Negotiation - Wikipedia

Negotiation is a dialogue between two or more people or parties intended to reach a beneficial outcome over one or more issues where a conflict exists with ... Negotiation FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Forotheruses,seeNegotiation(disambiguation). Dialogueintendedtoreachanagreement Alternativedisputeresolution Arbitration Conciliation Mediation Negotiation Collaborativelaw Conflictresolution Disputeresolution Lawyer-supportedmediation Party-directedmediation Restorativejustice vte TheministersofforeignaffairsoftheUnitedStates,theUnitedKingdom,Russia,Germany,France,China,theEuropeanUnionandIrannegotiatinginLausanneforaComprehensiveagreementontheIraniannuclearprogramme(30March2015). SigningtheTreatyofTrianonon4June1920.AlbertApponyistandinginthemiddle. Negotiationisadialoguebetweentwoormorepeopleorpartiesintendedtoreachabeneficialoutcomeoveroneormoreissueswhereaconflictexistswithrespecttoatleastoneoftheseissues.Negotiationisaninteractionandprocessbetweenentitieswhoaspiretoagreeonmattersofmutualinterest,whileoptimizingtheirindividualutilities.[1]Thisbeneficialoutcomecanbeforallofthepartiesinvolved,orjustforoneorsomeofthem.Negotiatorsneedtounderstandthenegotiationprocessandothernegotiatorstoincreasetheirchancestoclosedeals,avoidconflicts,establishingrelationshipwithotherpartiesandgainprofit[1]andmaximizemutualgains. Itisaimedtoresolvepointsofdifference,togainadvantageforanindividualorcollective,ortocraftoutcomestosatisfyvariousinterests.Distributivenegotiations,orcompromise,isconductedbyputtingforwardapositionandmakingconcessionstoachieveanagreement.Thedegreetowhichthenegotiatingpartiestrusteachothertoimplementthenegotiatedsolutionisamajorfactorindeterminingwhethernegotiationsaresuccessful. Peoplenegotiatedaily,oftenwithoutconsideringitanegotiation.[2][3][page needed]Negotiationoccursinorganizations,includingbusinesses,non-profits,andwithinandbetweengovernmentsaswellasinsalesandlegalproceedings,andinpersonalsituationssuchasmarriage,divorce,parenting,etc.Professionalnegotiatorsareoftenspecialized,suchasunionnegotiators,leveragebuyoutnegotiators,peacenegotiator,orhostagenegotiators.Theymayalsoworkunderothertitles,suchasdiplomats,legislators,orbrokers.Thereisalsonegotiationconductedbyalgorithmsormachinesknownasautonomousnegotiation.[4][1][5]Forautomation,thenegotiationparticipantsandprocesshavetobemodeledcorrectly.[6] Contents 1Types 1.1Distributivenegotiation 1.2Integrativenegotiation 1.3Text-basednegotiation 1.4Stagesinthenegotiationprocess 1.5Integratednegotiation 1.6Badfaith 2NegotiationPie 3Strategies 3.1Employinganadvocate 3.2BATNA 3.3Conflictstyles 3.4Typesofnegotiators 3.5Tactics 3.6Nonverbalcommunication 3.6.1Examples 3.7Barriers 4Emotion 4.1Affecteffect 4.2Positiveaffect 4.3Negativeaffect 4.4Conditionsforemotionaffect 4.5Effectofpartner'semotions 4.6Dealingwithemotions 4.7Problemswithlaboratorystudies 5Groupcomposition 5.1Multi-party 5.2Team 5.3Women 5.4Academicnegotiation 6Etymology 7Seealso 8References 9Furtherreading 10Externallink Types[edit] J.K.Paasikivi,FinnishCounsellorofStateandthefuturePresidentofFinland,arrivingfromnegotiationsinMoscowonOctober16,1939.Fromlefttoright:AarnoYrjö-Koskinen,Paasikivi,JohanNykoppandAladárPaasonen. Negotiationcantakeawidevarietyofforms,fromamultilateralconferenceofallUnitedNationsmemberstoestablishanewinternationalnorm(suchastheUNConventionontheLawoftheSea)toameetingofpartiestoaconflicttoendviolenceorresolvetheunderlyingissue(suchasconstitutionalnegotiationsinSouthAfricain1990-1994orinColombiawiththeFARCin2012-2015)toabusinessencountertomakeadealtoaface-offbetweenparents(orbetweenparentandchild)overthechild'sproperbehavior.[7]Mediationisaformofnegotiationwithathird-partycatalystwhohelpstheconflictingpartiesnegotiatewhentheycannotdosobythemselves.Negotiationcanbecontrastedwitharbitration,wherethedecisionlieswiththethirdparty,whichtheconflictingpartiesarecommittedtoaccept. Negotiationtheoristsgenerallydistinguishbetweentwotypesofnegotiation.[8]Thedifferenceintheusageofthetwotypesdependsonthemindsetofthenegotiatorbutalsoonthesituation:one-offencounterswherelastingrelationshipsdonotoccuraremorelikelytoproducedistributivenegotiationswhereaslastingrelationshipsaremorelikelytorequireintegrativenegotiating.[9]Differenttheoristsusedifferentlabelsforthetwogeneraltypesanddistinguishthemindifferentways. Distributivenegotiation[edit] Seealso:Zero-sumgame Distributivenegotiation,orcompromiseisalsosometimescalledpositionalorhard-bargainingnegotiationandattemptstodistributea"fixedpie"ofbenefits.Distributivenegotiationoperatesunderzero-sumconditionsandimpliesthatanygainonepartymakesisattheexpenseoftheotherandviceversa.Forthisreason,distributivenegotiationisalsosometimescalledwin-losebecauseoftheassumptionthatoneperson'sgainisanotherperson'sloss.Distributivenegotiationexamplesincludehagglingpricesonanopenmarket,includingthenegotiationofthepriceofacarorahome. Inadistributivenegotiation,eachsideoftenadoptsanextremeorfixedposition,knowingitwillnotbeaccepted—andthenseekstocedeaslittleaspossiblebeforereachingadeal.Distributivebargainersconceiveofnegotiationasaprocessofdistributingafixedamountofvalue.Adistributivenegotiationofteninvolvespeoplewhohaveneverhadapreviousinteractiverelationshipwitheachother,noraretheylikelytodosoagaininthenearfuture,althoughallnegotiationsusuallyhaveadistributiveelement. Inthedistributiveapproacheachnegotiatorfightsforthelargestpossiblepieceofthepie,sopartiestendtoregardeachothermoreasanadversarythanapartnerandtotakeaharderline.[10]SinceProspectTheoryindicatesthatpeoplevaluelossesmorethangainsandaremorerisk-averseaboutlosses,concession-convergencebargainingislikelytobemoreacrimoniousandlessproductiveofanagreement.[11] Integrativenegotiation[edit] Seealso:Non-zero-sumgameandWin-wingame Integrativenegotiationisalsocalledinterest-based,merit-based,orprinciplednegotiation.Itisasetoftechniquesthatattemptstoimprovethequalityandlikelihoodofnegotiatedagreementbytakingadvantageofthefactthatdifferentpartiesoftenvaluevariousoutcomesdifferently.[12]Whiledistributivenegotiationassumesthereisafixedamountofvalue(a"fixedpie")tobedividedbetweentheparties,integrativenegotiationattemptstocreatevalueinthecourseofthenegotiation("expandthepie")byeither"compensating"lossofoneitemwithgainsfromanother("trade-offs"orlogrolling),orbyconstructingorreframingtheissuesoftheconflictinsuchawaythatbothpartiesbenefit("win-win"negotiation).[13] However,evenintegrativenegotiationislikelytohavesomedistributiveelements,especiallywhenthedifferentpartiesbothvaluedifferentitemstothesamedegreeorwhendetailsarelefttobeallocatedattheendofthenegotiation.Whileconcessionismandatoryfornegotiations,researchshowsthatpeoplewhoconcedemorequickly,arelesslikelytoexploreallintegrativeandmutuallybeneficialsolutions.Therefore,earlyconcedingreducesthechanceofanintegrativenegotiation.[14] Integrativenegotiationofteninvolvesahigherdegreeoftrustandtheformationofarelationship.Itcanalsoinvolvecreativeproblem-solvingthataimstoachievemutualgains.Itseesagoodagreementasnotonewithmaximumindividualgain,butonethatprovidesoptimumgainforallparties.Eachpartyseekstoaccordtheotherpartysufficientbenefitthatbothwillholdtotheagreement. Productivenegotiationfocusesontheunderlyinginterestsofthepartiesratherthantheirstartingpositions,approachesnegotiationasasharedproblem-solvingratherthanapersonalizedbattle,andinsistsuponadherencetoobjective,principledcriteriaasthebasisforagreement.[15] Text-basednegotiation[edit] Text-basednegotiationreferstotheprocessofworkingupthetextofanagreementwhichallpartiesarewillingtoacceptandsignupto.Negotiatingpartiesmaybeginwithadrafttext,considernewtextualsuggestionsandworktofindthemiddlegroundamongvariousdifferingpositions.