikemostKharijitegroups,IbadismdoesnotregardsinfulMuslimsasunbelievers.Ibadihadiths,suchastheJamiSahihcollection,useschainsofnarratorsfromearlyIslamichistoryconsideredtrustworthybutmostIbadihadithsarealsofoundinstandardSunnicollectionsandcontemporaryIbadisoftenapproveofthestandardSunnicollections.[281] Otherdenominations QuranistsareMuslimswhogenerallybelievethatIslamiclawandguidanceshouldonlybebasedontheQuran,rejectingtheSunnah,thuspartiallyorcompletelydoubtingthereligiousauthority,reliabilityorauthenticityofthehadithliterature,whichtheyclaimarefabricated.[282]Fromthe19th centuryonward,hadithwerequestionedbySayyidAhmadKhan,AbdullahChakralawi,GhulamAhmadParwez,[283]andMuhammadTawfīqSidqī.[284][285]QuranistsdifferinthepracticeofIslamicritualsfromotherMuslimsinfrequencyofprayer,detailsofprayer,zakat,fasting,ortheHajj.[282] BektashiAlevismisasyncreticandheterodoxlocalIslamictradition,whoseadherentsfollowthemystical(bāṭenī)teachingsofAliandHajiBektashVeli.[286]AlevismincorporatesTurkishbeliefspresentduringthe14th century,[287]suchasShamanismandAnimism,mixedwithShiasandSufibeliefs,adoptedbysomeTurkishtribes.Ithasbeenestimatedthatthereare10 milliontoover20 million(~0.5%-~1%ofallMuslims)Alevisworldwide.[288] TheAhmadiyyamovementwasfoundedbyMirzaGhulamAhmad[289]inIndiain1889.[290][e]Ahmadclaimedtobethe"PromisedMessiah"or"ImamMahdi"ofprophecy.Todaythegrouphas10to20millionpractitioners,butisrejectedbymostMuslimsasheretical,[291]andAhmadishavebeensubjecttoreligiouspersecutionanddiscriminationsincethemovement'sinception.[292] Non-denominationalMuslims Mainarticle:Non-denominationalMuslim Non-denominationalMuslimsisanumbrellatermthathasbeenusedforandbyMuslimswhodonotbelongtoordonotself-identifywithaspecificIslamicdenomination.[293][294][295]ProminentfigureswhorefusedtoidentifywithaparticularIslamicdenominationhaveincludedJamalad-Dinal-Afghani,[296]andMuhammadAliJinnah.[297]RecentsurveysreportthatlargeproportionsofMuslimsinsomepartsoftheworldself-identifyas"justMuslim",althoughthereislittlepublishedanalysisavailableregardingthemotivationsunderlyingthisresponse.[298][299][300]ThePewResearchCenterreportsthatrespondentsself-identifyingas"justMuslim"makeupamajorityofMuslimsinsevencountries(andapluralityinthreeothers),withthehighestproportioninKazakhstanat74%.AtleastoneinfiveMuslimsinatleast22countriesself-identifyinthisway.[301] Mysticism Mainarticle:Sufism Seealso:Sufi–Salafirelations TheWhirlingDervishes,orMevleviOrderbythetombofSufi-mysticRumi Sufism(Arabic:تصوف,tasawwuf),isamystical-asceticapproachtoIslamthatseekstofindadirectpersonalexperienceofGod.ClassicalSufischolarsdefinedTasawwufas"asciencewhoseobjectiveisthereparationoftheheartandturningitawayfromallelsebutGod",through"intuitiveandemotionalfaculties"thatonemustbetrainedtouse.[302][303]ItisnotasectofIslamanditsadherentsbelongtothevariousMuslimdenominations.IsmailiShias,whoseteachingsrootinGnosticismandNeo-Platonism,[304]aswellasbytheIlluminationistandIsfahanschoolsofIslamicphilosophyhavedevelopedmysticalinterpretationsofIslam.[305]Hasanal-Basri,theearlySufiasceticoftenportrayedasoneoftheearliestSufis,[306]emphasizedfearoffailingGod'sexpectationsofobedience.Incontrast,laterprominentSufis,suchasMansurAl-HallajandJalaluddinRumi,emphasizedreligiositybasedonlovetowardsGod.Suchdevotionwouldalsohaveanimpactonthearts,withJalaluddinRumi(1207–1273),stilloneofthebestsellingpoetsinAmerica,[307][308]writinghisPersianpoemMasnawiandtheworksofHafez(1315–1390)areoftenconsideredthepinnacleofPersianpoetry. SufisseetasawwufasaninseparablepartofIslam,justlikethesharia.[309]TraditionalSufis,suchasBayazidBastami,JalaluddinRumi,HajiBektashVeli,JunaidBaghdadi,andAl-Ghazali,arguedforSufismasbeingbaseduponthetenetsofIslamandtheteachingsoftheprophet.[310][311][309]HistorianNileGreenarguedthatIslamintheMedievalperiod,wasmoreorlessSufism.[186](p77)(p24)PopulardevotionalpracticessuchasthevenerationofSufisaintshavebeenviewedasinnovationsfromtheoriginalreligionfromfollowersofsalafism,whohavesometimesphysicallyattackedSufis,leadingtoadeteriorationinSufi–Salafirelations. Suficongregationsformorders(tariqa)centeredaroundateacher(wali)whotracesaspiritualchainbacktoMuhammad.[312]SufisplayedanimportantroleintheformationofMuslimsocietiesthroughtheirmissionaryandeducationalactivities.[146][313][314]SufiinfluencedAhleSunnatmovementorBarelvimovementdefendsSufipracticesandbeliefswithover200millionfollowersinsouthAsia.[315][316][317]SufismisprominentinCentralAsia,[318][319]aswellasinAfricancountrieslikeTunisia,Algeria,Morocco,Senegal,ChadandNiger.[301][320] Lawandjurisprudence PartofaseriesonIslamicjurisprudence(fiqh) Ritual Shahada Salat Raka'ah Qibla Turbah Sunnahsalat(TahajjudTarawih) Witr Naflsalat Sawm Zakat Hajj Ihram (clothing Mut'ah) Tawaf Umrah (andHajj) Political Islamicleadership Caliphate Majlis-ash-Shura Imamah Wilayatal-faqih Bay'ah Dhimmi Aman Family Marriage Contract Mahr Misyar Halala Urfi Mut‘ah Polygyny Divorce Khula Zihar Iddah Kafa'ah Adoption Breastfeeding Sexual Awrah Abortion Baligh Haya Hygiene Rape Zina Masturbation Criminal Hudud Blasphemy Maisir (gambling) Zina (illicitsex) Hirabah (unlawfulwarfareandbanditry) Fasad ("mischief") Mofsed-e-filarz ("spreadingcorruption") Fitna ("sedition") Rajm (stoning) Tazir (discretionary) Qisas (retaliation) Diya (compensation) Etiquette Adab Gendersegregation(Purdah) Mahram Honorifics Toilet Economic History Zakat Jizya Nisab Khums Sadaqah (Waqf) Baytal-mal Banking Riba Murabaha Takaful Sukuk Inheritance Hygiene Sexual Toilet Taharah Ihram Wudu Masah Ghusl Tayammum Miswak Najis Dietary Dhabihah Alcohol Pork Comparisonwithkashrut Military Jihad Hudna Istijarah(asylum) Prisonersofwar Islamicstudiesvte Mainarticles:ShariaandFiqh Seealso:LogicinIslamicphilosophy§ Islamiclawandtheology ShariaisthereligiouslawformingpartoftheIslamictradition.[13]ItisderivedfromthereligiouspreceptsofIslam,particularlytheQuranandtheHadith.InArabic,thetermsharīʿahreferstoGod'sdivinelawandiscontrastedwithfiqh,whichreferstoitsscholarlyinterpretations.[321][322]ThemannerofitsapplicationinmoderntimeshasbeenasubjectofdisputebetweenMuslimtraditionalistsandreformists.[13] TraditionaltheoryofIslamicjurisprudencerecognizesfoursourcesofsharia:theQuran,sunnah(HadithandSira),qiyas(analogicalreasoning),andijma(juridicalconsensus).[323]Differentlegalschoolsdevelopedmethodologiesforderivingshariarulingsfromscripturalsourcesusingaprocessknownasijtihad.[321]Traditionaljurisprudencedistinguishestwoprincipalbranchesoflaw,ʿibādāt(rituals)andmuʿāmalāt(socialrelations),whichtogethercompriseawiderangeoftopics.[321]Itsrulingsassignactionstooneoffivecategoriescalledahkam:mandatory(fard),recommended(mustahabb),permitted(mubah),abhorred(makruh),andprohibited(haram).[321][322]SomeareasofshariaoverlapwiththeWesternnotionoflawwhileotherscorrespondmorebroadlytolivinglifeinaccordancewithGod'swill.[322] Historically,shariawasinterpretedbyindependentjurists(muftis).Theirlegalopinions(fatwa)weretakenintoaccountbyruler-appointedjudgeswhopresidedoverqāḍī'scourts,andbymaẓālimcourts,whichwerecontrolledbytheruler'scouncilandadministeredcriminallaw.