Theory of Mind | Simply Psychology

The traditional test for theory of mind is a false-belief task. A false-belief task is commonly used in child development research to assess a ... TogglenavigationTheoriesResearchMethodsMentalHealthA-levelStatisticsTheoriesTheoryofMindTheoryofMindTheoryofMindByCharlotteRuhl,publishedAug07,2020Take-homeMessagesTheoryofmind(ToM)istheabilitytoattributementalstatestoourselvesandothers,servingasoneofthefoundationalelementsforsocialinteraction.Havingatheoryofmindisimportantasitprovidestheabilitytopredictandinterpretthebehaviorofothers.Duringinfancyandearlychildhood,childrenlearntheearlyskillsthatthey’llneedtodeveloptheirtheoryofmindlateron,suchaspayingattentiontopeopleandcopyingthem.Thetraditionaltestfortheoryofmindisafalse-belieftask,usedtoassessachild’sunderstandingthatotherpeoplecanhavebeliefsabouttheworldwhichcontrastwithreality.Countlessempiricalstudiesrevealthatthisabilitydevelopsintoddlersasyoungas15monthsoldanddeteriorateswithage.Researchalsodemonstratesthisabilityinsomeofourclosestrelatives:apes.Someindividualswithautism,Asperger’s,schizophrenia,depression,orsocialanxietydisorderexhibitadeficitintheoryofmindandperformpoorlyonrelatedtasks.WhatisTheoryofMind?Theoryofmindistheabilitytoattributementalstates—beliefs,intents,desires,emotions,andknowledge—toourselvesandothers.“Ashumansweassumethatotherswant,think,believeandthelike,andtherebyinferstatesthatarenotdirectlyobservable,usingthesestatesanticipatorily,topredictthebehaviorofothersaswellasourown.Theseinferences,whichamounttoatheoryofmind,aretoourknowledge,universalinhumanadults”(Premack&Woodruff,1978).Havingatheoryofmindallowsustounderstandthatothershaveuniquebeliefsanddesiresthataredifferentfromourown,enablingustoengageindailysocialinteractionasweinterpretthementalstatesandinferthebehaviorsofthosearoundus(Premack&Woodruff,1978).Afteritsfirstidentificationin1978,alargebodyofresearchinthisfieldhasaccumulated,studyingthedevelopmentalpathway,neuralbasis,anddeficitsofthetheoryofmind. TableofcontentsHowdoesitdevelop?StagesoftheoryofmindCulturaldifferencesFalse-belieftasksProblemswithToMTheory-of-mindinthebrainReferencesFurtherInformationHowDoesTheoryofMindDevelop?HowDoesTheoryofMindDevelop?Wearen’tbornimmediatelyknowingthatothershaveuniquebeliefsanddesiresthatareuniquefromourown.Itturnsoutthatthereareseveraldevelopmentalprecursors(orskills)thatinfantsneedtodeveloptheirtheoryofmindlateronWestby&Robinson,2014).Theseskillsincludetheabilitytocomprehendtheconceptofattention,understandtheintentionsofothers,andtheabilitytoimitateothersareallrungsontheladderyoumustclimbbeforereachingtheplatformoftheoryofmind.Otherdevelopmentalprecursorsnecessaryoftheoryofmindtodevelopinclude(i)pretendingtobesomeoneelse(likeadoctororacashier);(ii)understandingthecausesandconsequencesofemotions;and(iii)understandingtherpeopleandhavedifferentlikes/dislikes.PayingAttentiontoOtherPeopleAccordingtopsychologistSimonBaron-Cohen,attentionisoneofthefirstunderlyingprecursorstothedevelopmentofafully-fledgedtheoryofmind.Thisinvolvesrecognizingthatseeingisnotmerelylooking,butratherwecanselectivelydirectourattentiontospecificobjectsandpeople(Baron-Cohen,1991).Akeyexampleofthisattentionisjointattention.Jointattentionoccurswhentwopeopledirecttheirattentiontowardsthesamethingofinterest–oftendoingviapointingsoastodirectanother’sattentiontothesamesource.Wheninfantsunderstandthisgesture,theyaresimultaneouslyprocessinganotherperson’smentalstate,recognizingthatthisobjectissomethingthatanotherpersonthinksisofinterest(Baron-Cohen,1991),thusillustratingthebeginningphasesofthetheoryofmind.Intentionality(knowingthatpeopleactaccordingtothethingstheywant)Asecondcorecomponentthatcontributestothedevelopmentofthetheoryofmindisthatofintentionality,ortheunderstandingthatothers’actionsaregoal-directedandariseoutofuniquebeliefsanddesires,asdefinedbyphilosopherDanielDennett(1983).Toddlersasyoungas2yearsoldexhibitanunderstandingofintentionality(Luchkinaetal.,2018)asdochimpanzeesandorangutans(Call&Tomasello,1998).Tounderstandthatpeopleactinawaythatismotivatedbytheirdesires(forexample,IamhungrysoIwillreachforthatapple)istounderstandthatotherpeoplehavetheirowndesires(shemustbehungry),thusdemonstratingatheoryofmind,orattributingmentalstatestoothers.Imitation(CopyingOtherPeople)Imitatingothersisathirdbuildingblockoftheoryofmind.Theabilitytoimitateothersistorecognizerecognizingthatothershavetheirownbeliefsanddesires.Forexample,bridgingattentionandintentionality,imitationcanresultwhenachildrealizesthatothersdirecttheirattention(toanobject,etc.)anddosointentionally(motivatedbygoal-directedbehavior).Internalizingthesetwoconcepts,thechildthenengagesinimitationandmaydirecthisorhereyestowardsthatspecificobjectorscene.However,thereissomepushbackthatimitationisnotasmuchofacrucialprecursorfortheoryofmind.A2000longitudinalstudyfoundthattheinfants’imitationscoreswerenotassociatedwithlatertheoryofmindability(Charman,2000).StagesofTheoryofMindStagesofTheoryofMindBetweenages4-5,childrenreallystarttothinkaboutothers’thoughtsandfeelings,andthisiswhentruetheoryofmindemerges.Theactualdevelopmentofthetheoryofmindgenerallyfollowsanagreed-uponsequenceofsteps(Wellman,2004;Wellman&Peterson,2012):TasksListedFromEasiesttoMostDifficultUnderstanding“wanting”:Thefirststepistherealizationthatothershavediversedesires,andtogetwhattheywant,peopleactindifferentways.Understanding“thinking”:Thesecondstepistherunderstandingthatothersalsohavediversebeliefsaboutthesamething,andthatpeople’sactionsarebasedonwhattheythinkisgoingtohappen.Understandingthat“seeingleadstoknowing”:Thethirdstageisrecognizingthatothershavedifferentknowledgeaccess,andifsomeonehasn’tseensomething,theywillneedextrainformationtounderstand.Understanding“false-beliefs”:Theforthstageisbeingawareofthefactthatothersmayhavefalse-beliefsthatdifferfromreality.Understanding“hiddenfeelings”:Thefinalstageisbeingawarethatotherpeoplecanhidetheiremotions,andcanfeeladifferentemotionfromtheonetheydisplay.CulturalDifferencesCulturalDifferencesWhilethesedevelopmentalstagesseemtobeuniversalacrossdemographicgroupsinlayingthegroundworkfortheformationoftheoryofmind,differentculturesplacevaryinglevelsofemphasisoneachofthefiveskills,causingsometobedevelopedlaterthanothers.Inotherwords,culturalimportanceplaysaroleindeterminingthespecificorderinwhichthesefivemilestonesarecementedintothemindofatoddler.Thatis,thosethataremorevaluedtendtobedevelopedbeforethosethatarelessso(andthismakessensefromanevolutionaryperspective,too).Forexample,inindividualisticcultures,suchastheU.S.,agreateremphasisisplacedontheabilitytorecognizethatothershavedifferentopinionsandbeliefs.However,inmorecollectivisticculturessuchasChina,thisskillisnotasvaluedandasaresultmightnotdevelopuntillater(Shahaeian,2011).AstudyconductedbydevelopmentalpsychologistAmenehShahaeianandcolleaguesfoundthatforIranianchildren,knowledgeaccesswasunderstoodearlierthandiversebeliefs,aligningwiththiscollectivistculture’semphasisonfilialrespectandknowledgeacquisition(Shahaeian,2011).WhereaswithAustralianparticipants,whocomefromamoreindividualistculture,knowledgeaccesswasunderstoodaftercomprehendingthatothershavediversebeliefs.Notably,theresearchersfoundthattherewasnosignificantcross-culturaldifferenceinoverallratesoftheoryofmindmastery(Shahaeian,2011),indicatingthatindividualsofallculturesareabletomasterthisskill(Callaghanetal.,2005)despitefollowingdifferentdevelopmentalpathwaystodoso.False-BeliefTasksFalse-BeliefTasksMosttheoryofmindstudiesareconductedwithtoddlersandinfants.Becausethisisadevelopmentalconcept,researchersareconcernedwiththeageatwhichindividualsadoptatheoryofmind.Moststudiesthatmeasuretheoryofmindrelyonafalse-belieftask.Thetraditionaltestfortheoryofmindisafalse-belieftask.Afalse-belieftaskiscommonlyusedinchilddevelopmentresearchtoassessachild’sunderstandingthatotherpeoplecanhavebeliefsabouttheworldwhicharenottrue.Thefalse-belieftaskallowsresearcherstodistinguishunambiguouslybetweenthechild’s(true)beliefandthechild’sawarenessofsomeoneelse’sdifferent(false)belief(Dennett,1978).First-orderfalse-belieftasksassesstherealizationthatitispossibletoholdfalse-beliefsaboutrealeventsintheworld.Anexampleofacommonlyusedfirst-orderfalse-belieftaskisthe"Unexpectedcontents",or“Smarties”task.Experimentersaskchildrentopredictanotherchild’sperceptionaboutthecontentsofaboxthatlooksasthoughitholdsacandycalled"Smarties"(thatactuallyincludesapencil)(Gopnik&Astington,1988).First-orderfalse-belieftasksinvolveattributionaboutother’sfalse-beliefwithregardtorealevents.Insecond-orderfalse-belieftasks,thechildisrequiredtodeterminewhatonecharacterinapicturedscenariothinksregardinganothercharacter’sbeliefs(Baron-Cohen,1995).Thus,canachildunderstandthatanotherperson'sbeliefaboutasituationcanbedifferentfromtheirown,andalsofromreality.Forexample,acharacterleavesanobjectinonelocationandwhileheorsheisoutsidetheroomtheobjectistransferredtoanewlocation.Passingthistaskdemonstratestherealizationthatitispossibletoholdafalse-beliefaboutsomeoneelse'sbelief.Acommonlyusedsecond-orderfalse-belieftaskistheSally-Annetask,inwhichacharacterleavesanobjectinonelocation,andwhileheorsheisoutsidetheroomtheobjectistransferredtoanewlocation.TheSally-AnneTaskSimonBaron-Cohen(1985)usedtheSally–Annetasktoinvestigatewhetherautisticchildrencouldunderstandfalse-belief.Thechildwhoisbeingtestedsitsatatableonwhichtwodolls(AnneandSally)arepositionedfacingliddedcontainers(aboxandabasket).Theexperimenterenactsascenariowiththedolls.Inthistask,Sallyfirstplacesamarbleintoherbasketandthenleavesthescene.Annethenenters,takesthemarbleoutofthebasket,andplacesitintoaclosedbox.TheexperimenterthenaskstheparticipantwhereSallywilllookforthemarble.Threegroupsofchildrenweretested(oneatatime)-20childrenwithautism(experimentalgroup),14childrenwithDown’ssyndrome(controlgroup1),and27typicallydevelopingchildren(controlgroup2).Ifthechildpasses,heorshewillpointtothebasket,understandingthat,althoughthisisnolongerreality(asthemarbleisnowinthebasket),Sallypossessesafalse-beliefthatthemarbleisinthebasketbecauseshedidnotwatchAnnemoveit(Baron-Cohenetal.,1985).TopointtothebasketistounderstandthatSallyhasherownsetofbeliefsabouttheworldthatdifferfromthechild’s(heorsheknowswherethemarbleactuallyis).Findings85%ofthetypicallydevelopingchildrenand86%ofthechildrenwithDown'ssyndromeansweredthefalse-beliefquestioncorrectly.80%oftheautisticchildrenfailthefalse-beliefquestion.False-BeliefTask:SallyAnne