[16]Examplesofreferencestotext-basednegotiationincludetheUnitedNations'text-basednegotiationregardingthereformoftheUNSecurityCouncil[17]andtheformationoftheinternationalagreementunderpinningtheRegionalComprehensiveEconomicPartnership(RCEP)intheAsia-PacificRegion,[18]wherethepartiesinvolvedfailedin2019toagreeatextwhichwouldsuitIndia.[19] Stagesinthenegotiationprocess[edit] However,negotiatorsneednotsacrificeeffectivenegotiationinfavorofapositiverelationshipbetweenparties.Ratherthanconceding,eachsidecanappreciatethattheotherhasemotionsandmotivationsoftheirownandusethistotheiradvantageindiscussingtheissue.Infact,perspective-takingcanhelpmovepartiestowardamoreintegrativesolution.Fisheretal.illustrateafewtechniquesthateffectivelyimproveperspective-takingintheirbookGettingtoYes,andthroughthefollowing,negotiatorscanseparatepeoplefromtheproblemitself. Putyourselfintheirshoes–Peopletendtosearchforinformationthatconfirmshisorherownbeliefsandoftenignoreinformationthatcontradictspriorbeliefs.Inordertonegotiateeffectively,itisimportanttoempathizewiththeotherparty'spointofview.Oneshouldbeopentootherviewsandattempttoapproachanissuefromtheperspectiveoftheother. Discusseachother'sperceptions–Amoredirectapproachtounderstandingtheotherpartyistoexplicitlydiscusseachother'sperceptions.Eachindividualshouldopenlyandhonestlysharehisorherperceptionswithoutassigningblameorjudgementtotheother. Findopportunitiestoactinconsistentlywithhisorherviews–Itispossiblethattheotherpartyhaspriorperceptionsandexpectationsabouttheotherside.Theothersidecanactinawaythatdirectlycontradictsthosepreconceptions,whichcaneffectivelysendamessagethatthepartyisinterestedinanintegrativenegotiation. Face-saving–Thisapproachreferstojustifyingastancebasedonone'spreviouslyexpressedprinciplesandvaluesinanegotiation.Thisapproachtoanissueislessarbitrary,andthus,itismoreunderstandablefromtheopposingparty'sperspective.[20] Additionally,negotiatorscanusecertaincommunicationtechniquestobuildastrongerrelationshipanddevelopmoremeaningfulnegotiationsolution. Activelistening–Listeningismorethanjusthearingwhattheothersideissaying.Activelisteninginvolvespayingcloseattentiontowhatisbeingsaidverballyandnonverbally.Itinvolvesperiodicallyseekingfurtherclarificationfromtheperson.Byaskingthepersonexactlywhattheymean,theymayrealizeyouarenotsimplywalkingthrougharoutine,butrathertakethemseriously. Speakforapurpose–Toomuchinformationcanbeasharmfulastoolittle.Beforestatinganimportantpoint,determineexactlywhatyouwishyoucommunicatetotheotherparty.Determinetheexactpurposethatthissharedinformationwillserve.[20] Integratednegotiation[edit] Integratednegotiationisastrategicapproachtoinfluencethatmaximizesvalueinanysinglenegotiationthroughtheastutelinkingandsequencingofothernegotiationsanddecisionsrelatedtoone'soperatingactivities. Thisapproachincomplexsettingsisbestexecutedbymappingoutallpotentiallyrelevantnegotiations,conflictsandoperatingdecisionsinordertointegratehelpfulconnectionsamongthem,whileminimizinganypotentiallyharmfulconnections(seeexamplesbelow). Integratednegotiationisnottobeconfusedwithintegrativenegotiation,adifferentconcept(asoutlinedabove)relatedtoanon-zero-sumapproachtocreatingvalueinnegotiations. IntegratednegotiationwasfirstidentifiedandlabeledbyinternationalnegotiatorandauthorPeterJohnstoninhisbookNegotiatingwithGiants.[21] OneoftheexamplescitedinJohnston'sbookisthatofJ.D.Rockefellerdecidingwheretobuildhisfirstmajoroilrefinery.Insteadoftakingtheeasier,cheaperroutefromtheoilfieldstorefinehispetroleuminPittsburgh,RockefellerchosetobuildhisrefineryinCleveland.Why?Becauserailcompanieswouldbetransportinghisrefinedoiltomarket.Pittsburghhadjustonemajorrailroad,meaningitcoulddictatepricesinnegotiations,whileClevelandhadthreerailroadsthatRockefellerknewwouldcompeteforhisbusiness,potentiallyreducinghiscostssignificantly.TheleveragegainedintheserailnegotiationsmorethanoffsettheadditionaloperatingcostsofsendinghisoiltoClevelandforrefining,helpingestablishRockefeller'sempire,whileundermininghiscompetitorswhofailedtointegratetheircoreoperatingdecisionswiththeirnegotiationstrategies.[22] Otherexamplesofintegratednegotiationincludethefollowing: Insports,athletesinthefinalyearoftheircontractswillideallyhitpeakperformancesotheycannegotiaterobust,long-termcontractsintheirfavor.[23] Aunionneedstonegotiateandresolveanysignificantinternalconflictstomaximizeitscollectivecloutbeforegoingtothetabletonegotiateanewcontractwithmanagement. Ifpurchasesforsimilargoodsorservicesareoccurringindependentofoneanotheracrossdifferentgovernmentdepartments,recognizingthisandconsolidatingordersintoonelargevolumepurchasecanhelpcreatebuyingleverageandcost-savingsinnegotiationswithsuppliers. Atechstart-uplookingtonegotiatebeingboughtoutbyalargerindustryplayerinthefuturecanimproveitsoddsofthathappeningbyensuring,whereverpossible,thatitssystems,technology,competenciesandcultureareascompatibleaspossiblewiththoseofitsmostlikelybuyer.[24] Apoliticiannegotiatingsupportforapresidentialrunmaywanttoavoidbringingonboardanyhigh-profilesupporterswhoriskalienatingotherimportantpotentialsupporters,whileavoidinganyunexpectednewpoliciesthatcouldalsolimitthesizeoftheirgrowingcoalition.[25] Badfaith[edit] Whenapartypretendstonegotiate,butsecretlyhasnointentionofcompromising,thepartyisconsiderednegotiatinginbadfaith.Badfaithisaconceptinnegotiationtheorywherebypartiespretendtoreasontoreachsettlement,buthavenointentiontodoso,forexample,onepoliticalpartymaypretendtonegotiate,withnointentiontocompromise,forpoliticaleffect.[26][27] Badfaithnegotiationsareoftenusedinpoliticalscienceandpoliticalpsychologytorefertonegotiatingstrategiesinwhichthereisnorealintentiontoreachcompromise,oramodelofinformationprocessing.[28]The"inherentbadfaithmodel"ofinformationprocessingisatheoryinpoliticalpsychologythatwasfirstputforthbyOleHolstitoexplaintherelationshipbetweenJohnFosterDulles'beliefsandhismodelofinformationprocessing.[29]Itisthemostwidelystudiedmodelofone'sopponent.[30]Astateispresumedimplacablyhostile,andcontra-indicatorsofthisareignored.Theyaredismissedaspropagandaploysorsignsofweakness.ExamplesareJohnFosterDulles'positionregardingtheSovietUnion.[30][neutralityisdisputed] NegotiationPie[edit] Thetotalofadvantagesanddisadvantagestobedistributedinanegotiationisillustratedwiththetermnegotiationpie.[31]Thecourseofthenegotiationcaneitherleadtoanincrease,shrinking,orstagnationofthesevalues.Ifthenegotiationpartiesareabletoexpandthetotalpieawin-winsituationispossibleassumingthatbothpartiesprofitfromtheexpansionofthepie.Inpractice,however,thismaximisationapproachisoftentimesimpededbytheso-calledsmallpiebias,i.e.thepsychologicalunderestimationofthenegotiationpie'ssize.Likewise,thepossibilitytoincreasethepiemaybeunderestimatedduetotheso-calledincompatibilitybias.[32]Contrarytoenlargingthepie,thepiemayalsoshrinkduringnegotiationse.g.dueto(excessive)negotiationcosts.[32] Inlitigation,anegotiationpieissharedwhenpartiessettleoutsidethecourt. Itispossible[33]toquantifytheconditionsunderwhichpartieswillagreetosettleandhowlegalexpensesandtheabsolutecoefficientofriskaversionaffectsthesizeofthepieandthedecisiontosettleoutsidethecourt. Strategies[edit] Therearemanydifferentwaystocategorizetheessentialelementsofnegotiation. Oneviewofnegotiationinvolvesthreebasicelements:process,behaviorandsubstance.Theprocessreferstohowthepartiesnegotiate:thecontextofthenegotiations,thepartiestothenegotiations,thetacticsusedbytheparties,andthesequenceandstagesinwhichalloftheseplayout.Behaviorreferstotherelationshipsamongtheseparties,thecommunicationbetweenthemandthestylestheyadopt.Thesubstancereferstowhatthepartiesnegotiateover:theagenda,theissues(positionsand–morehelpfully–interests),theoptions,andtheagreement(s)reachedattheend.