[321][322]Inthemodernera,sharia-basedcriminallawswerewidelyreplacedbystatutesinspiredbyEuropeanmodels.[322]TheOttomanEmpire's19th-centuryTanzimatreformsleadtotheMecellecivilcodeandrepresentedthefirstattempttocodifysharia.[324]WhiletheconstitutionsofmostMuslim-majoritystatescontainreferencestosharia,itsclassicalruleswerelargelyretainedonlyinpersonalstatus(family)laws.[322]Legislativebodieswhichcodifiedtheselawssoughttomodernizethemwithoutabandoningtheirfoundationsintraditionaljurisprudence.[322][325]TheIslamicrevivalofthelate20th centurybroughtalongcallsbyIslamistmovementsforcompleteimplementationofsharia.[322][325]Theroleofshariahasbecomeacontestedtopicaroundtheworld.Thereareongoingdebateswhethershariaiscompatiblewithsecularformsofgovernment,humanrights,freedomofthought,andwomen'srights.[326][327][328] Schoolsofjurisprudence IslamicschoolsoflawintheMuslimworld Mainarticle:Madhhab Aschoolofjurisprudenceisreferredtoasamadhhab(Arabic:مذهب).ThefourmajorSunnischoolsaretheHanafi,Maliki,Shafi'i,HanbalimadhahswhilethethreemajorShiaschoolsaretheJa'fari,ZaidiandIsma'ilimadhahib.Eachdiffersintheirmethodology,calledUsulal-fiqh("principlesofjurisprudence").Thefollowingofdecisionsbyareligiousexpertwithoutnecessarilyexaminingthedecision'sreasoningiscalledtaqlid.Thetermghairmuqallidliterallyreferstothosewhodonotusetaqlidand,byextension,donothaveamadhab.[329]Thepracticeofanindividualinterpretinglawwithindependentreasoningiscalledijtihad.[330] Society Religiouspersonages Mainarticle:Ulama CrimeanTatarMuslimstudents(1856) Islam,likeJudaism,hasnoclergyinthesacerdotalsense,suchaspriestswhomediatebetweenGodandpeople.Imam(إمام)isthereligioustitleusedfortheindividualwholeadsanIslamicworshipservice. Religiousinterpretationispresidedoverbytheulama(Arabic:علماء),atermuseddescribethebodyofMuslimscholarswhohavereceivedtraininginIslamicstudies.Ascholarofthehadithiscalledamuhaddith,ascholarofjurisprudenceiscalledafaqih(فقيه),ajuristwhoisqualifiedtoissuelegalopinionsorfatwasiscalledamufti,andaqadiisanIslamicjudge.Honorifictitlesgiventoscholarsincludesheikh,mullahandmawlawi. SomeMuslimsalsoveneratesaintsassociatedwithmiracles(Arabic:امات,karāmāt).Thepracticeofvisitingthetombsofprophetsandsaintsisknownasziyarat.UnlikesaintsinChristianity,Muslimsaintsareusuallyacknowledgedinformallybytheconsensusofcommonpeople,notbyscholars. Governance Seealso:PoliticalaspectsofIslam,Islamiceconomics,Islamicmilitaryjurisprudence,andJihad MainstreamIslamiclawdoesnotdistinguishbetween"mattersofchurch"and"mattersofstate";thescholarsfunctionasbothjuristsandtheologians.VariousformsofIslamicjurisprudencethereforeruleonmattersthaninothersocietalcontextmightbeconsideredthepreserveofthestate.TermstraditionallyusedtorefertoMuslimleadersincludeCaliphandSultanandtermsassociatedwithtraditionallyMuslimstatesincludeCaliphate,Emirate,ImamateandKhanate. InIslamiceconomicjurisprudence,hoardingofwealthisreviledandthusmonopolisticbehaviorisfrownedupon.[331]AttemptstocomplywithshariahhasledtothedevelopmentofIslamicbanking.Islamprohibitsriba,usuallytranslatedasusury,whichreferstoanyunfairgainintradeandismostcommonlyusedtomeaninterest.[332]Instead,Islamicbanksgointopartnershipwiththeborrowerandbothsharefromtheprofitsandanylossesfromtheventure.Anotherfeatureistheavoidanceofuncertainty,whichisseenasgambling[333]andIslamicbankstraditionallyavoidderivativeinstrumentssuchasfuturesoroptionswhichsubstantiallyprotectedthemfromthe2008financialcrisis.[334]Thestateusedtobeinvolvedindistributionofcharityfromthetreasury,knownasBaytal-mal,beforeitbecamealargelyindividualpursuit.ThefirstCaliph,AbuBakr,distributedzakatasoneofthefirstexamplesofaguaranteedminimumincome,witheachman,womanandchildgetting10to20dirhamsannually.[335]DuringthereignofthesecondCaliphUmar,childsupportwasintroducedandtheoldanddisabledwereentitledtostipends,[336][337][338]whiletheUmayyadCaliphUmarIIassignedaservantforeachblindpersonandforeverytwochronicallyillpersons.[339] Islamicmilitaryjurisprudencemeanwhileaffectsexternalwarfare,withjihadusuallytakentomeanmilitaryexertionagainstnon-Muslimcombatants.[340][341]JihadistheonlyformofwarfarepermissibleinIslamiclawandmaybedeclaredagainstillegalworks,terrorists,criminalgroups,rebels,apostates,andleadersorstateswhooppressMuslims.[342][340]MostMuslimstodayinterpretJihadasonlyadefensiveformofwarfare.[343]Jihadonlybecomesanindividualdutyforthosevestedwithauthority.Fortherestofthepopulace,thishappensonlyinthecaseofageneralmobilization.[340]FormostTwelverShias,offensivejihadcanonlybedeclaredbyadivinelyappointedleaderoftheMuslimcommunity,andassuch,issuspendedsinceMuhammadal-Mahdi'soccultationis868 AD.[344][345] Dailyandfamilylife Seealso:Adab(Islam),Islamicdietarylaws,Islamandchildren,MarriageinIslam,WomeninIslam,andPolygynyinIslam Islamicveilsrepresentmodesty Manydailypracticesfallinthecategoryofadab,orIslamicetiquette.Thisincludesgreetingotherswith"as-salamu'alaykum"("peacebeuntoyou"),sayingbismillah("inthenameofGod")beforemeals,andusingonlytherighthandforeatinganddrinking. Specificprohibitedfoodsincludeporkproducts,bloodandcarrion.HealthisviewedasatrustfromGodandintoxicants,suchasalcoholicdrinks,areprohibited.[346]AllmeatmustcomefromaherbivorousanimalslaughteredinthenameofGodbyaMuslim,Jew,orChristian,exceptforgamethatonehashuntedorfishedforthemself.[347]Beardsareoftenencouragedamongmenassomethingnatural[348][349]andbodymodifications,suchaspermanenttattoos,areusuallyforbiddenasviolatingthecreation.[f][351]Goldandsilkformenareprohibitedandareseenasextravagant.[352]Haya,oftentranslatedas"shame"or"modesty",informsmuchofMuslimdailylife.Forexample,clothinginIslamemphasizesastandardofmodesty,whichhasincludedthehijabforwomen.Similarly,personalhygieneisencouragedwithcertainrequirements. Afterthebirthofachild,theAdhanispronouncedintherightear.[353]Ontheseventhday,theaqiqahceremonyisperformed,inwhichananimalissacrificedanditsmeatisdistributedamongthepoor.[354]Thechild'sheadisshaved,andanamountofmoneyequalingtheweightofitshairisdonatedtothepoor.[354]Malecircumcisionispractised.Respectingandobeyingone'sparents,andtakingcareofthemespeciallyintheiroldageisareligiousobligation.[355][356] InIslamicmarriage,thegroomisrequiredpayabridalgift(mahr).[357] MostfamiliesintheIslamicworldaremonogamous.[358][359]However,Muslimmenareallowedtopracticepolygynyandcanhaveuptofourwivesatthesametime.Therearealsoculturalvariationsinweddings.[360]Polyandry,apracticewhereinawomantakesontwoormorehusbands,isprohibitedinIslam.[361] AdyingMuslimisencouragedtopronouncetheShahadaastheirlastwords.Payingrespectstothedeadandattendingfuneralsinthecommunityareconsideredamongthevirtuousacts.InIslamicburialrituals,burialisencouragedassoonaspossible,usuallywithin24hours.Thebodyiswashed,exceptformartyrs,bymembersofthesamegenderandenshroudedinagarmentthatmustnotbeelaboratecalledkafan.[362]A"funeralprayer"calledSalatal-Janazahisperformed.Wailingisdiscouraged.Coffinsareoftennotpreferredandgravesareoftenunmarked,evenforkings.[363]Regardinginheritance,ason'sshareisdoublethatofadaughter's.[xiii] Personalcharacter Mainarticle:MoralityinIslam Seealso:Islamicethics Asareligion,IslamemphasizestheideaofhavingagoodcharacterasMuhammadsaid:"Thebestamongyouarethosewhohavethebestmannersandcharacter."[xiv]AnotherSunnihadithstatesthat,"EveryDeenorreligionhasaninnatecharacter.ThecharacterofIslamismodesty."[364]Asavirtue,forgivenessismuchcelebratedinIslam.[365]Forexample,whileimposingapenaltyonanoffenderinproportiontotheiroffenseisconsideredpermissible;forgivingtheoffenderisbetter.Togoonestepfurtherbyofferingafavortotheoffenderisregardedasthepeakofexcellence.[366]TheQuransays:"Goodandevilcannotbeequal.Respond˹toevil˺withwhatisbest,thentheoneyouareinenmitywithwillbelikeaclosefriend."[xv]TheQuranandthehadithdescribeGodasbeingkindandmercifultoHiscreatures,andtellpeopletobekindlikewise. Jihadmeans"tostriveorstruggle[inthewayofGod]".Initsbroadestsense,itis"exertingone'sutmostpower,efforts,endeavors,orabilityincontendingwithanobjectofdisapprobation".Dependingontheobjectbeingavisibleenemy,theDevilandaspectsofone'sownself(likesinfuldesires),differentcategoriesofjihadaredefined.[367]Jihadalsoreferstoone'sstrivingtoattainreligiousandmoralperfection.[368][369]Whenusedwithoutaqualifier,jihadisunderstoodinitsmilitaryform.[367][368]SomeMuslimauthorities,especiallyamongtheShiaandSufis,distinguishbetweenthe"greaterjihad",whichpertainstospiritualself-perfection,andthe"lesserjihad",definedaswarfare.[342][340] Artsandculture Mainarticle:Islamicculture Seealso:Islamicart,Islamicarchitecture,andIslamicliterature Theterm"Islamicculture"canbeusedtomeanaspectsofculturethatpertaintothereligion,suchasfestivalsanddresscode.ItisalsocontroversiallyusedtodenotetheculturalaspectsoftraditionallyMuslimpeople.[370]Finally,"Islamiccivilization"mayalsorefertotheaspectsofthesynthesizedcultureoftheearlyCaliphates,includingthatofnon-Muslims,[371]sometimesreferredtoas"Islamicate". Islamicartencompassesthevisualartsincludingfieldsasvariedasarchitecture,calligraphy,painting,andceramics,amongothers.[372]Whilethemakingofimagesofanimatebeingshasoftenbeenfrowneduponinconnectionwithlawsagainstidolatry,thisrulehasbeeninterpretedindifferentwaysbydifferentscholarsandindifferenthistoricalperiods.Thisstricturehasbeenusedtoexplaintheprevalenceofcalligraphy,tessellation,andpatternaskeyaspectsofIslamicartisticculture.[373]InIslamicarchitecture,varyingculturesshowinfluencesuchasNorthAfricanandSpanishIslamicarchitecturesuchastheGreatMosqueofKairouancontainingmarbleandporphyrycolumnsfromRomanandByzantinebuildings,[374]whilemosquesinIndonesiaoftenhavemulti-tieredroofsfromlocalJavanesestyles. TheIslamiccalendarisalunarcalendarthatbeginswiththeHijraof622 CE,adatethatwasreportedlychosenbyCaliphUmarasitwasanimportantturningpointinMuhammad'sfortunes.[375]Islamicholydaysfallonfixeddatesofthelunarcalendar,meaningtheyoccurindifferentseasonsindifferentyearsintheGregoriancalendar.ThemostimportantIslamicfestivalsareEidal-Fitr(Arabic|عيدالف)onthe1stofShawwal,markingtheendofthefastingmonthRamadan,andEidal-Adha(Arabic|عيدالأضحى)onthe10thofDhual-Hijjah,coincidingwiththeendoftheHajj(pilgrimage).[376] GreatMosqueofDjenné,inthewestAfricancountryofMali DomeinPo-i-Kalyan,Bukhara,Uzbekistan 14thcenturyGreatMosqueofXi'aninChina 16thcenturyMenaraKudusMosqueinIndonesiashowingIndianinfluence ThephraseBismillahinan18th-centuryIslamiccalligraphyfromtheOttomanregion. GeometricarabesquetilingontheundersideofthedomeofHafizShirazi'stombinShiraz,Iran Derivedreligions Seealso:IslamandDruze Somemovements,suchastheDruze,[377][378][379][380][381]BerghouataandHa-Mim,eitheremergedfromIslamorcametosharecertainbeliefswithIslam,andwhethereachisaseparatereligionorasectofIslamissometimescontroversial.YazdânismisseenasablendoflocalKurdishbeliefsandIslamicSufidoctrineintroducedtoKurdistanbySheikhAdiibnMusafirinthe12th century.BábismstemsfromTwelverShiapassedthroughSiyyid'AliMuhammadi-Shirazial-BabwhileoneofhisfollowersMirzaHusayn'AliNuriBaha'u'llahfoundedtheBaháʼíFaith.[382]Sikhism,foundedbyGuruNanakinlate-fifteenth-centuryPunjab,incorporatesaspectsofbothIslamandHinduism.[383] Criticism Mainarticle:CriticismofIslam JohnofDamascus,undertheUmayyadCaliphate,viewedIslamicdoctrinesasahodgepodgefromtheBible.[384] CriticismofIslamhasexistedsinceIslam'sformativestages.EarlycriticismcamefromChristianauthors,manyofwhomviewedIslamasaChristianheresyoraformofidolatry,oftenexplainingitinapocalypticterms.[385]Later,criticismfromtheMuslimworlditselfappeared,aswellasfromJewishwritersandfromecclesiasticalChristians.[386][387] ChristianwriterscriticizedIslamicsalvationoptimismanditscarnality.Islam'ssensualdescriptionsofparadiseledmanyChristianstoconcludethatIslamwasnotaspiritualreligion.AlthoughsensualpleasurewasalsopresentinearlyChristianity,asseeninthewritingsofIrenaeus,thedoctrinesoftheformerManichaean,AugustineofHippo,ledtothebroadrepudiationofbodilypleasureinbothlifeandtheafterlife.AliibnSahlRabbanal-TabaridefendedtheQuranicdescriptionofparadisebyassertingthattheBiblealsoimpliessuchideas,suchasdrinkingwineintheGospelofMatthew.[388] DefamatoryimagesofMuhammad,derivedfromearly7th centurydepictionsoftheByzantineChurch,[389]appearinthe14th-centuryepicpoemDivineComedybyDanteAlighieri.[390]Here,Muhammadappearsintheeighthcircleofhell,alongwithAli.DantedoesnotblameIslamasawholebutaccusesMuhammadofschism,byestablishinganotherreligionafterChristianity.[390] OthercriticismsfocusonthequestionofhumanrightsinmodernMuslim-majoritycountries,andthetreatmentofwomeninIslamiclawandpractice.[391]Inthewakeoftherecentmulticulturalismtrend,Islam'sinfluenceontheabilityofMuslimimmigrantsintheWesttoassimilatehasbeencriticized.[392]Bothinhispublicandpersonallife,othersobjectedtothemoralityofMuhammad,thereforealsothesunnahasarolemodel.[393] Seealso GlossaryofIslam IndexofIslam-relatedarticles Islamicstudies Majorreligiousgroups OutlineofIslam Notes ^TherearetenpronunciationsofIslaminEnglish,differinginwhetherthefirstorsecondsyllablehasthestress,whetherthesis/z/or/s/,andwhethertheaispronounced/ɑː/,/æ/or(whenthestressisonthefirstsyllable)/ə/(MerriamWebster).Themostcommonare/ɪzˈlɑːm,ɪsˈlɑːm,ˈɪzləm,ˈɪsləm/(OxfordEnglishDictionary)and/ˈɪzlɑːm,ˈɪslɑːm/(AmericanHeritageDictionary). ^Wattarguesthattheinitialagreementcameaboutshortlyafterthehijraandthatthedocumentwasamendedatalaterdate—specificallyafterthebattleofBadr(AH[annohijra]2,=AD624).[114]Serjeantarguesthattheconstitutionis,infact,eightdifferenttreatiesthatcanbedatedaccordingtoeventsastheytranspiredinMedina,withthefirsttreatywrittenshortlyafterMuhammad'sarrival.[115]SeealsoCaetani(1905)whoarguethatthedocumentisasingletreatyagreeduponshortlyafterthehijra.[116]WellhausenarguesthatitbelongstothefirstyearofMuhammad'sresidenceinMedina,beforethebattleofBadrin2/624.[117]EvenMosheGil,ascepticofIslamichistory,arguesthatitwaswrittenwithinfivemonthsofMuhammad'sarrivalinMedina.[118] ^"HasanalBasriisoftenconsideredoneofthefirstwhorejectedanangelicoriginforthedevil,arguingthathisfallwastheresultofhisownfree-will,notGod'sdetermination.HasanalBasrialsoarguedthatangelsareincapableofsinorerrorsandnoblerthanhumansandevenprophets.BothearlyShiasandSunnisopposedhisview.