xToviewthisvideopleaseenableJavaScript,andconsiderupgradingtoa webbrowserthat supportsHTML5videoFalse-BeliefTask:SallyAnneSeveralstudiesindicatethatchildrenaroundfourorfiveyearsofageareabletopassthisfalse-belieftask(Baron-Cohenetal.,1985;Gopnik&Astington,1988;Nelsonetal.,2008;Sung&Hsu,2014).However,otherstudiesindicateotherwise–thattoddlersasyoungas15monthsoldhavesomeunderstandofatheoryofmind.Anonverbalversionofthefalsebelieftaskisemployedforbabiesofthisage,withtheirlookingtimeservingasthedependentvariable.Inotherwords,followingthetraditionalfalsebelieftaskinwhichatoyorobjectishidden,insteadofverballyaskingtheparticipantwhereSallywouldlook,shewouldcomebackandeitherlookinthebasketorbox,andexperimenterswouldmeasurethedurationthatparticipantslookedatSallyperformingthisaction.IfthetoddlerslookedlongerwhenSallyreachedforthebox,thiswouldindicatethattheyexpectedSallytolookinthebasket.Andtheresultsdemonstratedthis,revealingthat,evenfromaveryyoungage,childrendohavesomeunderstandingofthementalstatesofothers(Onishi&Baillargeon,2005;replicatedbyTräubleetal.,2010).ProblemsWithTheoryofMindProblemsWithTheoryofMindTheoryofmindisanimportantunderlyingmechanismthatallowsforhumansocialinteractiontooccur.Withoutit,wewouldgreatlystruggletocommunicatewitheachother,understandeachother’sbehavior,andwewouldn’tbeknownastheuniquesocialbeingsthatmakeussospecial.Theoryofmindproblemscanhavearangeofseriouscomplications.AutismAlthoughresearchdemonstratesthathumanshavethecapacitytounderstandtheoryofmind,somehaveabetterabilitytodosothanothers.Childrenwhoarediagnosedwithautism,aspectrumdisordermarkedbychallengeswithsocialskills,repetitivebehaviors,andnonverbalcommunication(Speaks,2011),exhibitadeficitintheoryofmindcapabilities.EightypercentofparticipantswithautismfailedafalsebelieftaskinaninitialstudyconductedbySimonBaron-Cohen(1985).Andwhilemorerecentstudiessupportthisclaim,theyalsorevealthatchildrenwithautismcanpassfalsebelieftaskswhenexplicitlyaskedtodoso,asopposedtofive-year-oldchildrenwhocandosoautomatically.Thedifference,however,isthatoutsideofthelabsetting,individualswithautismcannotdonotshowspontaneousfalsebeliefattribution(Senju,2012).Ontheneurologicalside,childrenandadultswithautismalsoshowlessactivationinbrainregions,suchasthemPFCandTPJ,thatareassociatedwiththeoryofmind(Castellietal.,2002).Asperger’sForindividualswithAsperger’s,adisordermarkedbysimilar,thoughlessseveresymptomsthaninASD,alsoexhibitalessenedabilitytoexpresstheoryofmind,illustratedbytheirimpairedperformanceonvarioustheoryofmind-relatedtasks(Happeetal.,1996;Speketal.,2010)SchizophreniaSomepeoplewithschizophrenia,amentaldisordercharacterizedbyalossoftouchwithreality,alsostrugglewiththeoryofmind.A2007meta-analysis(ananalysisthatcombinestheresultsofmultipleempiricalstudies)revealsastabledeficitoftheoryofmindinpeoplewithschizophrenia,asevidencedbytheirconsistent,poorperformanceonfalsebelieftasks(Sprongetal.,2007).AndsimilartoindividualswithautismandAsperger’s,schizophrenicpeoplehavereducedrecruitmentofthemPFCduringfalsebelieftasks(Dodell-Feder,2014).DepressionandAnxietyLikewise,individualswithdepressionstrugglewiththeoryofmindandexperiencedeficitsinintegratingcontextualinformationalaboutotherpeople(Wolkensteinetal.,2011)aswellasdeficitsintheoryofminddecoding(Leeetal.,2005).A2008studyrevealedthatbothnonpsychoticandpsychoticdepressedindividualsweresignificantlyimpairedontasksinvolvingtheoryofmindsocial-perceptualandsocial-cognitivecomponents(Wangetal.,2008).Similarly,peoplewithsocialanxietydisorder,whichismarkedbyinterpersonalimpairment,arealsosignificantlylessaccurateatdecodingmentalstatesthancontrolgroups(Washburnetal.,2016)Together,theseexamplesillustratethat,whilehumansdohaveauniqueabilitytodetectmentalstatesinothers,forsome,thisabilityisreducedornotpresentatall,thusmakingsocialinteractingchallengingandallthemorestressful.TheoryofMindinTheBrainTheoryofMindinTheBrainLikeallpsychologicalconcepts,ourbrainisactivatedwhenwerelyontheoryofmind.Countlessneuroimagingstudieshavehelpedpinpointthespecificregionsthatareactivatedwhenweengageintheoryofmindtasks,identifyingafewkeyareasofourbrain.Administeringfalsebelieftaskswhilesimultaneouslyscanningthebrainandpinpointingwhichregionsareactivehasledresearcherstoidentifythemedialprefrontalcortex(mPFC)andtemporo-parietaljunction(TPJ),amongafewotherregions,asthemainstructuresthatareresponsiblefortheoryofmind.Todeterminethis,researchershaveconductedvariousexperimentaldesigns.Acommonparadigmreliesonafalsebeliefstoryandfalsephotographstory.Asdiscussed,afalsebelieftestwouldinvolveastorysimilartothatofSallyandAnne,followedbyaskingtheparticipantaquestionsuchas“DoesSallyexpecttofindherdollinthebasketorbox?”Anexampleofthecontrolcondition,referredtoasthefalsephotographstory,is“Aphotographwastakenofanapplehangingonatreebranch.Thefilmtookhalfanhourtodevelop.Inthemeantime,astrongwindblewtheappletotheground,”followedbyaskingtheparticipant“Doesthisdevelopedphotographshowanappleonthegroundorbranch”(Callejasetal.,2011).Here,thereisnoinferenceaboutanother’smentalstate,butratheraboutthestateoftheappleinthephotograph.Studiesthatutilizethismethodillustratethatthetemporo-parietaljunction(TPJ)isactiveduringthefalsebeliefstory,butnotinthebrainsofparticipantswhoarepartofthecontrolgroup(Saxe&Kanwisher,2003;Saxe&Powell,2006;Saxe,Schultz,&Jiang,2006).Additionally,whenparticipantsareaskedtoreadstoriesthatdescribethethoughtsandbeliefsofaprotagonistasopposedtoastorythatmerelydescribestheprotagonist’sphysicalcharacteristics,theTPJactivatesintheformercondition(Saxe&Powell,2006).ThesefindingshaveallowedresearcherstoconcludethattheTPJ,locatedwherethetemporalandparietallobesmeet.Researchstudiesalsoexaminetheroleotherbrainregionsplayintheoryofmind.Themedialprefrontalcortex(mPFC),theareathatcoverspartofthefrontallobe,isresponsibleforpredictingbehavioralandemotionalconsequencesofmentalstates(Aichhornetal.,2006).Andotherstudiesrevealtheroleoftheprecuneusandamygdala(Gallagher&Frith,2003;Stone,2000),namelyinpatientswithleftamygdaladamage(Fineetal.,2001).Therearemultipleregionsresponsibleforthedevelopmentoftheoryofmind,butwhataboutinAbouttheAuthorCharlotteRuhlisamemberoftheClassof2022atHarvardUniversity.ShestudiesPsychologywithaminorinAfricanAmericanStudies.Oncampus,Charlotteworksatanimplicitsocialcognitionresearchlab,isaneditorfortheundergraduatelawreview,andplayssoftball.Howtoreferencethisarticle:Howtoreferencethisarticle:Ruhl,C.(2020,Aug07).Theoryofmind.SimplyPsychology.www.simplypsychology.org/theory-of-mind.htmlAPAStyleReferencesAichhorn,M.,Perner,J.,Kronbichler,M.,Staffen,W.,&Ladurner,G.(2006).Dovisualperspectivetasksneedtheoryofmind?.Neuroimage,30(3),1059-1068.Baron-Cohen,S.