[citationneeded] Anotherviewofnegotiationcomprisesfourelements:strategy,process,tools,andtactics.Strategycomprisesthetoplevelgoals–typicallyincludingrelationshipandthefinaloutcome.Processesandtoolsincludethestepstofollowandrolestotakeinpreparingforandnegotiatingwiththeotherparties.Tacticsincludemoredetailedstatementsandactionsandresponsestoothers'statementsandactions.Someaddtothispersuasionandinfluence,assertingthatthesehavebecomeintegraltomoderndaynegotiationsuccess,andsoshouldnotbeomitted.[citationneeded] Strategicapproachestoconcession-makingincludeconsiderationoftheoptimumtimetomakeaconcession,makingconcessionsininstallments,notallatonce,andensuringthattheopponentisawarethataconcessionhasbeenmade,ratherthanare-expressionofapositionalreadyoutlined,andawareofthecostincurredinmakingtheconcession,especiallywheretheotherpartyisgenerallylessawareofthenatureofthebusinessortheproductbeingnegotiated.[34] Employinganadvocate[edit] Askillednegotiatormayserveasanadvocateforonepartytothenegotiation.Theadvocateattemptstoobtainthemostfavorableoutcomespossibleforthatparty.Inthisprocessthenegotiatorattemptstodeterminetheminimumoutcome(s)theotherpartyis(orpartiesare)willingtoaccept,thenadjuststheirdemandsaccordingly.A"successful"negotiationintheadvocacyapproachiswhenthenegotiatorisabletoobtainallormostoftheoutcomestheirpartydesires,butwithoutdrivingtheotherpartytopermanentlybreakoffnegotiations. Skillednegotiatorsmayuseavarietyoftacticsrangingfromnegotiationhypnosis,[citationneeded]toastraightforwardpresentationofdemandsorsettingofpreconditions,tomoredeceptiveapproachessuchascherrypicking.Intimidationandsalamitacticsmayalsoplayapartinswayingtheoutcomeofnegotiations.[citationneeded] Anothernegotiationtacticisbadguy/goodguy.Badguy/goodguyiswhenonenegotiatoractsasabadguybyusingangerandthreats.Theothernegotiatoractsasagoodguybybeingconsiderateandunderstanding.Thegoodguyblamesthebadguyforallthedifficultieswhiletryingtosolicitconcessionsandagreementfromtheopponent.[35] BATNA[edit] Thebestalternativetoanegotiatedagreement,orBATNA,isthemostadvantageousalternativecourseofactionanegotiatorcantakeshouldthecurrentnegotiationendwithoutreachingagreement.ThequalityofaBATNAhasthepotentialtoimproveaparty'snegotiationoutcome.Understandingone'sBATNAcanempoweranindividualandallowhimorhertosethighergoalswhenmovingforward.[36]Alternativesneedtobeactualandactionabletobeofvalue.[37]Negotiatorsmayalsoconsidertheotherparty'sBATNAandhowitcomparestowhattheyareofferingduringthenegotiation.[38][page needed] Conflictstyles[edit] KennethW.Thomasidentifiedfivestylesorresponsestonegotiation.[39][40]Thesefivestrategieshavebeenfrequentlydescribedintheliteratureandarebasedonthedual-concernmodel.[41]Thedualconcernmodelofconflictresolutionisaperspectivethatassumesindividuals'preferredmethodofdealingwithconflictisbasedontwothemesordimensions:[42] Aconcernforself(i.e.,assertiveness),and Aconcernforothers(i.e.,empathy). Basedonthismodel,individualsbalancetheconcernforpersonalneedsandinterestswiththeneedsandinterestsofothers.Thefollowingfivestylescanbeusedbasedonindividuals'preferencesdependingontheirpro-selforpro-socialgoals.Thesestylescanchangeovertime,andindividualscanhavestrongdispositionstowardsnumerousstyles. Accommodating Individualswhoenjoysolvingtheotherparty'sproblemsandpreservingpersonalrelationships. Accommodatorsaresensitivetotheemotionalstates,bodylanguage,andverbalsignalsoftheotherparties. Theycan,however,feeltakenadvantageofinsituationswhentheotherpartyplaceslittleemphasisontherelationship.Accommodationisapassivebutprosocialapproachtoconflict.Peoplesolvebothlargeandsmallconflictsbygivingintothedemandsofothers.Sometimes,theyyieldbecausetheyrealizethattheirpositionisinerror,sotheyagreewiththeviewpointadoptedbyothers.Inothercases,however,theymaywithdrawtheirdemandswithoutreallybeingconvincedthattheothersideiscorrect,butforthesakeofgroupunityorintheinterestoftime--theywithdrawallcomplaints.Thus,yieldingcanreflecteithergenuineconversionorsuperficialcompliance. Avoiding Individualswhodonotliketonegotiateanddon'tdoitunlesswarranted. Whennegotiating,avoiderstendtodeferanddodgetheconfrontationalaspectsofnegotiating;however,theymaybeperceivedastactfulanddiplomatic.Inactionisapassivemeansofdealingwithdisputes.Thosewhoavoidconflictsadopta"waitandsee"attitude,hopingthatproblemswillsolvethemselves.Avoidersoftentolerateconflicts,allowingthemtosimmerwithoutdoinganythingtominimizethem.Ratherthanopenlydiscussingdisagreements,peoplewhorelyonavoidancechangethesubject,skipmeetings,orevenleavethegroupaltogether(Bayazit&Mannix,2003).Sometimestheysimplyagreetodisagree(amodusvivendi). Collaborating Individualswhoenjoynegotiationsthatinvolvesolvingtoughproblemsincreativeways. Collaboratorsaregoodatusingnegotiationstounderstandtheconcernsandinterestsoftheotherparties. Collaboratingisanactive,pro-social,andpro-selfapproachtoconflictresolution.Collaboratingpeopleidentifytheissuesunderlyingthedisputeandthenworktogethertoidentifyasolutionthatissatisfyingtobothsides.Thisorientation,whichisalsodescribedascollaboration,problemsolving,orawin-winorientation,entreatsbothsidesinthedisputetoconsidertheiropponent'soutcomesaswellastheirown[43] Competing Individualswhoenjoynegotiationsbecausetheypresentanopportunitytowinsomething. Competitivenegotiatorshavestronginstinctsforallaspectsofnegotiatingandareoftenstrategic. Becausetheirstylecandominatethebargainingprocess,competitivenegotiatorsoftenneglecttheimportanceofrelationships.Competingisanactive,pro-selfmeansofdealingwithconflictthatinvolvesforcingotherstoacceptone'sview.Thosewhousethisstrategytendtoseeconflictasawin-losesituationandsousecompetitive,powerfultacticstointimidateothers.Fighting(forcing,dominating,orcontending)cantakemanyforms,includingauthoritativemandate,challenges,arguing,insults,accusations,complaining,vengeance,andevenphysicalviolence(Morrill,1995).Theseconflictresolutionmethodsareallcontentiousonesbecausetheyinvolveimposingone'ssolutionontheotherparty. Compromising Individualswhoareeagertoclosethedealbydoingwhatisfairandequalforallpartiesinvolvedinthenegotiation. Compromiserscanbeusefulwhenthereislimitedtimetocompletethedeal;however,compromisersoftenunnecessarilyrushthenegotiationprocessandmakeconcessionstooquickly. Typesofnegotiators[edit] ThreebasickindsofnegotiatorshavebeenidentifiedbyresearchersinvolvedinTheHarvardNegotiationProject.Thesetypesofnegotiatorsare:softbargainers,hardbargainers,andprincipledbargainers. Soft Thesepeopleseenegotiationastooclosetocompetition,sotheychooseagentlestyleofbargaining.Theofferstheymakearenotintheirbestinterests,theyyieldtoothers'demands,avoidconfrontation,andtheymaintaingoodrelationswithfellownegotiators.Theirperceptionofothersisoneoffriendship,andtheirgoalisagreement.Theydonotseparatethepeoplefromtheproblembutaresoftonboth.Theyavoidcontestsofwillsandinsistontheagreement,offeringsolutionsandeasilytrustingothersandchangingtheiropinions. Hard Thesepeopleusecontentiousstrategiestoinfluence,utilizingphrasessuchas"thisismyfinaloffer"and"takeitorleaveit".Theymakethreats,aredistrustfulofothers,insistontheirposition,andapplypressuretonegotiate.Theyseeothersasadversariesandtheirultimategoalisvictory.Additionally,theysearchforonesingleanswer,andinsistyouagreeonit.Theydonotseparatethepeoplefromtheproblem(aswithsoftbargainers),buttheyarehardonboththepeopleinvolvedandtheproblem. Principled Individualswhobargainthiswayseekintegrativesolutions,anddosobysidesteppingcommitmenttospecificpositions.Theyfocusontheproblemratherthantheintentions,motives,andneedsofthepeopleinvolved.Theyseparatethepeoplefromtheproblem,exploreinterests,avoidbottomlines,andreachresultsbasedonstandardsindependentofpersonalwill.Theybasetheirchoicesonobjectivecriteriaratherthanpower,pressure,self-interest,oranarbitrarydecisionalprocedure.Thesecriteriamaybedrawnfrommoralstandards,principlesoffairness,professionalstandards,andtradition. ResearchersfromTheHarvardNegotiationProjectrecommendthatnegotiatorsexploreanumberofalternativestotheproblemstheyfaceinordertoreachthebestsolution,butthisisoftennotthecase(aswhenyoumaybedealingwithanindividualusingsoftorhard-bargainingtactics)(Forsyth,2010). Tactics[edit] Tacticsarealwaysanimportantpartofthenegotiatingprocess.Moreoftenthannottheyaresubtle,difficulttoidentifyandusedformultiplepurposes.Tacticsaremorefrequentlyusedindistributivenegotiationsandwhenthefocusinontakingasmuchvalueoffthetableaspossible.