[149] ^"Inrecentyears,theideaofsyncretismhasbeenchallenged.GiventhelackofauthoritytodefineorenforceanOrthodoxdoctrineaboutIslam,somescholarsarguetherehadnoprescribedbeliefs,onlyprescribedpractise,inIslambeforethesixtheenthcentury.[186](p20-22) ^Afigureof10-20 millionrepresentsapproximately1%oftheMuslimpopulation.Seealso:Ahmadiyyabycountry. ^SomeMuslimsindynasticeraChinaresistedfootbindingofgirlsforthesamereason.[350] References CitationsofQur'anandhadith ^Q6:125Quran 6:125,Q61:7Quran 61:7,Q39:22Quran 39:22 ^Q9:74Quran 9:74;Quran 49:14 ^Q2:117Quran 2:117 ^Q51:56Quran 51:56 ^Q2:186Quran 2:186 ^Q35:1Quran 35:1 ^openingpage."Itsoutstandingliterarymeritshouldalsobenoted:itisbyfar,thefinestworkofArabicproseinexistence."[66] ^"ItmaybeaffirmedthatwithintheliteratureoftheArabs,wideandfecundasitisbothinpoetryandinelevatedprose,thereisnothingtocomparewithit."[67] ^Quran 1:4; ^Quran 6:31; ^Quran 101:1 ^Quran 9:60. "Zakatexpendituresareonlyforthepoorandfortheneedyandforthoseemployedtocollect(Zakat)andforbringingheartstogetherandforfreeingcaptivesandforthoseindebt(orbondedlabour)andforthecauseofAllahandforthe(stranded)traveller—anobligation(imposed)byAllah.AndAllahisKnowingandWise" ^Quran 4:11. ^Sahihal-Bukhari,8:73:56 ^Quran 41:34 Citations ^Esposito,JohnL.2009."Islam."InTheOxfordEncyclopediaoftheIslamicWorld,editedbyJ.L.Esposito.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-19-530513-5.(Seealso:quickreference.)"ProfessionofFaith...affirmsIslam'sabsolutemonotheismandacceptanceofMuḥammadasthemessengerofAllah,thelastandfinalprophet." 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^Lauziere,Henri(2016).TheMakingofSalafism:ISLAMICREFORMINTHETWENTIETHCENTURY.NewYork,Chichester,WestSussex:ColumbiaUniversityPress.pp. 231–232.ISBN 978-0-231-17550-0.BeginningwithLouisMassignonin1919,itistruethatWesternersplayedaleadingroleinlabelingIslamicmodernistsasSalafis,eventhoughthetermwasamisnomer.Atthetime,EuropeanandAmericanscholarsfelttheneedforausefulconceptualboxtoplaceMuslimfiguressuchasJamalal-Dinal-Afghani,MuhammadAbduh,andtheirepigones,allofwhomseemedinclinedtowardascripturalistunderstandingofIslambutprovedopentorationalismandWesternmodernity.Theychosetoadoptsalafiyya—atechnicaltermoftheology,whichtheymistookforareformistsloganandwronglyassociatedwithallkindsofmodernistMuslimintellectuals. ^HenriLauzièreTheMakingofSalafism:IslamicReformintheTwentiethCenturyColumbiaUniversityPress2015ISBN 978-0-231-54017-9 ^"PoliticalIslam:Amovementinmotion".EconomistMagazine.3January2014.Retrieved1January2014. 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^Lauziere,Henri(2016).TheMakingofSalafism:ISLAMICREFORMINTHETWENTIETHCENTURY.NewYork,Chichester,WestSussex:ColumbiaUniversityPress.p. 237.ISBN 978-0-231-17550-0.PriortothefalloftheOttomanEmpire,leadingreformerswhohappenedtobeSalafiincreedweresurprisinglyopen-minded:althoughtheyadheredtoneo-Hanbalitheology.However,theaftermathoftheFirstWorldWarandtheexpansionofEuropeancolonialismpavedthewayforaseriesofshiftsinthoughtandattitude.TheexperiencesofRidaoffermanyexamples...heturnedagainsttheShi'iswhodared,withreason,toexpressdoubtsabouttheSaudi-Wahhabiproject....Shi'iswerenottheonlyvictims:RidaandhisassociatesshowedtheirreadinesstoturnagainstfellowSalafiswhoquestionedsomeoftheWahhabis’religiousinterpretations. ^G.Rabil,Robert(2014).SalafisminLebanon:FromApoliticismtoTransnationalJihadism.WashingtonDC,USA:GeorgetownUniversityPress.pp. 32–33.ISBN 978-1-62616-116-0.Westerncolonialistsestablishedinthesecountriespoliticalorders...that,eventhoughnotprofessingenmitytoIslamanditsinstitutions,leftnoroleforIslaminsociety.ThiscausedacrisisamongMuslimreformists,whofeltbetrayednotonlybytheWestbutalsobythosenationalists,manyofwhomwerebroughttopowerbytheWest...NothingreflectsthiscrisismorethantheideologicaltransformationofRashidRida(1865–1935)...HealsorevivedtheworksofIbnTaymiyahbypublishinghiswritingsandpromotinghisideas.Subsequently,takingnoteofthecataclysmiceventsbroughtaboutbyWesternpoliciesintheMuslimworldandshockedbytheabolitionofthecaliphate,hetransformedintoaMuslimintellectualmostlyconcernedaboutprotectingMuslimculture,identity,andpoliticsfromWesterninfluence.HesupportedatheorythatessentiallyemphasizedthenecessityofanIslamicstateinwhichthescholarsofIslamwouldhavealeadingrole...RidawasaforerunnerofIslamistthought.HeapparentlyintendedtoprovideatheoreticalplatformforamodernIslamicstate.HisideaswerelaterincorporatedintotheworksofIslamicscholars.Significantly,hisideasinfluencednoneotherthanHassanal-Bannah,founderoftheMuslimBrotherhoodinEgypt...TheMuslimBrethrenhavetakenupRida’sIslamicfundamentalism,aright-wingradicalmovementfoundedin1928,.. 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^Beydoun,KhaledA."ForChina,Islamisa'mentalillness'thatneedstobe'cured'".AlJazeera.Archivedfromtheoriginalon10December2018.Retrieved5February2022. ^Slackman,Michael(28January2007)."InEgypt,anewbattlebeginsovertheveil".TheNewYorkTimes.Retrieved15August2011. ^Nigosian(2004),p. 41. ^"Islamictelevangelist;holysmoke".TheEconomist.Retrieved5February2022. ^Esposito(2010),p. 263. ^V.Šisler:TheInternetandtheConstructionofIslamicKnowledgeinEuropep.212 ^Esposito(2004),pp. 118–119,179. ^Rippin(2001),p. 288. ^Lipka,Michael,andConradHackett.[2015]6April2017."WhyMuslimsaretheworld'sfastest-growingreligiousgroup"(dataanalysis).FactTank.PewResearchCenter. ^DavidB.Barrett,GeorgeT.Kurian,andToddM.Johnson,WorldChristianEncyclopedia:Acomparativesurveyofchurchesandreligionsinthemodernworld,Vol.1:Theworldbycountries:religionists,churches,ministries2ded.(NewYork:OxfordUniv.Press,2001),4. ^abPewForumforReligion&PublicLife.April2015."TheFutureofWorldReligions:PopulationGrowthProjections,2010–2050."PewResearchCenter.p.70Article. ^PewForumforReligion&PublicLife(2009),p. 11.sfnperror:notarget:CITEREFPew_Forum_for_Religion_&_Public_Life2009(help) ^Ba-Yunus,Ilyas;Kone,Kassim(2006).MuslimsintheUnitedStates.GreenwoodPublishingGroup.p. 172.ISBN 978-0-313-32825-1. ^"SecretsofIslam".U.S.News&WorldReport.Retrieved24September2013.InformationprovidedbytheInternationalPopulationCenter,DepartmentofGeography,SanDiegoStateUniversity(2005). ^PewForumforReligion&PublicLife(2009),pp. 15,17.sfnperror:notarget:CITEREFPew_Forum_for_Religion_&_Public_Life2009(help) ^"ExploreAllCountries–China".TheWorldFactbook.CentralIntelligenceAgency.Retrieved15September2009. ^"China(includesHongKong,Macau,andTibet)".ArchivedContent.U.S.DepartmentofState.Retrieved24September2013. ^"MuslimsinEurope:Countryguide".BBCNews.23December2005.Retrieved1April2010. 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^Juynboll,G.H.A.