Theory of mind - Wikipedia

In the most common version of the false-belief task (often called the "'Sally-Anne' test" or "'Sally-Anne' task"), children are told or shown a story involving ... Theoryofmind FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Abilitytoattributementalstatestooneselfandothers NottobeconfusedwithPhilosophyofmind. Thisarticlehasmultipleissues.Pleasehelpimproveitordiscusstheseissuesonthetalkpage.(Learnhowandwhentoremovethesetemplatemessages) Theleadsectionofthisarticlemayneedtoberewritten.UsetheleadlayoutguidetoensurethesectionfollowsWikipedia'snormsandisinclusiveofallessentialdetails.(November2020)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) Thisarticle'sleadsectionmaybetooshorttoadequatelysummarizethekeypoints.Pleaseconsiderexpandingtheleadtoprovideanaccessibleoverviewofallimportantaspectsofthearticle.(November2020) (Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) Inpsychology,theoryofmindreferstothecapacitytounderstandotherpeoplebyascribingmentalstatestothem(thatis,surmisingwhatishappeningintheirmind).Thesestatesmaybedifferentfromone'sownstatesandincludebeliefs,desires,intentions,emotions,andthoughts.[1]Possessingafunctionaltheoryofmindisconsideredcrucialforsuccessineverydayhumansocialinteractionsandisusedwhenanalyzing,judging,andinferringothers'behaviors.Deficitscanoccurinpeoplewithautismspectrumdisorders,genetic-basedeatingdisorders,schizophrenia,attentiondeficithyperactivitydisorder,[2]cocaineaddiction,[3]andbraindamagesufferedfromalcohol'sneurotoxicity;[4]deficitsassociatedwithopiateaddictionarereversedafterprolongedabstinence.[5][6]Havingatheoryofmindisverysimilartobutnotidenticalwithhavingthecapacityforempathy[7]orforsympathy. Theoryofmindisdistinctfromphilosophyofmind,whichisaboutthebasicnatureofthemindandhowthebrainenablesit. Contents 1Definition 2Philosophicalandpsychologicalroots 3Development 3.1Language 3.2Theoryofmindinadults 3.3Aging 3.4Culturalvariations 3.5Historiography 4Empiricalinvestigation 4.1False-belieftask 4.2Unexpectedcontents 4.3Othertasks 4.4Earlyprecursors 4.5Methodologicalproblems 5Deficits 5.1Autism 5.2Schizophrenia 5.3Alcoholusedisorders 5.4Depressionanddysphoria 5.5Developmentallanguagedisorder 6Brainmechanisms 6.1Inneurotypicalhumans 6.2Inautism 6.3Inschizophrenia 7Practicalvalidity 8Evolution 9Non-human 10Seealso 11References 12Furtherreading 13Externallinks Definition[edit] Theoryofmindisatheoryinsofarasthebehavioroftheotherperson,suchastheirstatementsandexpressions,istheonlythingbeingdirectlyobserved.Themindanditscontentscannotbeobserveddirectly,sotheexistenceandnatureofthemindmustbeinferred.[8]Thepresumptionthatothershaveamindistermedatheoryofmindbecauseeachhumancanonlyintuittheexistenceoftheirownmindthroughintrospection,andnoonehasdirectaccesstothemindofanothersoitsexistenceandhowitworkscanonlybeinferredfromobservationsofothers.Itistypicallyassumedthatothershavemindsanalogoustoone'sown,andthisassumptionisbasedonthereciprocal,socialinteraction,asobservedinjointattention,[9]thefunctionaluseoflanguage,[10]andtheunderstandingofothers'emotionsandactions.[11]Havingtheoryofmindallowsonetoattributethoughts,desires,andintentionstoothers,topredictorexplaintheiractions,andtoposittheirintentions.Asoriginallydefined,itenablesonetounderstandthatmentalstatescanbethecauseof—andthusbeusedtoexplainandpredict—thebehaviorofothers.