[44]Manynegotiationtacticsexist.Belowareafewcommonlyusedtactics. Auction: Thebiddingprocessisdesignedtocreatecompetition.[45]Whenmultiplepartieswantthesamething,pitthemagainstoneanother.Whenpeopleknowthattheymayloseoutonsomething,theywantitevenmore.Notonlydotheywantthethingthatisbeingbidon,theyalsowanttowin,justtowin.Takingadvantageofsomeone'scompetitivenaturecandriveuptheprice. Brinkmanship: Onepartyaggressivelypursuesasetoftermstothepointwheretheothernegotiatingpartymusteitheragreeorwalkaway.Brinkmanshipisatypeof"hardnut"approachtobargaininginwhichonepartypushestheotherpartytothe"brink"oredgeofwhatthatpartyiswillingtoaccommodate.Successfulbrinkmanshipconvincestheotherpartytheyhavenochoicebuttoaccepttheofferandthereisnoacceptablealternativetotheproposedagreement.[46] Bogey: Negotiatorsusethebogeytactictopretendthatanissueoflittleornoimportanceisveryimportant.[47]Then,laterinthenegotiation,theissuecanbetradedforamajorconcessionofactualimportance. Callingahigherauthority:Tomitigatetoofarreachingconcessions,deescalate,orovercomeadeadlocksituation,onepartymakesthefurthernegotiationprocessdependentonthedecisionofadecisionmaker,notpresentatthenegotiationtable.[48] Chicken: Negotiatorsproposeextrememeasures,oftenbluffs,toforcetheotherpartytochickenoutandgivethemwhattheywant.Thistacticcanbedangerouswhenpartiesareunwillingtobackdownandgothroughwiththeextrememeasure. DefenseinDepth: Severallayersofdecision-makingauthorityisusedtoallowfurtherconcessionseachtimetheagreementgoesthroughadifferentlevelofauthority.[49]Inotherwords,eachtimetheoffergoestoadecisionmaker,thatdecisionmakeraskstoaddanotherconcessiontoclosethedeal. Deadlines: Givetheotherpartyadeadlineforcingthemtomakeadecision.Thismethodusestimetoapplypressuretotheotherparty.Deadlinesgivencanbeactualorartificial. Flinch: Flinchingisshowingastrongnegativephysicalreactiontoaproposal.Commonexamplesofflinchingaregaspingforair,oravisibleexpressionofsurpriseorshock.Theflinchcanbedoneconsciouslyorunconsciously.[50]Theflinchsignalstotheoppositepartythatyouthinktheofferorproposalisabsurdinhopestheotherpartywilllowertheiraspirations.[51]Seeingaphysicalreactionismorebelievablethanhearingsomeonesaying,"I'mshocked". ForgivenessMathorGenerousTitTat:Computersimulatedresearchidentifiesthatoptimalstrategyasextendinganolivebranchorgivingtheopponenttheopportunitytocollaborateandcreateawinwinresolution.Ofcoursetheworstofnegotiatorsdonotevenrecognizetheirself-interestsonegotiatorsneedtoprotecttheirowninterestsandbepreparedforlackofcooperation. GoodGuy/BadGuy: Withinthetacticofgoodguy/badguy(synonymsaregoodcop/badcoporblackhat/whitehat)oftentimespositiveandunpleasanttasksaredividedbetweentwonegotiatorsonthesamenegotiationsideorunpleasanttasksordecisionsareallocatedtoan(realorfictitious)outsider.Thegoodguysupportstheconclusionofthecontractandemphasizespositiveaspectsofthenegotiation(mutualinterests).Thebadguycriticizesnegativeaspects(opposinginterests).Thedivisionofthetworolesallowsmoreconsistentbehaviorandcredibilityoftheindividualnegotiators.Asthegoodguypromotesthecontract,he/shecanbuildtrustwiththeotherside.[52] Highball/Low-ballorAmbitclaim: Dependingonwhethersellingorbuying,sellersorbuyersusearidiculouslyhigh,orridiculouslylowopeningofferthatisnotachievable.Thetheoryisthattheextremeoffermakestheotherpartyreevaluatetheirownopeningofferandmoveclosetotheresistancepoint(asfarasyouarewillingtogotoreachanagreement).[53]Anotheradvantageisthatthepartygivingtheextremedemandappearsmoreflexiblewhentheymakeconcessionstowardamorereasonableoutcome.Adangerofthistacticisthattheoppositepartymaythinknegotiatingisawasteoftime. GenerousTitforTat:Somanynegotiatorsattempttoexerciseamachoandmanipulativestylereflectingtheworld'suseandabuseofpower.Theypuffuptheirchestsandpretendtobesavvywhenactuallytheyhaveneverstudiedorpracticedskillfulnegotiations.Someoftheworld'sworstandugliestleadershipexemplifies.Actualresearchshowsthebenefitsofaskillfulandeducatedcollaborativestyle.SeeForgivenessMathaboveforresearch-basedandproventactics.[citationneeded] TheNibble: Alsoknownundersalamitacticorquiveringquill,nibblingisthedemandofproportionallysmallconcessionsthathaven'tbeendiscussedpreviouslyjustbeforeclosingthedeal.[47]Thismethodtakesadvantageoftheotherparty'sdesiretoclosebyadding"justonemorething". SnowJob: Negotiatorsoverwhelmtheotherpartywithsomuchinformationthattheyhavedifficultydeterminingwhatinformationisimportant,andwhatisadiversion.[54]Negotiatorsmayalsousetechnicallanguageorjargontomaskasimpleanswertoaquestionaskedbyanon-expert. Mirroring: Whenpeoplegetonwell,theoutcomeofanegotiationislikelytobemorepositive.Tocreatetrustandarapport,anegotiatormaymimicormirrortheopponent'sbehaviorandrepeatwhattheysay.Mirroringreferstoapersonrepeatingthecorecontentofwhatanotherpersonjustsaid,orrepeatingacertainexpression.Itindicatesattentiontothesubjectofnegotiationandacknowledgestheotherparty'spointorstatement.[55]Mirroringcanhelpcreatetrustandestablisharelationship. Anchoring:Anchoringistheprocessofestablishingareferencepointfirstinordertoguidetheotherpersonmoretoyoursuggestedprice.Itoftenispresentedatthebeginningofanegotiationinordertoinfluencetherestofthenegotiation.Asanexample,sayyouwanttosellacarfor50,000dollars.Nowacustomerwalksinsayingtheywanttobuyacar.Yousaythatyoucansellthecarfor65,000dollars.Theircounterofferwouldprobablybe50,000-55,000dollars.Thisalsoworksvice-versaforbuyingsomething.Theideahereisthatwearenarrowingtheotherpartiesexpectationsdownorup.[56]Inordertocounteranchoring,youshouldpointoutthefactthattheyareanchoringandsaythattheyneedtodriveitdowntoaacceptableprice. Nonverbalcommunication[edit] Mainarticle:Nonverbalcommunication Communicationisakeyelementofnegotiation.Effectivenegotiationrequiresthatparticipantseffectivelyconveyandinterpretinformation.Participantsinanegotiationcommunicateinformationnotonlyverballybutnon-verballythroughbodylanguageandgestures.Byunderstandinghownonverbalcommunicationworks,anegotiatorisbetterequippedtointerprettheinformationotherparticipantsareleakingnon-verballywhilekeepingsecretthosethingsthatwouldinhibithis/herabilitytonegotiate.[57] Examples[edit] Non-verbal"anchoring" Inanegotiation,apersoncangaintheadvantagebyverballyexpressingapositionfirst.Byanchoringone'sposition,oneestablishesthepositionfromwhichthenegotiationproceeds.Inalikemanner,onecan"anchor"andgainadvantagewithnonverbal(bodylanguage)cues. DominantPhysicalPosition:Byleaningbackandwhispering,onecaneffectivelycreateadominantphysicalpositionthatcanyieldanupperhandinnegotiations. Personalspace:Thepersonattheheadofthetableistheapparentsymbolofpower.Negotiatorscannegatethisstrategicadvantagebypositioningalliesintheroomtosurroundthatindividual. Firstimpression:Beginthenegotiationwithpositivegesturesandenthusiasm.Lookthepersonintheeyewithsincerity.Ifyoucannotmaintaineyecontact,theotherpersonmightthinkyouarehidingsomethingorthatyouareinsincere.Giveasolidhandshake.