(1969).TheAuthenticityoftheTraditionLiterature:DiscussionsinModernEgypt,...G.H.A.Juynboll,...BrillArchive.pp. 23–25. ^MagazineAlManar(inArabic). ^"BEKTĀŠĪYA–EncyclopaediaIranica".www.iranicaonline.org. ^JorgenSNielsenMuslimPoliticalParticipationinEuropeEdinburghUniversityPress2013ISBN 978-0-748-67753-5page255 ^JohnShindeldecker:TurkishAlevisToday:IIAleviPopulationSizeandDistribution,PDF-Datei,SeealsoEncyclopaediaoftheOrient:Alevi,consultedon30May2017. ^"WhoAretheAhmadi?".bbc.co.uk.Retrieved6October2013. ^See: BreachofFaith.HumanRightsWatch.June2005.p. 8.Retrieved29March2014.Estimatesofaround20millionwouldbeappropriate LarryDeVries;DonBaker;DanOvermyer(1November2011).AsianReligionsinBritishColumbia.UniversityofBritishColumbiaPress.ISBN 978-0-7748-1662-5.Retrieved29March2014.Thecommunitycurrentlynumbersaround15millionspreadaroundtheworld Campo(2009),p. 24 "AhmadiyyaMuslims".Religion&EthicsNewsweekly.PBS.20January2012.Retrieved6October2013. ^Esposito(2004),p. 11. ^Dhume,Sadanand(1December2017)."PakistanPersecutesaMuslimMinority".WallStreetJournal.ISSN 0099-9660.Retrieved14July2018. ^Benakis,Theodoros(13January2014)."IslamophoobiainEurope!".NewEurope.Brussels.Archivedfromtheoriginalon31January2016.Retrieved20October2015.AnyonewhohastravelledtoCentralAsiaknowsofthenon-denominationalMuslims—thosewhoareneitherShiitesnorSounites,butwhoacceptIslamasareligiongenerally. ^Kirkham,Bri(2015)."IndianaBloodCentercancels'MuslimsforLife'blooddrive".Archivedfromtheoriginalon25November2015.Retrieved21October2015.BallStateStudentSadieSialidentifiesasanon-denominationalMuslim,andherparentsbelongtotheAhmadiyyaMuslimCommunity.ShehasparticipatedinmultipleblooddrivesthroughtheIndianaBloodCenter. ^Pollack,Kenneth(2014).Unthinkable:Iran,theBomb,andAmericanStrategy.p. 29.ISBN 978-1-4767-3393-7.AlthoughmanyIranianhardlinersareShi'achauvinists,Khomeini'sideologysawtherevolutionaspan-Islamist,andthereforeembracingSunni,Shi'a,Sufi,andother,morenondenominationalMuslims ^Cughtai,MuhammadIkram(2005).JamālAl-DīnAl-Afghāni:AnApostleofIslamicResurgence.p. 454.Condemningthehistoricallyprevailingtrendofblindlyimitatingreligiousleaders,al-AfghanirevisedtoidentityhimselfwithaspecificsectorimambyinsistingthathewasjustaMuslimandascholarwithhisowninterpretationofIslam. ^Ahmed,Khaled."WasJinnahaShiaoraSunni?".TheFridayTimes.Archivedfromtheoriginalon17November2011.Retrieved23October2015. ^Burns,Robert(2011).Christianity,Islam,andtheWest.p. 55.ISBN 978-0-7618-5560-6.40percentcalledthemselves"justaMuslim"accordingtotheCouncilofAmerican-Islamicrelations ^Tatari,Eren(2014).MuslimsinBritishLocalGovernment:RepresentingMinorityInterestsinHackney,NewhamandTowerHamlets.p. 111.ISBN 978-90-04-27226-2.NineteensaidthattheyareSunniMuslims,sixsaidtheyarejustMuslimwithoutspecifyingasect,twosaidtheyareAhmadi,andtwosaidtheirfamiliesareAlevi ^Lopez,Ralph(2008).TruthintheAgeofBushism.p. 65.ISBN 978-1-4348-9615-5.ManyIraqistakeoffenseatreporters'effortstoidentifythemasSunniorShiite.A2004IraqCentreforResearchandStrategicStudiespollfoundthelargestcategoryofIraqisclassifiedthemselvesas"justMuslim." ^ab"Chapter1:ReligiousAffiliation".TheWorld'sMuslims:UnityandDiversity.PewResearchCenter'sReligion&PublicLifeProject.9August2012.Retrieved4September2013. ^See: Esposito(2003),p. 302 Malik&Hinnells(2006),p. 3 Turner(1998),p. 145 Trimingham(1998),p. 1 "Afghanistan:ACountryStudy–Sufism".LibraryofCongressCountryStudies.1997.Retrieved18April2007. ^Zarruq,Ahmed,ZainebIstrabadi,andHamzaYusufHanson.2008.ThePrinciplesofSufism.AmalPress. ^Andani,Khalil."ASurveyofIsmailiStudiesPart1:EarlyIsmailismandFatimidIsmailism."ReligionCompass10.8(2016):191-206. ^Aminrazavi,Mehdi.[2009]2016."MysticisminArabicandIslamicPhilosophy."TheStanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy,editedbyE.N.Zalta.Retrieved25May2020. ^Knysh,Alexander.2015.IslaminHistoricalPerspective.Routledge.ISBN 978-1-317-34712-5.p.214. ^Haviland,Charles(30September2007)."TheroarofRumi–800yearson".BBCNews.Retrieved10August2011. ^"Islam:JalaluddinRumi".BBC.1September2009.Retrieved10August2011. ^abChittick(2008),pp. 3–4,11. ^Chittick(2008),p. [page needed]. ^Nasr,SeyyedHossein(1993).AnIntroductiontoIslamicCosmologicalDoctrines.p. 192.ISBN 978-0-7914-1515-3.Retrieved17January2015. ^"tariqa|Islam".Britannica.com.4February2014.Retrieved29May2015. ^Cook,David(4May2015)."MysticisminSufiIslam".OxfordResearchEncyclopediaofReligion.doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.51.ISBN 978-0-19-934037-8[which?]{{citeencyclopedia}}:CS1maint:postscript(link) ^Stoeber,Michael(3September2015)."TheComparativeStudyofMysticism".OxfordResearchEncyclopediaofReligion.doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.93.ISBN 978-0-19-934037-8[which?]{{citeencyclopedia}}:CS1maint:postscript(link) ^Bowker,John(2000).TheConciseOxfordDictionaryofWorldReligions.doi:10.1093/acref/9780192800947.001.0001.ISBN 978-0-19-280094-7. ^Sanyal,Usha(1998)."GenerationalChangesintheLeadershipoftheAhl-eSunnatMovementinNorthIndiaduringtheTwentiethCentury".ModernAsianStudies.32(3):635–656.doi:10.1017/S0026749X98003059. ^."Ahlal-Sunnahwa'l-Jamaah".InEsposito(2003).–viaOxfordReference. ^Alvi,Farhat."TheSignificantRoleofSufisminCentralAsia"(PDF). ^Johns,AnthonyH(1995)."SufisminSoutheastAsia:ReflectionsandReconsiderations".JournalofSoutheastAsianStudies.26(1):169–183.doi:10.1017/S0022463400010560.JSTOR 20071709. ^Babou,CheikhAnta(2007)."SufismandReligiousBrotherhoodsinSenegal".InternationalJournalofAfricanHistoricalStudies.40(1):184–186. ^abcdeEsposito,JohnL.(ed.)."IslamicLaw".TheOxfordDictionaryofIslam–viaOxfordIslamicStudiesOnline. ^abcdefghVikør,KnutS.2014."Sharīʿah."InTheOxfordEncyclopediaofIslamandPolitics,editedbyE.Shahin.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.Archivedfromtheoriginalon4June2014.Retrieved25May2020. ^Esposito,JohnL.;DeLong-Bas,NatanaJ.(2001).WomeninMuslimFamilyLaw.SyracuseUniversityPress.pp. 2–.ISBN 978-0-8156-2908-5.Quote:"[...],bytheninthcentury,theclassicaltheoryoflawfixedthesourcesofIslamiclawatfour:theQuran,theSunnahoftheProphet,qiyas(analogicalreasoning),andijma(consensus)." ^Dahlen,Ashk.2004.IslamicLaw,EpistemologyandModernity:LegalPhilosophyinContemporaryIran.Routledge.ISBN 978-1-135-94355-4. ^abMayer,AnnElizabeth.2009."Law.ModernLegalReform."InTheOxfordEncyclopediaoftheIslamicWorld,editedbyJ.L.Esposito.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress. ^An-Na'im,AbdullahiA.(1996)."IslamicFoundationsofReligiousHumanRights".InWitte,John;vanderVyver,JohanD.(eds.).ReligiousHumanRightsinGlobalPerspective:ReligiousPerspectives.pp. 337–359.ISBN 978-90-411-0179-2. ^Hajjar,Lisa(2004)."Religion,StatePower,andDomesticViolenceinMuslimSocieties:AFrameworkforComparativeAnalysis".Law&SocialInquiry.29(1):1–38.doi:10.1111/j.1747-4469.2004.tb00329.x.JSTOR 4092696.S2CID 145681085. ^Al-Suwaidi,J.1995.Arabandwesternconceptionsofdemocracy;inDemocracy,War,andPeaceintheMiddleEast,editedbyD.GarnhamandM.A.Tessler.Bloomington:IndianaUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-253-20939-9.seeChapters5and6.[page needed] ^Bharathi,K.S.1998.EncyclopediaofEminentThinkers.p.38. ^Weiss(2002),pp. 3,161. ^Iqbal,Zamir,AbbasMirakhor,NoureddineKrichenne,andHosseinAskari.TheStabilityofIslamicFinance:CreatingaResilientFinancialEnvironment.p.75. ^Karim,ShafielA.