[8]Beingabletoattributementalstatestoothersandunderstandingthemascausesofbehaviorimplies,inpart,thatonemustbeabletoconceiveofthemindasa"generatorofrepresentations".[12][13][14] Ifapersondoesnothaveacompletetheoryofmind,itmaybeasignofcognitiveordevelopmentalimpairment. Theoryofmindappearstobeaninnatepotentialabilityinhumansthatrequiressocialandotherexperienceovermanyyearsforitsfulldevelopment.Differentpeoplemaydevelopmore,orless,effectivetheoryofmind.Neo-Piagetiantheoriesofcognitivedevelopmentmaintainthattheoryofmindisabyproductofabroaderhypercognitiveabilityofthehumanmindtoregister,monitor,andrepresentitsownfunctioning.[15] Empathyisarelatedconcept,meaningtherecognitionandunderstandingofthestatesofmindofothers,includingtheirbeliefs,desiresandparticularlyemotions.Thisisoftencharacterizedastheabilityto"putoneselfintoanother'sshoes".Recentneuro-ethologicalstudiesofanimalbehavioursuggestthatevenrodentsmayexhibitethicalorempatheticabilities.[16]Whileempathyisknownasemotionalperspective-taking,theoryofmindisdefinedascognitiveperspective-taking.[17] Researchontheoryofmind,inhumansandanimals,adultsandchildren,normallyandatypicallydeveloping,hasgrownrapidlyintheyearssincePremackandGuyWoodruff's1978paper,"Doesthechimpanzeehaveatheoryofmind?".[8]Thefieldofsocialneurosciencehasalsobeguntoaddressthisdebatebyimagingthebrainsofhumanswhiletheyperformtasksdemandingtheunderstandingofanintention,belieforothermentalstateinothers. Analternativeaccountoftheoryofmindisgivenwithinoperantpsychologyandprovidessignificantempiricalevidenceforafunctionalaccountofbothperspective-takingandempathy.Themostdevelopedoperantapproachisfoundedonresearchonderivedrelationalrespondingandissubsumedwithinwhatiscalledrelationalframetheory.Accordingtothisview,empathyandperspective-takingcompriseacomplexsetofderivedrelationalabilitiesbasedonlearningtodiscriminateandrespondverballytoevermorecomplexrelationsbetweenself,others,place,andtime,andthroughestablishedrelations.[18][19][20] Philosophicalandpsychologicalroots[edit] ContemporarydiscussionsofTheoryofMindhavetheirrootsinphilosophicaldebate—mostbroadly,fromthetimeofRenéDescartes'SecondMeditation,whichsetthegroundworkforconsideringthescienceofthemind.Mostprominentrecentlyaretwocontrastingapproachesinthephilosophicalliterature,totheoryofmind:theory-theoryandsimulationtheory.Thetheory-theoristimaginesaveritabletheory—"folkpsychology"—usedtoreasonaboutothers'minds.Thetheoryisdevelopedautomaticallyandinnately,thoughinstantiatedthroughsocialinteractions.[21]Itisalsocloselyrelatedtopersonperceptionandattributiontheoryfromsocialpsychology. Theintuitiveassumptionthatothersaremindedisanapparenttendencyweallshare.Weanthropomorphizenon-humananimals,inanimateobjects,andevennaturalphenomena.DanielDennettreferredtothistendencyastakingan"intentionalstance"towardthings:weassumetheyhaveintentions,tohelppredictfuturebehavior.