[58][fullcitationneeded][page needed] Readingnon-verbalcommunication Beingabletoreadthenon-verbalcommunicationofanotherpersoncansignificantlyaidinthecommunicationprocess.Bybeingawareofinconsistenciesbetweenaperson'sverbalandnon-verbalcommunicationandreconcilingthem,negotiatorscantocometobetterresolutions.Examplesofincongruityinbodylanguageinclude: NervousLaugh:Alaughnotmatchingthesituation.Thiscouldbeasignofnervousnessordiscomfort.Whenthishappens,itmaybegoodtoprobewithquestionstodiscovertheperson'struefeelings. Positivewordsbutnegativebodylanguage:Ifsomeoneaskstheirnegotiationpartneriftheyareannoyedandthepersonpoundstheirfistandrespondssharply,"whatmakesyouthinkanythingisbotheringme?"[59][page needed] Handsraisedinaclenchedposition:Thepersonraisinghis/herhandsinthispositionrevealsfrustrationevenwhenhe/sheissmiling.Thisisasignalthatthepersondoingitmaybeholdingbackanegativeattitude.[60][page needed] Ifpossible,itmaybehelpfulfornegotiationpartnerstospendtimetogetherinacomfortablesettingoutsideofthenegotiationroom.Knowinghoweachpartnernon-verballycommunicatesoutsideofthenegotiationsettinghelpsnegotiationpartnerssenseincongruitybetweenverbalandnon-verbalcommunication. Conveyingreceptivity Thewaynegotiationpartnerspositiontheirbodiesrelativetoeachothermayinfluencehowreceptiveeachistotheotherperson'smessageandideas. Faceandeyes:Receptivenegotiatorssmile,makeplentyofeyecontact.Thisconveystheideathatthereismoreinterestinthepersonthaninwhatisbeingsaid.Ontheotherhand,non-receptivenegotiatorsmakelittletonoeyecontact.Theireyesmaybesquinted,jawmusclesclenchedandheadturnedslightlyawayfromthespeaker Armsandhands:Toshowreceptivity,negotiatorsshouldspreadarmsandopenhandsontableorrelaxedontheirlap.Negotiatorsshowpoorreceptivitywhentheirhandsareclenched,crossed,positionedinfrontoftheirmouth,orrubbingthebackoftheirneck. LegsandFeet:Receptivenegotiatorssitwithlegstogetheroronelegslightlyinfrontoftheother.Whenstanding,theydistributeweightevenlyandplacehandsontheirhipswiththeirbodytiltedtowardthespeaker.Non-receptivenegotiatorsstandwithlegscrossed,pointingawayfromthespeaker. Torso:Receptivenegotiatorssitontheedgeoftheirchair,unbuttontheirsuitcoatwiththeirbodytiltedtowardthespeaker.Non-receptivenegotiatorsmayleanbackintheirchairandkeeptheirsuitcoatbuttoned. Receptivenegotiatorstendtoappearrelaxedwiththeirhandsopenandpalmsvisiblydisplayed.[61][page needed] Barriers[edit] Die-hardbargainers Lackoftrust Informationalvacuumsandnegotiator'sdilemma Structuralimpediments Spoilers Culturalandgenderdifferences Communicationproblems Thepowerofdialogue[62][page needed] Emotion[edit] Emotionsplayanimportantpartinthenegotiationprocess,althoughitisonlyinrecentyearsthattheireffectisbeingstudied.Emotionshavethepotentialtoplayeitherapositiveornegativeroleinnegotiation.Duringnegotiations,thedecisionastowhetherornottosettlerestsinpartonemotionalfactors.Negativeemotionscancauseintenseandevenirrationalbehavior,andcancauseconflictstoescalateandnegotiationstobreakdown,butmaybeinstrumentalinattainingconcessions.Ontheotherhand,positiveemotionsoftenfacilitatereachinganagreementandhelptomaximizejointgains,butcanalsobeinstrumentalinattainingconcessions.Positiveandnegativediscreteemotionscanbestrategicallydisplayedtoinfluencetaskandrelationaloutcomes[63]andmayplayoutdifferentlyacrossculturalboundaries.[64] Affecteffect[edit] Dispositionsforaffectsaffectvariousstagesofnegotiation:whichstrategiestouse,whichstrategiesareactuallychosen,[65]thewaytheotherpartyandtheirintentionsareperceived,[66]theirwillingnesstoreachanagreementandthefinalnegotiatedoutcomes.[67]Positiveaffectivity(PA)andnegativeaffectivity(NA)ofoneormoreofthenegotiatingsidescanleadtoverydifferentoutcomes. Positiveaffect[edit] Evenbeforethenegotiationprocessstarts,peopleinapositivemoodhavemoreconfidence,[68]andhighertendenciestoplantouseacooperativestrategy.[65]Duringthenegotiation,negotiatorswhoareinapositivemoodtendtoenjoytheinteractionmore,showlesscontentiousbehavior,uselessaggressivetactics[69]andmorecooperativestrategies.[65]Thisinturnincreasesthelikelihoodthatpartieswillreachtheirinstrumentalgoals,andenhancetheabilitytofindintegrativegains.[70]Indeed,comparedwithnegotiatorswithnegativeornaturalaffectivity,negotiatorswithpositiveaffectivityreachedmoreagreementsandtendedtohonorthoseagreementsmore.[65]Thosefavorableoutcomesareduetobetterdecisionmakingprocesses,suchasflexiblethinking,creativeproblemsolving,respectforothers'perspectives,willingnesstotakerisksandhigherconfidence.[71]Post-negotiationpositiveaffecthasbeneficialconsequencesaswell.Itincreasessatisfactionwithachievedoutcomeandinfluencesone'sdesireforfutureinteractions.[71]ThePAarousedbyreachinganagreementfacilitatesthedyadicrelationship,whichbringscommitmentthatsetsthestageforsubsequentinteractions.[71]PAalsohasitsdrawbacks:itdistortsperceptionofselfperformance,suchthatperformanceisjudgedtoberelativelybetterthanitactuallyis.[68]Thus,studiesinvolvingselfreportsonachievedoutcomesmightbebiased. Negativeaffect[edit] Negativeaffecthasdetrimentaleffectsonvariousstagesinthenegotiationprocess.Althoughvariousnegativeemotionsaffectnegotiationoutcomes,byfarthemostresearchedisanger.Angrynegotiatorsplantousemorecompetitivestrategiesandtocooperateless,evenbeforethenegotiationstarts.[65]Thesecompetitivestrategiesarerelatedtoreducedjointoutcomes. Duringnegotiations,angerdisruptstheprocessbyreducingtheleveloftrust,cloudingparties'judgment,narrowingparties'focusofattentionandchangingtheircentralgoalfromreachingagreementtoretaliatingagainsttheotherside.[69]Angrynegotiatorspaylessattentiontoopponent'sinterestsandarelessaccurateinjudgingtheirinterests,thusachievelowerjointgains.[72]Moreover,becauseangermakesnegotiatorsmoreself-centeredintheirpreferences,itincreasesthelikelihoodthattheywillrejectprofitableoffers.[69]Opponentswhogetreallyangry(orcry,orotherwiselosecontrol)aremorelikelytomakeerrors:makesuretheyareinyourfavor.[35] Angerdoesnothelpachievenegotiationgoalseither:itreducesjointgains[65]anddoesnotboostpersonalgains,asangrynegotiatorsdonotsucceed.[72]Moreover,negativeemotionsleadtoacceptanceofsettlementsthatarenotinthepositiveutilityfunctionbutratherhaveanegativeutility.[73]However,expressionofnegativeemotionsduringnegotiationcansometimesbebeneficial:legitimatelyexpressedangercanbeaneffectivewaytoshowone'scommitment,sincerity,andneeds.[69]Moreover,althoughNAreducesgainsinintegrativetasks,itisabetterstrategythanPAindistributivetasks(suchaszero-sum).[71]Inhisworkonnegativeaffectarousalandwhitenoise,Seidnerfoundsupportfortheexistenceofanegativeaffectarousalmechanismthroughobservationsregardingthedevaluationofspeakersfromotherethnicorigins.Negotiationmaybenegativelyaffected,inturn,bysubmergedhostilitytowardanethnicorgendergroup.[74] Conditionsforemotionaffect[edit] Researchindicatesthatnegotiator'semotionsdonotnecessarilyaffectthenegotiationprocess. Albarracınetal.(2003)suggestedthattherearetwoconditionsforemotionalaffect,bothrelatedtotheability(presenceofenvironmentalorcognitivedisturbances)andthemotivation: Identificationoftheaffect:requireshighmotivation,highabilityorboth. Determinationthattheaffectisrelevantandimportantforthejudgment:requiresthateitherthemotivation,theabilityorbotharelow. Accordingtothismodel,emotionsaffectnegotiationsonlywhenoneishighandtheotherislow.Whenbothabilityandmotivationarelow,theaffectisidentified,andwhenbotharehightheaffectisidentifiedbutdiscountedasirrelevanttojudgment.[75] Apossibleimplicationofthismodelis,forexample,thatthepositiveeffectsPAhasonnegotiations(asdescribedabove)isseenonlywheneithermotivationorabilityarelow. Effectofpartner'semotions[edit] Moststudiesonemotioninnegotiationsfocusontheeffectofthenegotiator'sownemotionsontheprocess.However,whattheotherpartyfeelsmightbejustasimportant,asgroupemotionsareknowntoaffectprocessesbothatthegroupandthepersonallevels. Whenitcomestonegotiations,trustintheotherpartyisanecessaryconditionforitsemotiontoaffect,[66]andvisibilityenhancestheeffect.