(1991).Precursorstoatheoryofmind:Understandingattentioninothers.Naturaltheoriesofmind:Evolution,developmentandsimulationofeverydaymindreading,1,233-251.Baron-Cohen,S.,Leslie,A.M.,&Frith,U.(1985).Doestheautisticchildhavea“theoryofmind”.Cognition,21(1),37-46.Bernstein,D.M.,Thornton,W.L.,&Sommerville,J.A.(2011).Theoryofmindthroughtheages:Olderandmiddle-agedadultsexhibitmoreerrorsthandoyoungeradultsonacontinuousfalsebelieftask.ExperimentalAgingResearch,37(5),481-502.Call,J.,&Tomasello,M.(1998).Distinguishingintentionalfromaccidentalactionsinorangutans(Pongopygmaeus),chimpanzees(Pantroglodytes)andhumanchildren(Homosapiens).JournalofComparativePsychology,112(2),192.Callaghan,T.,Rochat,P.,Lillard,A.,Claux,M.L.,Odden,H.,Itakura,S.,...&Singh,S.(2005).Synchronyintheonsetofmental-statereasoning:Evidencefromfivecultures.PsychologicalScience,16(5),378-384.Callejas,A.,Shulman,G.L.,&Corbetta,M.(2011).Falsebeliefvs.falsephotographs:atestoftheoryofmindorworkingmemory?.Frontiersinpsychology,2,316.Castelli,F.,Frith,C.,Happé,F.,&Frith,U.(2002).Autism,Aspergersyndromeandbrainmechanismsfortheattributionofmentalstatestoanimatedshapes.Brain,125(8),1839-1849.Charman,T.,Baron-Cohen,S.,Swettenham,J.,Baird,G.,Cox,A.,&Drew,A.(2000).Testingjointattention,imitation,andplayasinfancyprecursorstolanguageandtheoryofmind.Cognitivedevelopment,15(4),481-498.Dennett,D.(1978).Brainstorms:Philosophicalessayonmindandpsychology.Montgomery,AL:HarvesterPress.Dennett,D.C.(1983).Intentionalsystemsincognitiveethology:The“Panglossianparadigm”defended.BehavioralandBrainSciences,6(3),343-90.Dodell-Feder,D.,Tully,L.M.,Lincoln,S.H.,&Hooker,C.I.(2014).Theneuralbasisoftheoryofmindanditsrelationshiptosocialfunctioningandsocialanhedoniainindividualswithschizophrenia.NeuroImage:Clinical,4,154-163.Fine,C.,Lumsden,J.,&Blair,R.J.R.(2001).Dissociationbetweentheoryofmindandexecutivefunctionsinapatientwithearlyleftamygdaladamage.Brain,124(2),287-298.Flombaum,J.I.,&Santos,L.R.(2005).Rhesusmonkeysattributeperceptionstoothers.CurrentBiology,15(5),447-452.Gallagher,H.L.,&Frith,C.D.(2003).Functionalimagingof‘theoryofmind’.Trendsincognitivesciences,7(2),77-83.Gopnik,A.,&Astington,J.W.(1988).Children’sunderstandingofchangesintheirmentalstates.ChildDevelopment,62,98–110.Gopnik,A.,&Astington,J.W.(1988).Children'sunderstandingofrepresentationalchangeanditsrelationtotheunderstandingoffalsebeliefandtheappearance-realitydistinction.Childdevelopment,26-37.Hare,B.,Call,J.,Agnetta,B.,&Tomasello,M.(2000).Chimpanzeesknowwhatconspecificsdoanddonotsee.AnimalBehavior,59(4),771-785.Happe,F.,Ehlers,S.,Fletcher,P.,Frith,U.,Johansson,M.,Gillberg,C.,...&Frith,C.(1996).‘Theoryofmind’inthebrain.EvidencefromaPETscanstudyofAspergersyndrome.Neuroreport,8(1),197-201.Hynes,C.A.,Baird,A.A.,&Grafton,S.T.(2006).Differentialroleoftheorbitalfrontallobeinemotionalversuscognitiveperspective-taking.Neuropsychologia,44(3),374-383.Keysar,B.,Lin,S.,&Barr,D.J.(2003).Limitsontheoryofminduseinadults.Cognition,89(1),25-41.Krachun,C.,Call,J.,&Tomasello,M.(2010).Anewchange-of-contentsfalsebelieftest:Childrenandchimpanzeescompared.InternationalJournalofComparativePsychology,23(2).Luchkina,E.,Sommerville,J.A.,&Sobel,D.M.(2018).Morethanjustmakingitgo:Toddlerseffectivelyintegratecausalefficacyandintentionalityinselectinganappropriatecausalintervention.CognitiveDevelopment,45,48-56.Meltzoff,A.N.(2002).Imitationasamechanismofsocialcognition:Originsofempathy,theoryofmind,andtherepresentationofaction.B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