(2010).TheIslamicMoralEconomy:AStudyofIslamicMoneyandFinancialInstruments.BocaRaton,FL:BrownWalkerPress.ISBN 978-1-59942-539-9. ^Foster,John(1December2009)."HowIslamicfinancemissedheavenlychance".BBC.Retrieved13February2022. ^Domat,Chloe(20October2020)."WhatIsIslamicFinanceAndHowDoesItWork?".GlobalFinancemagazine.Retrieved13February2022. ^Merchant,Brian(14November2013)."GuaranteeingaMinimumIncomeHasBeenaUtopianDreamforCenturies".VICE.Retrieved3June2019. ^Quddus,SyedAbdul.TheChallengeofIslamicRenaissance. ^Al-Buraey,Muhammad(1985).AdministrativeDevelopment:AnIslamicPerspective.KPI.pp. 252–.ISBN 978-0-7103-0059-1. ^Akgündüz,Ahmed;Öztürk,Said(2011).OttomanHistory:MisperceptionsandTruths.IURPress.pp. 539–.ISBN 978-90-90-26108-9.Retrieved7October2014. ^Al-Jawzi,Ibn(2001).TheBiographyandVirtuesofOmarBinAbdal-Aziz–TheAsceticCaliph.IURPress.p. 130.{{citebook}}:|access-date=requires|url=(help) ^abcdTyan,E."D̲j̲ihād".InEncyclopaediaofIslam(2nded.)(2012)..doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0189 ^Peters,Rudolph,andDavidCook.2014."Jihād."TheOxfordEncyclopediaofIslamandPolitics.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-19-973935-6. ^abFirestone(1999),p. 17. ^Habeck,MaryR.KnowingtheEnemy:JihadistIdeologyandtheWaronTerror.YaleUniversityPress.pp.108–109,118. ^Sachedina(1998),pp. 105–106. ^Nasr(2003),p. 72. ^FahdSalemBahammam.FoodandDressinIslam:AnexplanationofmattersrelatingtofoodanddrinkanddressinIslam.ModernGuide.p. 1.ISBN 978-1-909322-99-8. ^See: Curtis(2005),p. 164 Esposito(2002b),p. 111 Ghamidi,JavedAhmad."CustomsandBehavioralLaws".Archivedfromtheoriginalon23September2013. Ghamidi,JavedAhmad."TheDietaryLaws".Archivedfromtheoriginalon2May2007. Ghamidi,JavedAhmad."VarioustypesofthePrayer".Archivedfromtheoriginalon23September2013. ErsiliaFrancesca."Slaughter".InMcAuliffe(n.d.). ^DeSondy,Amanullah(28January2016)."TherelationshipbetweenMuslimmenandtheirbeardsisatangledone".TheGuardian.Retrieved7March2022. ^Khan,Tahir(30December2021)."TalibanCallonBarbershopstoNotShave,TrimBeards".VoiceofAmerica.Retrieved7March2022. ^JamesLegge(1880).ThereligionsofChina:ConfucianismandTâoismdescribedandcomparedwithChristianity.LONDON:HodderandStoughton.p. 111.Retrieved28June2010.mohammedan.(OriginalfromHarvardUniversity) ^"AreMuslimsAllowedtoGetTattoos?".Retrieved7March2022. ^"AreSilkTiesPermissibleinIslam?".Retrieved7March2022. ^Campo(2009),p. 106. ^abNigosian(2004),p. 120. ^Campo(2009),p. 136. ^MuhammadShafiUsmani.MaarifulQuran.Englishtrans.ByMuhammadTaqiUsmani ^See: Waines(2003),pp. 93–96 Esposito(2003),p. 339 Esposito(1998),p. 79 ^Newby,GordonD.(2002).AconciseencyclopediaofIslam.Oxford:Oneworld.p. 141.ISBN 978-1-85168-295-9. ^Nasr,SeyyedHossein(2001).Islam :religion,history,andcivilization.NewYork:HarperOne.p. 68.ISBN 978-0-06-050714-5. ^Eaton,Gai(2000).RememberingGod:ReflectionsonIslam.Cambridge:TheIslamicTextsSociety.pp. 92–93.ISBN 978-0-946621-84-2. ^"WhyCan'taWomanhave2Husbands?".14Publications.Archivedfromtheoriginalon23December2015.Retrieved27December2015. ^Stefon(2010),p. 83. ^Rahman,Rema(25October2011)."Who,What,Why:WhataretheburialcustomsinIslam?".BBC.Retrieved28January2022. ^Zine,Jasmin;Babana-Hampton,Safoi;Mazid,Nergis;Bullock,Katherine;Chishti,Maliha.AmericanJournalofIslamicSocialSciences19:4.InternationalInstituteofIslamicThought(IIIT).p. 59.Retrieved4June2020. ^Leaman(2006),p. 214. ^Nigosian(2004),p. 116. ^abFirestone(1999),pp. 17–18. ^abAfsaruddin,Asma."Jihad".EncyclopædiaBritannica.Retrieved17September2021. ^See: Brockopp(2003),pp. 99–100 Esposito(2003),p. 93 ^Melikian,Souren(4November2011)."'Islamic'Culture:AGroundlessMyth".TheNewYorkTimes.Retrieved25November2013. ^Esposito(2010),p. 56. ^Ettinghausen,Richard;Grabar,Oleg;Jenkins-Madina,Marilyn(2003).IslamicArtandArchitecture650-1250(2nd ed.).YaleUniversityPress.p. 3.ISBN 0-300-08869-8. ^SalimAyduz;IbrahimKalin;CanerDagli(2014).TheOxfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy,Science,andTechnologyinIslam.OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-19-981257-8.FiguralrepresentationisvirtuallyunusedinIslamicartbecauseofIslam'sstrongantagonismofidolatry.ItwasimportantforMuslimscholarsandartiststofindastyleofartthatrepresentedtheIslamicidealsofunity(tawhid)andorderwithoutfiguralrepresentation.Geometricpatternsperfectlysuitedthisgoal. ^Isichei,ElizabethAllo(1997).AhistoryofAfricansocietiesto1870.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.p. 175.ISBN 978-0-521-45599-2.Retrieved6August2010. ^"SacredTime."Patheos.2020. ^Ghamidi(a),JavedAhmad."CustomsandBehavioralLaws".InGhamidi(2001),pp. 321–333. ^DeMcLaurin,Ronald(1979).ThePoliticalRoleofMinorityGroupsintheMiddleEast.MichiganUniversityPress.p. 114.ISBN 978-0-03-052596-4.Theologically,onewouldhavetoconcludethattheDruzearenotMuslims.TheydonotacceptthefivepillarsofIslam.Inplaceoftheseprinciples,theDruzehaveinstitutedthesevenpreceptsnotedabove... ^Hunter,Shireen(2010).ThePoliticsofIslamicRevivalism:DiversityandUnity:CenterforStrategicandInternationalStudies(Washington,D.C.),GeorgetownUniversity.CenterforStrategicandInternationalStudies.UniversityofMichiganPress.p. 33.ISBN 978-0-253-34549-3.Druze–AnoffshootofShi'ism;itsmembersarenotconsideredMuslimsbyorthodoxMuslims. ^D.Grafton,David(2009).Piety,Politics,andPower:LutheransEncounteringIslamintheMiddleEast.WipfandStockPublishers.p. 14.ISBN 978-1-63087-718-7.Inaddition,thereareseveralquasi-Muslimsects,inthat,althoughtheyfollowmanyofthebeliefsandpracticesoforthodoxIslam,themajorityofSunnisconsiderthemheretical.ThesewouldbetheAhmadiyya,Druze,Ibadi,andtheYazidis. ^R.Williams,Victoria(2020).IndigenousPeoples:AnEncyclopediaofCulture,History,andThreatstoSurvival[4volumes].ABC-CLIO.p. 318.ISBN 978-1-4408-6118-5.AsDruzeisanonritualisticreligionwithoutrequirementstopray,fast,makepilgrimages,orobservedaysofrest,theDruzearenotconsideredanIslamicpeoplebySunniMuslims. ^J.Stewart,Dona(2008).TheMiddleEastToday:Political,GeographicalandCulturalPerspectives.Routledge.p. 33.ISBN 978-1-135-98079-5.MostDruzedonotconsiderthemselvesMuslim.Historicallytheyfacedmuchpersecutionandkepttheirreligiousbeliefssecrets. ^HouseofJustice,Universal."OneCommonFaith".reference.bahai.org.Retrieved1April2017. ^Elsberg,Constance(2003),GracefulWomen.UniversityofTennesseePress.ISBN 978-1-57233-214-0.pp.27–28. ^"St.JohnofDamascus'sCritiqueofIslam".WritingsbyStJohnofDamascus.TheFathersoftheChurch.Vol. 37.Washington,DC:CatholicUniversityofAmericaPress.1958.pp. 153–160.Retrieved8July2019. ^Fahlbuschetal(2001),p. 759. ^Warraq,Ibn(2003).LeavingIslam:ApostatesSpeakOut.PrometheusBooks.p. 67.ISBN 978-1-59102-068-4. ^Kammuna,Ibn(1971).ExaminationoftheThreeFaiths.BerkeleyandLosAngeles:MoshePerlmann.pp. 148–149. ^ChristianLangeParadiseandHellinIslamicTraditionsCambridgeUniversityPress,2015ISBN 978-0-521-50637-3pp.18–20 ^Reeves,Minou,andP.J.Stewart.2003.MuhammadinEurope:AThousandYearsofWesternMyth-Making.NYUPress.ISBN 978-0-8147-7564-6.p.93–96. ^abStone,G.2006.Dante'sPluralismandtheIslamicPhilosophyofReligion.SpringerPublishing.ISBN 978-1-4039-8309-1.p.132. ^TimothyGartonAsh(5October2006)."IslaminEurope".TheNewYorkReviewofBooks. ^Modood,Tariq(6April2006).Multiculturalism,MuslimsandCitizenship:AEuropeanApproach(1st ed.).Routledge.p. 29.ISBN 978-0-415-35515-5. ^Warraq,Ibn(2000).TheQuestforHistoricalMuhammad(1st ed.).Amherst,MA:PrometheusBooks.p. 103.ISBN 978-1-57392-787-1. Booksandjournals Accad,Martin(2003)."TheGospelsintheMuslimDiscourseoftheNinthtotheFourteenthCenturies:AnExegeticalInventorialTable(PartI)".IslamandChristian-MuslimRelations.14(1):67–91.doi:10.1080/09596410305261.S2CID 170638096. Ahmed,Akbar(1999).IslamToday:AShortIntroductiontotheMuslimWorld.I.B.Tauris.ISBN 978-1-86064-257-9. Ahmed,Imad-ad-Dean(2006).Signsintheheavens.Vol. 2.AmanaPublications.ISBN 1-59008-040-8. Bennett,Clinton(2010).InterpretingtheQur'an:aguidefortheuninitiated.ContinuumInternationalPublishingGroup.p. 101.ISBN 978-0-8264-9944-8. Blankinship,K.