[70] Emotionscontributetonegotiationprocessesbysignalingwhatonefeelsandthinksandcanthuspreventtheotherpartyfromengagingindestructivebehaviorsandtoindicatewhatstepsshouldbetakennext:PAsignalstokeepinthesameway,whileNApointsthatmentalorbehavioraladjustmentsareneeded.[71] Partner'semotionscanhavetwobasiceffectsonnegotiator'semotionsandbehavior:mimetic/reciprocalorcomplementary.[67]Forexample,disappointmentorsadnessmightleadtocompassionandmorecooperation.[71]InastudybyButtetal.(2005)thatsimulatedrealmulti-phasenegotiation,mostpeoplereactedtothepartner'semotionsinreciprocal,ratherthancomplementary,manner.Specificemotionswerefoundtohavedifferenteffectsontheopponent'sfeelingsandstrategieschosen: Angercausedtheopponentstoplacelowerdemandsandtoconcedemoreinazero-sumnegotiation,butalsotoevaluatethenegotiationlessfavorably.[76]Itprovokedbothdominatingandyieldingbehaviorsoftheopponent.[67] Prideledtomoreintegrativeandcompromisestrategiesbythepartner.[67] Guiltorregretexpressedbythenegotiatorledtobetterimpressionofhimbytheopponent,howeveritalsoledtheopponenttoplacehigherdemands.[66]Ontheotherhand,personalguiltwasrelatedtomoresatisfactionwithwhatoneachieved.[71] Worryordisappointmentleftbadimpressionontheopponent,butledtorelativelylowerdemandsbytheopponent.[66] Dealingwithemotions[edit] Makeemotionsexplicitandvalidate-Takingamoreproactiveapproachindiscussingone'semotionscanallowforanegotiationtofocusontheproblemitself,ratherthananyunexpressedfeelings.Itisimportanttoallowbothpartiestosharetheiremotions. Allowtimetoletoffsteam-Itispossiblethatonepartymayfeelangryorfrustratedatsomepointduringthenegotiation.Ratherthantrytoavoiddiscussingthosefeelings,allowtheindividualtotalkitout.Sittingandlistening,withoutprovidingtoomuchfeedbacktothesubstanceitself,canofferenoughsupportforthepersontofeelbetter.Oncethegrievancesarereleased,itmaybecomeeasiertonegotiate. Symbolicgestures-Considerthatanapology,oranyothersimpleact,maybeoneofthemosteffectiveandlowcostmeanstoreduceanynegativeemotionsbetweenparties.[20] Problemswithlaboratorystudies[edit] Negotiationisarathercomplexinteraction.Capturingallitscomplexityisaverydifficulttask,letaloneisolatingandcontrollingonlycertainaspectsofit.Forthisreasonmostnegotiationstudiesaredoneunderlaboratoryconditions,andfocusonlyonsomeaspects.Althoughlabstudieshavetheiradvantages,theydohavemajordrawbackswhenstudyingemotions: Emotionsinlabstudiesareusuallymanipulatedandarethereforerelatively'cold'(notintense).Althoughthose'cold'emotionsmightbeenoughtoshoweffects,theyarequalitativelydifferentfromthe'hot'emotionsoftenexperiencedduringnegotiations.[77] Inreallife,peopleselectwhichnegotiationstoenter,whichaffectsemotionalcommitment,motivationandinterests—butthisisnotthecaseinlabstudies.[71] Labstudiestendtofocusonrelativelyfewwell-definedemotions.Real-lifescenariosprovokeamuchwiderscaleofemotions.[71] Codingtheemotionshasadoublecatch:ifdonebyathirdside,someemotionsmightnotbedetectedasthenegotiatorsublimatesthemforstrategicreasons.Self-reportmeasuresmightovercomethis,buttheyareusuallyfilledonlybeforeoraftertheprocess,andiffilledduringtheprocessmightinterferewithit.[71] NeilRackhamisarareresearcherwhostudiedandcomparedrealworldlabormgtnegotiationcasestudiestoidentifythevariablesdistinguishingthemostsustainableandsatisfyingnegotiations.Hefoundthebestnegotiatorsaskedmorequestionsthanpoor,listenedactivelyandzealouslysoughtcommongroundsaswellascreativesolutionsthatweremutuallybeneficial. Groupcomposition[edit] Multi-party[edit] Whilenegotiationsinvolvingmorethantwopartiesislessoftenresearched,someresultsfromtwo-partynegotiationsstillapplywithmorethantwoparties.Onesuchresultisthatinnegotiationsitiscommontoseelanguagesimilarityarisebetweenthetwonegotiatingparties.Inthree-partynegotiations,languagesimilaritystillarose,andresultswereparticularlyefficientwhenthepartywiththemosttogainfromthenegotiationadoptedlanguagesimilaritiesfromtheotherparties.[78] Team[edit] StudentsfromUniversityofTromsøandUniversityofTorontoduring5thInternationalNegotiationTournament–WarsawNegotiationRoundinthePolishSenate(2014). Duetoglobalizationandgrowingbusinesstrends,negotiationintheformofteamsisbecomingwidelyadopted.Teamscaneffectivelycollaboratetobreakdownacomplexnegotiation.Thereismoreknowledgeandwisdomdispersedinateamthaninasinglemind.Writing,listening,andtalking,arespecificrolesteammembersmustsatisfy.Thecapacitybaseofateamreducestheamountofblunder,andincreasesfamiliarityinanegotiation.[79] However,unlessateamcanappropriatelyutilizethefullcapacityofitspotential,effectivenesscansuffer.Onefactorintheeffectivenessofteamnegotiationisaproblemthatoccursthroughsolidaritybehavior.Solidaritybehavioroccurswhenoneteammemberreduceshisorherownutility(benefit)inordertoincreasethebenefitsofotherteammembers.Thisbehaviorislikelytooccurwheninterestconflictsrise.Whentheutility/needsofthenegotiationopponentdoesnotalignwitheveryteammember'sinterests,teammembersbegintomakeconcessionsandbalancethebenefitsgainedamongtheteam.[80] Intuitively,thismayfeellikeacooperativeapproach.However,thoughateammayaimtonegotiateinacooperativeorcollaborativenature,theoutcomemaybelesssuccessfulthanispossible,especiallywhenintegrationispossible.Integrativepotentialispossiblewhendifferentnegotiationissuesareofdifferentimportancetoeachteammember.Integrativepotentialisoftenmissedduetothelackofawarenessofeachmember'sinterestsandpreferences.Ultimately,thisleadstoapoorernegotiationresult. Thus,ateamcanperformmoreeffectivelyifeachmemberdiscloseshisorherpreferencespriortothenegotiation.Thisstepwillallowtheteamtorecognizeandorganizetheteam'sjointpriorities,whichtheycantakeintoconsiderationwhenengagingwiththeopposingnegotiationparty.Becauseateamismorelikelytodiscusssharedinformationandcommoninterests,teamsmustmakeanactiveefforttofosterandincorporateuniqueviewpointsfromexpertsfromdifferentfields.ResearchbyDanielThiemann,whichlargelyfocusedoncomputer-supportedcollaborativetasks,foundthatthePreferenceAwarenessmethodisaneffectivetoolforfosteringtheknowledgeaboutjointprioritiesandfurtherhelpstheteamjudgewhichnegotiationissueswereofhighestimportance.[81] Women[edit] Manyofthestrategiesinnegotiationvaryacrossgenders,andthisleadstovariationsinoutcomesfordifferentgenders,oftenwithwomenexperiencinglesssuccessinnegotiationsasaconsequence.Thisisduetoanumberoffactors,includingthatithasbeenshownthatitismoredifficultforwomentobeself-advocatingwhentheyarenegotiating.Manyoftheimplicationsofthesefindingshavestrongfinancialimpactsinadditiontothesocialbacklashfacedbyself-advocatingwomeninnegotiations,ascomparedtootheradvocatingwomen,self-advocatingmen,andotheradvocatingmen.Researchinthisareahasbeenstudiedacrossplatforms,inadditiontomorespecificareaslikewomenasphysicianassistants.[82]Thebacklashassociatedwiththistypeofbehaviorisattributedtothefactthattobeself-advocatedisconsideredmasculine,whereasthealternative,beingaccommodating,isconsideredmorefeminine.[83]Males,however,donotappeartofaceanytypeofbacklashfornotbeingself-advocating.[84] Thisresearchhasbeensupportedbymultiplestudies,includingonewhichevaluatedcandidatesparticipatinginanegotiationregardingcompensation.Thisstudyshowedthatwomenwhoinitiatednegotiationswereevaluatedmorepoorlythanmenwhoinitiatednegotiations.Inanothervariationofthisparticularsetup,menandwomenevaluatedvideosofmenandwomeneitheracceptingacompensationpackageorinitiatingnegotiations.Menevaluatedwomenmorepoorlyforinitiatingnegotiations,whilewomenevaluatedbothmenandwomenmorepoorlyforinitiatingnegotiations.Inthisparticularexperiment,womenwerelesslikelytoinitiateanegotiationwithamale,citingnervousness,buttherewasnovariationwiththenegotiationwasinitiatedwithanotherfemale.[85] Researchalsosupportsthenotionthatthewayindividualsrespondinanegotiationvariesdependingonthegenderoftheoppositeparty.Inall-malegroups,theuseofdeceptionshowednovariationupontheleveloftrustbetweennegotiatingparties,howeverinmixed-sexgroupstherewasanincreaseindeceptivetacticswhenitwasperceivedthattheoppositepartywasusinganaccommodatingstrategy.Inall-femalegroups,thereweremanyshiftsinwhenindividualsdidanddidnotemploydeceptionintheirnegotiationtactics.[83] Academicnegotiation[edit] Theacademicworldcontainsauniquemanagementsystem,whereinfacultymembers,someofwhichhavetenure,resideinacademicunits(e.g.departments)andareoverseenbychairs,orheads.Thesechairs/headsareinturnsupervisedbydeansofthecollegewheretheiracademicunitresides.Negotiationisanareawherefaculty,chairs/headsandtheirdeanshavelittlepreparation;theirdoctoraldegreesaretypicallyinahighlyspecializedareaaccordingtotheiracademicexpertise.However,theacademicenvironmentfrequentlypresentswithsituationswherenegotiationtakesplace.Forexample,manyfacultyarehiredwithanexpectationthattheywillconductresearchandpublishscholarlyworks.Forthesefaculty,wheretheirresearchrequiresequipment,space,and/orfunding,negotiationofa"start-up"packageiscriticalfortheirsuccessandfuturepromotion.[86][87]Also,departmentchairsoftenfindthemselvesinsituations,typicallyinvolvingresourceredistributionwheretheymustnegotiatewiththeirdean,onbehalfoftheirunit.Anddeansoverseecollegeswheretheymustoptimizelimitedresources,suchasresearchspaceoroperatingfundswhileatthesametimecreatinganenvironmentthatfostersstudentsuccess,researchaccomplishmentsandmore.[86][87][88] Integrativenegotiationisthetypepredominatelyfoundinacademicnegotiation–wheretrustandlong-termrelationshipsbetweenpersonnelarevalued.Techniquesfoundtobeparticularlyusefulinacademicsettingsinclude:[86][87](1)doingyourhomework–groundingyourrequestinfacts;(2)knowingyourvalue;(3)listeningactivelyandacknowledgingwhatisbeingsaid,[89](4)puttingyourselfintheirshoes,(5)asking–negotiationbeginswithanask,(6)notcommittingimmediately,(7)managingemotionand(8)keepinginmindtheprincipleofa"wiseagreement",[89]withitsassociatedemphasisonmeetingtheinterestsofbothpartiestotheextentpossibleasakeyworkingpoint.ThearticlesbyCallahan,etal.[86]andAmekudzi-Kennedy,etal.[87]containseveralcasestudiesofacademicnegotiations. Etymology[edit] Theword"negotiation"originatedintheearly15thcenturyfromtheOldFrenchnegociacionfromLatinnegotiatiofromneg-"no"andotium"leisure".[90]Thesetermsmean"business,trade,traffic".Bythelate1570snegotiationhadthedefinition,"tocommunicateinsearchofmutualagreement".Withthisnewintroductionandthismeaning,itshowedashiftin"doingbusiness"to"bargainingabout"business.[90] Seealso[edit] Alternativedisputeresolution Alternatingoffersprotocol Collaborativesoftware Collectiveaction Conciliation Conflictresolutionresearch Consistency(negotiation) Contract Cross-cultural Cross-culturaldifferencesindecision-making Delayingtactic Diplomacy Disputeresolution Expertdetermination Flipism Gametheory Impasse Internationalrelations Leadership Multilateralism Nashequilibrium Principlednegotiation Prisoner'sdilemma ProgramonNegotiation References[edit] 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^Trotschel;Hufmeier;Loschelder;Schwartz;Collwitzer(2011)."Perspectivetakingasameanstoovercomemotivationalbarriersinnegotiations:Whenputtingoneselfintheopponentsshoeshelpstowalktowardsagreements"(PDF).JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology.101(4):771–790.CiteSeerX 10.1.1.728.9853.doi:10.1037/a0023801.PMID 21728447. ^GregoryBrazeal,"AgainstGridlock:TheViabilityofInterest-BasedLegislativeNegotiation",HarvardLaw&PolicyReview(Online),vol.3,p.1(2009). ^WorldTradeOrganization,WTOmemberssearchforcompromiseastext-basednegotiationsonfishingsubsidiescontinue,published9October2020,accessed15October2020 ^UnitedNations,Previewingworkahead,UNAssemblyPresidentsaysMemberStatesmustagreeaboldpost-2015agenda,published15January2015,accessed16October2020 ^CNA,15nationscomplete'text-based'negotiationsforRCEP,signingexpectedin2020,accessed15October2020 ^CNA,IndiawillnotjoinRCEPtradedealinblowtosprawlingAsianpact,published4November2019,accessed16October2020 ^abcFisher,Roger,Ury,Wiliam,&Paten,Bruce(1991).Gettingtoyes:Negotiatingagreementwithoutgivingin.Penguin:NewYork.Chapter2 ^Johnston,PeterD(2008).NegotiatingwithGiants.UnitedStates:NegotiationPress.pp. Pages4to5.ISBN 978-0980942101. ^Chernow,Ron(2004).Titan,TheLifeofJohnD.Rockefeller,Sr.UnitedStates:PenguinRandomHouse.pp. Pages111to112.ISBN 978-1400077304. ^"Athletes'performancedeclinesfollowingcontractyears".ScienceDaily.22January2014. ^Johnston,PeterD.(2008).NegotiatingwithGiants.UnitedStates:NegotiationPress.pp. Page4.ISBN 978-0980942101. ^Johnston,PeterD.(2008).NegotiatingwithGiants.UnitedStates:NegotiationPress.p. 168.ISBN 978-0980942101. ^"negotiatinginbadfaith",exampleofuseof"badfaith"definitioninOxfordOnlineDictionary ^IBHSUnionVoice(3December2008).""BadFaithNegotiation",UnionVoice".Unitas.wordpress.com.Retrieved24August2014. ^exampleofuse-"theRepublicansaccusedtheDemocratsof"negotiatinginbadfaith",OxfordOnlineDictionary ^DouglasStuartandHarveyStarr,"The'InherentBadFaithModel'Reconsidered:Dulles,Kennedy,andKissinger",PoliticalPsychology(subscriptionrequired) ^ab"... themostwidelystudiedistheinherentbadfaithmodelofone'sopponent ...",Thehandbookofsocialpsychology,Volumes1-2,editedbyDanielT.Gilbert,SusanT.Fiske,GardnerLindzey ^Jung/Krebs,TheEssentialsofContractNegotiation,p.125(keyword:NegotiationPie). ^abJung/Krebs,TheEssentialsofContractNegotiation,p.126(keyword:NegotiationPie). ^"Merlone,U.,&Lupano,M.(2021).Thirdpartyfunding:Theminimumclaimvalue.EuropeanJournalofOperationalResearch". ^Malhotra,D.,FourStrategiesforMakingConcessions,HarvardBusinessSchool,WorkingKnowledge,published6March2006,accesses2June2021 ^abChurchman,David.1993.NegotiationTactics.Maryland:UniversityPressofAmerica.p.13. ^JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology,83(5)(2002),pp.1131–1140 ^"BestAlternativetoaNegotiatedAgreement". ^Negotiation,Readings,ExercisesandCases,RoyJ.Lewicki[fullcitationneeded] 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^Goldman,Alvin(1991).SettlingForMore:MasteringNegotiatingStrategiesandTechniques.Washington,D.C.:TheBureauofNationalAffairs,Inc.p. 83.ISBN 978-0-87179-651-6. ^abLewicki,R.J.;D.M.Saunders;J.W.Minton(2001).EssentialsofNegotiation.NewYork:McGraw-HillHigherEducation.p. 82.ISBN 978-0-07-231285-0. ^Jung/Krebs,p.73. ^Gates,Steve(2011).TheNegotiationBook.UnitedKingdom:AJohnWiley&SonsLtd.,Publication.p. 246.ISBN 978-0-470-66491-9. ^Coburn,Calum."NeutralisingManipulativeNegotiationTactics".NegotiationTrainingSolutions.Retrieved1October2012. ^Gates,Steve(2011).TheNegotiationBook.UnitedKingdom:AJohnWiley&SonsLtd.,Publication.p. 245.ISBN 978-0-470-66491-9. ^Jung/Krebs,p.102. ^Lewicki,R.J.;D.M.Saunders;J.W.Minton(2001).EssentialsofNegotiation.NewYork:McGraw-HillHigherEducation.p. 81.ISBN 978-0-07-231285-0. ^Lewicki,R.J.;D.M.Saunders;J.W.Minton(2001).EssentialsofNegotiation.NewYork:McGraw-HillHigherEducation.p. 86.ISBN 978-0-07-231285-0. ^Vecchi,G.M.;VanHasselt,V.B.;Romano,S.J.(2005)."Crisis(hostage)negotiation:Currentstrategiesandissuesinhigh-riskconflictresolution".AggressionandViolentBehavior.10(5):533–551.doi:10.1016/j.avb.2004.10.001. ^"WhatisAnchoringinNegotiation?".PON-ProgramonNegotiationatHarvardLawSchool.20December2021.Retrieved24January2022. ^Hui,Zhou;TingqinZhang."BodyLanguageinBusinessNegotiation".InternationalJournalofBusinessandManagement.3(2). ^BodyLanguageMagic. ^Donaldson,MichaelC.(18April2011).NegotiatingForDummies.Indianapolis,Indiana:WileyPublishing,Inc.ISBN 978-1-118-06808-3. ^Pease,BarbaraandAlan(2006).TheDefinitiveBookofBodyLanguage.NewYork:BantamDell.ISBN 978-0-553-80472-0. ^Donaldson,MichaelC.;Donaldson,Mimi(1996).Negotiatingfordummies.NewYork:HungryMinds.ISBN 978-1-56884-867-9. ^Luecke,Richard(2003).Negotiation.HarvardBusinessEssentials.Boston:HarvardBusinessSchoolPress.ISBN 9781591391111. 