(2008)."Theearlycreed".InT.Winter(ed.).TheCambridgeCompaniontoClassicalIslamicTheology.CambridgeCompanionstoReligion.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.pp. 33–54.doi:10.1017/CCOL9780521780582.003.ISBN 978-0-521-78058-2. Brockopp,JonathanE.(2003).IslamicEthicsofLife:abortion,warandeuthanasia.UniversityofSouthCarolinaPress.ISBN 978-1-57003-471-8. Bulliet,Richard(2005).TheEarthandItsPeoples.Boston:HoughtonMifflin.ISBN 0-618-42770-8. Burge,Stephen(2015).AngelsinIslam:Jalalal-Dinal-Suyuti'sal-Haba'ikfiakhbaral-mala'ik.London:Routledge.ISBN 978-1-136-50473-0. Çakmak,Cenap(2017).Islam:AWorldwideEncyclopedia.4volumes.ABC-CLIO.ISBN 978-1-61069-217-5. Campo,JuanE.(2009).EncyclopediaofIslam.InfobasePublishing.ISBN 978-0-8160-5454-1. Chittick,WilliamC(2008).Sufism:ABeginner'sGuide.ISBN 978-1-78074-052-2.Retrieved17January2015. Cohen-Mor,Dalya(2001).AMatterofFate:TheConceptofFateintheArabWorldasReflectedinModernArabicLiterature.OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-19-513398-1. Curtis,PatriciaA.(2005).AGuidetoFoodLawsandRegulations.BlackwellPublishingProfessional.ISBN 978-0-8138-1946-4. Esposito,John(1998).Islam:TheStraightPath(3rd ed.).OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-19-511234-4. —,ed.(1999).TheOxfordHistoryofIslam.OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-19-510799-9. —,ed.(2000).TheOxfordHistoryofIslam.OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-19-510799-9. —(2002a).UnholyWar:TerrorintheNameofIslam.OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-19-516886-0. —(2002b).WhatEveryoneNeedstoKnowaboutIslam.OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-19-515713-0. —(2005).Islam:TheStraightPath(Revised3rd ed.).OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-19-518266-8. —(2010).Islam:TheStraightPath(4th ed.).OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-19-539600-3. —(2011).WhatEveryoneNeedstoKnowaboutIslam(2nd ed.).Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-19-979413-3.Laysummary Esposito,John;Haddad,YvonneYazbeck(2000).MuslimsontheAmericanizationPath?.OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-19-513526-8. 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Mababaya,MamarintaP.InternationalBusinessSuccessinaStrangeCulturalEnvironment(Thesis).[fullcitationneeded] Menski,WernerF.(2006).ComparativeLawinaGlobalContext:TheLegalSystemsofAsiaandAfrica.CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-521-85859-5. Momen,Moojan(1987).AnIntroductiontoShi'iIslam:TheHistoryandDoctrinesofTwelverShi'ism.YaleUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-300-03531-5. Nasr,SeyedHossein(2003).TheHeartofIslam:EnduringValuesforHumanity. Nasr,SeyedMuhammad(1994).OurReligions:TheSevenWorldReligionsIntroducedbyPreeminentScholarsfromEachTradition(Chapter7).HarperCollins.ISBN 978-0-06-067700-8. Nigosian,SolomonAlexander(2004).Islam:ItsHistory,Teaching,andPractices.IndianaUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-253-21627-4. Patton,WalterM.(1900).TheDoctrineofFreedomintheKorân.TheAmericanJournalofSemiticLanguagesandLiteratures.Vol. 16.p. 129.doi:10.1086/369367.ISBN 978-90-04-10314-6.S2CID 144087031. Peters,F.E.(2003).Islam:AGuideforJewsandChristians.PrincetonUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-691-11553-5. MappingtheGlobalMuslimPopulation:AReportontheSizeandDistributionoftheWorld'sMuslimPopulation(PDF).PewResearchCenter(Report).October2009.Retrieved25May2020.Overview. Rahman,H.U.(1999).ChronologyofIslamicHistory,570–1000CE(3rd ed.).Ta-HaPublishersLtd. Rippin,Andrew(2001).Muslims:TheirReligiousBeliefsandPractices(2nd ed.).Routledge.ISBN 978-0-415-21781-1. Serjeant,R.B.(1978)."SunnahJami'ah,pactswiththeYathribJews,andtheTahrimofYathrib".BulletinoftheSchoolofOrientalandAfricanStudies.CambridgeUniversityPress.41:1–42.doi:10.1017/S0041977X00057761. Sachedina,Abdulaziz(1998).TheJustRulerinShi'iteIslam:TheComprehensiveAuthorityoftheJuristinImamiteJurisprudence.OxfordUniversityPressUS.ISBN 978-0-19-511915-2. Siljander,MarkD.,andJohnDavidMann(2008).ADeadlyMisunderstanding:aCongressman'sQuesttoBridgetheMuslim-ChristianDivide(1sted.).NewYork:HarperOne.ISBN 978-0-06-143828-8 Smith,JaneI.(2006).TheIslamicUnderstandingofDeathandResurrection.OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-19-515649-2. Stefon,Matt,ed.(2010).IslamicBeliefsandPractices.NewYork:BritannicaEducationalPublishing.ISBN 978-1-61530-060-0. Ṭabāṭabāʼī,SayyidMohammadHosayn(1979).Shi'iteIslam.TranslatedbyNasr,SeyyedHossein.SUNYPress.ISBN 978-0-87395-272-9. Teece,Geoff(2003).ReligioninFocus:Islam.FranklinWattsLtd.ISBN 978-0-7496-4796-4. Trimingham,JohnSpencer(1998).TheSufiOrdersinIslam.OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-19-512058-5. Turner,Colin(2006).Islam:theBasics.London:Routledge.ISBN 978-0-415-34106-6. Turner,BryanS.(1998).WeberandIslam.London:Routledge.ISBN 978-0-415-17458-9. Waines,David(2003).AnIntroductiontoIslam.CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-521-53906-7. Watt,W.Montgomery(1973).TheFormativePeriodofIslamicThought.UniversityPressEdinburgh.ISBN 978-0-85224-245-2. —(1974).Muhammad:ProphetandStatesman(New ed.).OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-19-881078-0. Weiss,BernardG.(2002).StudiesinIslamicLegalTheory.Boston:BrillAcademicpublishers.ISBN 978-90-04-12066-2. EncyclopediasandDictionaries Gardet,L.;Jomier,J."Islām".InEncyclopaediaofIslam(2nded.)(2012).doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0387 WilliamH.McNeill;JerryH.Bentley;DavidChristian,eds.(2005).BerkshireEncyclopediaofWorldHistory.BerkshirePublishingGroup.ISBN 978-0-9743091-0-1. Oussani,Gabriel,ed.(1911).TheCatholicEncyclopedia.Vol. 10.NewYork:RobertAppletonCompany. Lagasse,Paul;Goldman,Lora;Hobson,Archie;Norton,SusanR.,eds.(2000).TheColumbiaEncyclopedia(6th ed.).GaleGroup.ISBN 978-1-59339-236-9. EncyclopædiaBritannica.EncyclopædiaBritannica,Inc. Fahlbusch,Erwin;et al.,eds.(1999).TheEncyclopediaofChristianity.Vol. 1(1st ed.).EerdmansPublishingCompany.ISBN 978-0-8028-2414-1. Fahlbusch,Erwin;et al.,eds.(2001).TheEncyclopediaofChristianity.Vol. 2.BrillPublishers.ISBN 978-90-04-11695-5. JohnBowden,ed.