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^VanKleef,G.A.;DeDreu,C.K.W.;Manstead,A.S.R.(2004)."Theinterpersonaleffectsofangerandhappinessinnegotiations"(PDF).JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology.86(1):57–76.doi:10.1037/0022-3514.86.1.57.PMID 14717628.Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)on26September2007.Retrieved2September2007. ^Bazerman,M.H.;Curhan,J.R.;Moore,D.A.;Valley,K.L.(2000)."Negotiation".AnnualReviewofPsychology.51:279–314.doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.51.1.279.PMID 10751973. ^Sagi,Eyal;Diermeier,Daniel(1December2015)."LanguageUseandCoalitionFormationinMultipartyNegotiations".CognitiveScience.41(1):259–271.doi:10.1111/cogs.12325.ISSN 1551-6709.PMID 26671166. ^Sparks,D.B.(1993).TheDynamicsofEffectiveNegotiation(secondedition).Houston:GulfPublishingCo. ^"Wang,J.,&Gong,J.(n.d.).TeamNegotiationBasedonSolidarityBehavior:AConcessionStrategyintheTeam.Retrieved14November2016". ^Thiemann,D.,&Hesse,F.W.(2015).LearningaboutTeamMembers'Preferences:Computer-SupportedPreferenceAwarenessintheNegotiationPreparationofTeams. ^Brianne,Hall;Tracy,Hoelting(24April2015).Influenceofnegotiationandpracticesettingonsalarydisparitiesbetweenmaleandfemalephysicianassistants. ^abGladstone,Eric;O'Connor,KathleenM.(1September2014)."Acounterpart'sfemininefacesignalscooperativenessandencouragesnegotiatorstocompete".OrganizationalBehaviorandHumanDecisionProcesses.125(1):18–25.doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2014.05.001. ^Amanatullah,EmilyT.;Tinsley,CatherineH.(1January2013)."Punishingfemalenegotiatorsforassertingtoomuch…ornotenough:Exploringwhyadvocacymoderatesbacklashagainstassertivefemalenegotiators".OrganizationalBehaviorandHumanDecisionProcesses.120(1):110–122.doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2012.03.006. ^Bowles,Hannah;Babcock,Linda;Lai,Lei(2006)."SocialincentivesforgenderdiVerencesinthepropensitytoinitiatenegotiations:Sometimesitdoeshurttoask"(PDF).OrganizationalBehaviorandHumanDecisionProcesses.103:84–103.doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2006.09.001. ^abcdCallahan,J;Besterfield-Sacre,M.E.;Carpenter,J.P.;Needy,K.L.;Schrader,C.B.(2016)."ListeningandNegotiation".2016ASEEAnnualConference&Exposition,NewOrleans,Louisiana.doi:10.18260/p.25571. ^abcdAmekudzi-Kennedy,A.A.;Hall,K.D.;Harding,T.S.;Moll,A.J.;Callahan,J.(2017)."ListeningandNegotiationII".2017ASEEAnnualConference&Exposition,Columbus,Ohio.doi:10.18260/1-2--28631. ^McKersie,R.B.(2012)."TheDay-to-DayLifeofaDean:EngaginginNegotiationsandnegotiations".NegotiationJournal475-488.28(4):475–488.doi:10.1111/j.1571-9979.2012.00352.x. ^abFisher,R.;Ury,W.;Patton,B.(2012).Gettingtoyes:Negotiatingagreementwithoutgivingin.Penguin:NewYork. ^ab"negotiation|OriginandmeaningofnegotiationbyOnlineEtymologyDictionary".www.etymonline.com.Retrieved19August2019. Furtherreading[edit] Seealso:Listofbooksaboutnegotiation Camp,Jim.(2007).No,TheOnlyNegotiatingSystemYouNeedForWorkOrHome.CrownBusiness.NewYork. Movius,H.andSusskind,L.E.(2009)BuilttoWin:CreatingaWorldClassNegotiatingOrganization.Cambridge,MA:HarvardBusinessPress. RogerDawson,SecretsofPowerNegotiating-InsideSecretsfromaMasterNegotiator.CareerPress,1999. Davérède,AlbertoL."Negotiations,Secret",MaxPlanckEncyclopediaofPublicInternationalLaw RonaldM.ShapiroandMarkA.Jankowski,ThePowerofNice:HowtoNegotiateSoEveryoneWins-EspeciallyYou!,JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.,1998,ISBN 0-471-08072-1 MarshallRosenberg(2015).NonviolentCommunication:ALanguageofLife,3rdEdition:Life-ChangingToolsforHealthyRelationships.PDPress.ISBN 978-1-892005-54-0. RogerFisherandDanielShapiro,BeyondReason:UsingEmotionsasYouNegotiate,Viking/Penguin,2005. DouglasStone,BrucePatton,andSheilaHeen,forewordbyRogerFisher,DifficultConversations:HowtoDiscussWhatMattersMost,Penguin,1999,ISBN 0-14-028852-X CatherineMorris,ed.NegotiationinConflictTransformationandPeacebuilding:ASelectedBibliography.Victoria,Canada:PeacemakersTrust. HowardRaiffa,TheArtandScienceofNegotiation,BelknapPress1982,ISBN 0-674-04812-1 DavidChurchman,"NegotiationTactics"UniversityPressofAmerica,Inc.1993ISBN 0-8191-9164-7 WilliamUry,GettingPastNo:NegotiatingYourWayfromConfrontationtoCooperation,revisedsecondedition,Bantam,1993,tradepaperback,ISBN 0-553-37131-2;1steditionunderthetitle,GettingPastNo:NegotiatingwithDifficultPeople,Bantam,1991,hardcover,161pages,ISBN 0-553-07274-9 WilliamUry,RogerFisherandBrucePatton,GettingtoYes:NegotiatingAgreementWithoutGivingin,Revised2ndedition,PenguinUSA,1991,tradepaperback,ISBN 0-14-015735-2;HoughtonMifflin,1992,hardcover,200pages,ISBN 0-395-63124-6.Thefirstedition,unrevised,HoughtonMifflin,1981,hardcover,ISBN 0-395-31757-6 ThepoliticalphilosopherCharlesBlattbergdistinguishedbetweennegotiationandconversation,andcriticizedconflict-resolutionmethodsthatgivetoomuchweighttotheformer.SeehisFromPluralisttoPatrioticPolitics:PuttingPracticeFirst,OxfordandNewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2000,ISBN 0-19-829688-6,aworkofpoliticalphilosophy;andhisShallWeDance?APatrioticPoliticsforCanada,MontrealandKingston:McGillQueen'sUniversityPress,2003,ISBN 0-7735-2596-3,whichappliesthatphilosophytotheCanadiancase. LeighL.Thompson,TheMindandHeartoftheNegotiator3rdEd.,PrenticeHall0ct.2005. NicolasIynedjian,Négociation-Guidepratique,CEDIDAC62,Lausanne2005,ISBN 2-88197-061-3 MicheleJ.GelfandandJeanneM.Brett,ed.Handbookofnegotiationandculture,2004.ISBN 0-8047-4586-2 "Emotionandconflict"fromtheBeyondIntractabilityDatabase *Echavarria,Martin(2015).EnablingCollaboration–AchievingSuccessThroughStrategicAlliancesandPartnerships.LIDPublishingInc.ISBN 9780986079337.Nierenberg,GerardI.(1995).TheArtofNegotiating:PsychologicalStrategiesforGainingAdvantageousBargains.BarnesandNoble.ISBN 978-1-56619-816-5. AndreaSchneider&ChristopherHoneyman,eds.,TheNegotiator'sFieldbook,AmericanBarAssociation(2006).ISBN 1-59031-545-6[1] Dr.ChesterKarrass"EffectiveNegotiatingTips" KennethCloke,JoanGoldsmith.TheEndofManagementandtheRiseofOrganizationalDemocracy.ISBN 9780787959128.Wiley,2002. RichardH.SolomonandNigelQuinney.AmericanNegotiatingBehavior:Wheeler-Dealers,LegalEagles,Bullies,andPreachers(UnitedStatesInstituteofPeacePress,2010);357pages;identifiesfourmindsetsinthenegotiationbehaviorofpolicymakersanddiplomats;drawsoninterviewswithmorethan50practitioners CharlesArthurWillard.LiberalismandtheProblemofKnowledge:ANewRhetoricforModernDemocracy.UniversityofChicagoPress.1996. JohnMcMillan"Games,Strategies,andManagers"OxfordUniversityPress.1992.ISBN 0-19-507403-3.[2] CharlesArthurWillard.ATheoryofArgumentation.UniversityofAlabamaPress.1989. CharlesArthurWillard.ArgumentationandtheSocialGroundsofKnowledge.UniversityofAlabamaPress.1982. Shortdefinitionofnegotiation "NegotiationEtymology".OnlineEtymologyDictionary.Retrieved11May2014. Trotschel;Hufmeier;Loschelder;Schwartz;Collwitzer(2011)."Perspectivetakingasameanstoovercomemotivationalbarriersinnegotiations:Whenputtingoneselfintheopponentsshoeshelpstowalktowardsagreements"(PDF).JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology.101(4):771–790.CiteSeerX 10.1.1.728.9853.doi:10.1037/a0023801.PMID 21728447. Hames,DavidS.(2011)."IntegrativeNegotiation:Astrategyforcreatingvalue".Negotiation:Closingdeals,settlingdisputes,andmakingteamdecisions.SAGEPublications.ISBN 9781483332727. Marks,M;Harold,C(2011)."WhoAsksandWhoReceivesinSalaryNegotiation".JournalofOrganizationalBehavior.32(3):371–394.doi:10.1002/job.671. Sorenson,R;Morse,E;Savage,G(1999)."TheTestoftheMotivationsUnderlyingChoiceofConflictStrategiesintheDual-ConcernModel".TheInternationalJournalofConflictManagement.10:25–44.doi:10.1108/eb022817. 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