(2005).EncyclopediaofChristianity(1st ed.).OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-19-522393-4. Houtsma,M.T.;Arnold,T.W.;Basset,R.;Hartmann,R.,eds.(1913–1936).EncyclopaediaofIslam(1st ed.).Leiden:Brill.ISBN 978-90-04-08265-6. Bearman,P.J.;Bianquis,Th.;Bosworth,C.E.;vanDonzel,E.;Heinrichs,W.P.,eds.(2012)."EncyclopaediaofIslam".EncyclopaediaofIslamOnline(2nd ed.).Leiden:Brill.ISBN 978-90-04-16121-4.ISSN 1573-3912. Bearman,P.J.;Bianquis,Th.;Bosworth,C.E.;vanDonzel,E.;Heinrichs,W.P.,eds.(n.d.).EncyclopaediaofIslamOnline.BrillAcademicPublishers.ISSN 1573-3912. Martin,RichardC.,ed.(2004).EncyclopediaofIslamandtheMuslimWorld.MacmillanReferenceBooks.Thomson-Gale.ISBN 978-0-02-865603-8. McAuliffe,JaneDammen,ed.(n.d.).EncyclopaediaoftheQur'anOnline.BrillAcademicPublishers. McAuliffe,JaneDammen,ed.(2002).EncyclopaediaoftheQurʾān.Vol. 2.BrillAcademicPublishers. McAuliffe,JaneDammen,ed.(2003).EncyclopaediaoftheQurʾān.Vol. 3.BrillAcademicPublishers. Salamone,Frank,ed.(2004).EncyclopediaofReligiousRites,Rituals,andFestivals.RoutledgeEncyclopediasofReligionandSociety.Vol. 6(1st ed.).Routledge.ISBN 978-0-415-94180-8.JSTOR j.ctt1jd94wq. Glassé,Cyril,ed.(2003).TheNewEncyclopediaofIslam.RevisedEditionoftheConciseEncyclopediaofIslam.AltaMiraPress.ISBN 978-0-7591-0190-6. Esposito,John,ed.(2003).TheOxfordDictionaryofIslam.OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-19-512558-0.doi:10.1093/acref/9780195125580.001.0001–viaOxfordReference. Esposito,John,ed.(2004).TheOxfordDictionaryofIslam.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-19-975726-8. Leaman,Oliver,ed.(2006).TheQur'an:AnEncyclopedia.Routledge.ISBN 978-0-415-32639-1. Furtherreading IslamatWikipedia'ssisterprojectsDefinitionsfromWiktionaryMediafromCommonsNewsfromWikinewsQuotationsfromWikiquoteTextsfromWikisourceTextbooksfromWikibooksTravelguidesfromWikivoyageResourcesfromWikiversityDatafromWikidata EncyclopediaofSahihAl-BukharibyArabicVirtualTranslationCenter(NewYork2019,Barnes&NobleISBN 978-0-359-67265-3).ThefoundationofIslam:fromrevelationtotawhid. Abdul-Haqq,AbdiyahAkbar(1980).SharingYourFaithwithaMuslim.Minneapolis:BethanyHousePublishers.N.B.PresentsthegenuinedoctrinesandconceptsofIslamandoftheHolyQur'an,andthisreligion'saffinitieswithChristianityanditsSacredScriptures,inorderto"dialogue"onthebasisofwhatbothfaithsreallyteach.ISBN 0-87123-553-6 Ahmad,Imad-ad-Dean(2008)."Islam".InHamowy,Ronald(ed.).TheEncyclopediaofLibertarianism.ThousandOaks,CA:SAGE;CatoInstitute.pp. 256–258.doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n155.ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4.LCCN 2008009151.OCLC 750831024. Akyol,Mustafa(2011).IslamWithoutExtremes(1st ed.).W.W.Norton&Company.ISBN 978-0-393-07086-6. Arberry,A.J.(1996).TheKoranInterpreted:ATranslation(1st ed.).Touchstone.ISBN 978-0-684-82507-6. Cragg,Kenneth(1975).TheHouseofIslam,inTheReligiousLifeofManSeries.Seconded.Belmont,CA:WadsworthPublishingCompany1975.xiii,145p.ISBN 0-8221-0139-4. Hourani,Albert(1991).IslaminEuropeanThought.Firstpbk.ed.Cambridge,Eng.:CambridgeUniversityPress,1992,cop.1991.xi,199p.ISBN 0-521-42120-9;alternativeISBNonbackcover,0-521-42120-0. Khan,MuhammadMuhsin;Al-HilaliKhan;MuhammadTaqi-ud-Din(1999).NobleQuran(1st ed.).Dar-us-SalamPublications.ISBN 978-9960-740-79-9. Khanbaghi,A,(2006).TheFire,theStarandtheCross:MinorityReligionsinMedievalandEarlyModernIran.I.B.Tauris. Khavari,FaridA.(1990).OilandIslam:theTickingBomb.Firsted.Malibu,Calif.:RoundtablePublications.viii,277p.,ill.withmapsandcharts.ISBN 0-915677-55-5. Kramer,Martin,ed.(1999).TheJewishDiscoveryofIslam:StudiesinHonorofBernardLewis.SyracuseUniversityPress.ISBN 978-965-224-040-8. Kuban,Dogan(1974).MuslimReligiousArchitecture.BrillAcademicPublishers.ISBN 978-90-04-03813-4. Lewis,Bernard(1994).IslamandtheWest.OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-19-509061-1. Lewis,Bernard(1996).CulturesinConflict:Christians,Muslims,andJewsintheAgeofDiscovery.OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-19-510283-3. Mubarkpuri,Saifur-Rahman(2002).TheSealedNectar:BiographyoftheProphet.Dar-us-SalamPublications.ISBN 978-1-59144-071-0. Najeebabadi,AkbarShah(2001).HistoryofIslam.Dar-us-SalamPublications.ISBN 978-1-59144-034-5. Rahman,Fazlur(1979).Islam(2nd ed.).UniversityofChicagoPress.ISBN 978-0-226-70281-0. Schimmel,Annemarie(1994).DecipheringtheSignsofGod:APhenomenologicalApproachtoIslam.StateUniversityofNewYorkPress.ISBN 978-0-7914-1982-3. Tausch,Arno(2009).What1.3 BillionMuslimsReallyThink:AnAnswertoaRecentGallupStudy,Basedonthe"WorldValuesSurvey".ForewordMansoorMoaddel,EasternMichiganUniversity(1st ed.).NovaSciencePublishers,NewYork.ISBN 978-1-60692-731-1. Tausch,Arno;Heshmati,Almas;Karoui,Hichem(2015).Thepoliticalalgebraofglobalvaluechange.GeneralmodelsandimplicationsfortheMuslimworld(1st ed.).NewYork:NovaSciencePublishers.ISBN 978-1-62948-899-8.Prepublicationtextavailableat:Tausch,Arno;Heshmati,Almas;Karoui,Hichem(January2014)."Thepoliticalalgebraofglobalvaluechange.GeneralmodelsandimplicationsfortheMuslimworld".ResearchGate. Walker,Benjamin(1998).FoundationsofIslam:TheMakingofaWorldFaith.PeterOwenPublishers.ISBN 978-0-7206-1038-3. vteIslamtopicsOutlineofIslamBeliefs GodinIslam Tawhid Muhammad InIslam ProphetsofIslam Angels Revelation Qadar JudgementDay FivePillars Shahada Salah Sawm Zakat Hajj HistoryLeaders TimelineofIslamichistory SuccessiontoMuhammad Earlyconquests GoldenAge Historiography Sahaba Ahlal-Bayt Shi'aImams Caliphates Rashidun Umayyad Abbasid Córdoba Fatimid Almohad Sokoto Ottoman Religioustexts Quran Hadith Tafsir Seerah StoryofProphets Denominations Sunni Ash'ari,MaturidiandHanbali Sufi Salafi Shia TwelverShia Isma'ilism Alawites Alevism BektashiAlevism Zaidiyyah Ibadi NationofIslam Ahmadiyya Lahori Quranism Non-denominational LifeCulture Animals Art Calendar Children Clothing Flags Holidays Mosques Madrasas Moralteachings Music Philosophy Politicalaspects Qurbani Science Socialwelfare Women LGBT Islambycountry LawJurisprudenceEconomics Banking Economichistory Sukuk Takaful Murabaha Riba Hygiene Ghusl Miswak Najis Tayammum Toilet Wudu FamilyMarriageSex Haya Marriagecontract Mahr Mahram Nikah Nikahmut'ah Zina Otheraspects Baligh Cleanliness Criminal Dhabiĥa Dhimmi Divorce Diet Ethics Etiquette Gambling Gendersegregation Honorifics Hudud Inheritance Jizya Leadership Mamalakataymanukum Military POWs Slavery Sourcesoflaw Theological kalam Schoolsofislamicjurisprudence  IslamicstudiesArts Arabesque Architecture Calligraphy Carpets Gardens Geometricpatterns Music Pottery Medievalscience Alchemyandchemistry Astronomy Cosmology Geographyandcartography Mathematics Medicine Ophthalmology Physics Philosophy Early Contemporary Eschatology Theological Otherareas Astrology Creationism(evolution) Feminism Inventions Liberalismandprogressivism Literature poetry Psychology Shu'ubiyya Conversiontomosques  OtherOtherreligions Christianity Mormonism Protestantism Hinduism Jainism Judaism Sikhism Apostasy ApostasyinIslambycountry Ex-Muslims ListofformerMuslims Listofex-Muslimorganisations 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