[22]However,thereisanimportantdistinctionbetweentakingan"intentionalstance"towardsomethingandenteringa"sharedworld"withit.Theintentionalstanceisadetachedandfunctionaltheoryweresorttoduringinterpersonalinteractions.Asharedworldisdirectlyperceivedanditsexistencestructuresrealityitselffortheperceiver.Itisnotjustautomaticallyappliedtoperception;itinmanywaysconstitutesperception. Thephilosophicalrootsoftherelationalframetheory(RFT)accountofTheoryofMindarisefromcontextualpsychologyandrefertothestudyoforganisms(bothhumanandnon-human)interactinginandwithahistoricalandcurrentsituationalcontext.Itisanapproachbasedoncontextualism,aphilosophyinwhichanyeventisinterpretedasanongoingactinseparablefromitscurrentandhistoricalcontextandinwhicharadicallyfunctionalapproachtotruthandmeaningisadopted.Asavariantofcontextualism,RFTfocusesontheconstructionofpractical,scientificknowledge.Thisscientificformofcontextualpsychologyisvirtuallysynonymouswiththephilosophyofoperantpsychology.[23] Development[edit] Thestudyofwhichanimalsarecapableofattributingknowledgeandmentalstatestoothers,aswellasthedevelopmentofthisabilityinhumanontogenyandphylogeny,hasidentifiedseveralbehavioralprecursorstotheoryofmind.Understandingattention,understandingofothers'intentions,andimitativeexperiencewithotherpeoplearehallmarksofatheoryofmindthatmaybeobservedearlyinthedevelopmentofwhatlaterbecomesafull-fledgedtheory. SimonBaron-Cohenproposedthatinfants'understandingofattentioninothersactsasa"criticalprecursor"tothedevelopmentoftheoryofmind.[9]Understandingattentioninvolvesunderstandingthatseeingcanbedirectedselectivelyasattention,thatthelookerassessestheseenobjectas"ofinterest",andthatseeingcaninducebeliefs.Apossibleillustrationoftheoryofmindininfantsisjointattention.Jointattentionreferstowhentwopeoplelookatandattendtothesamething;parentsoftenusetheactofpointingtopromptinfantstoengageinjointattention.Understandingthispromptrequiresthatinfantstakeintoaccountanotherperson'smentalstate,understandingthatthepersonnoticesanobjectorfindsitofinterest.Baron-Cohenspeculatesthattheinclinationtospontaneouslyreferenceanobjectintheworldasofinterest,viapointing,("protodeclarativepointing")andtolikewiseappreciatethedirectedattentionofanother,maybetheunderlyingmotivebehindallhumancommunication.[9] Understandingofothers'intentionsisanothercriticalprecursortounderstandingothermindsbecauseintentionality,or"aboutness",isafundamentalfeatureofmentalstatesandevents.The"intentionalstance"hasbeendefinedbyDanielDennett[24]asanunderstandingthatothers'actionsaregoal-directedandarisefromparticularbeliefsordesires.Both2-and3-year-oldchildrencoulddiscriminatewhenanexperimenterintentionallyvs.accidentallymarkedaboxwithstickersasbaited.[25]Evenearlierinontogeny,AndrewN.Meltzofffoundthat18-month-oldinfantscouldperformtargetmanipulationsthatadultexperimentersattemptedandfailed,suggestingtheinfantscouldrepresenttheobject-manipulatingbehaviorofadultsasinvolvinggoalsandintentions.[26]Whileattributionofintention(thebox-marking)andknowledge(false-belieftasks)isinvestigatedinyounghumansandnonhumananimalstodetectprecursorstoatheoryofmind,Gagliardietal.havepointedoutthatevenadulthumansdonotalwaysactinawayconsistentwithanattributionalperspective.[27]Intheexperiment,adulthumansubjectsmadechoicesaboutbaitedcontainerswhenguidedbyconfederateswhocouldnotsee(andtherefore,notknow)whichcontainerwasbaited. Recentresearchindevelopmentalpsychologysuggeststhattheinfant'sabilitytoimitateothersliesattheoriginsofboththeoryofmindandothersocial-cognitiveachievementslikeperspective-takingandempathy.[28]AccordingtoMeltzoff,theinfant'sinnateunderstandingthatothersare"likeme"allowsittorecognizetheequivalencebetweenthephysicalandmentalstatesapparentinothersandthosefeltbytheself.Forexample,theinfantuseshisownexperiences,orientinghishead/eyestowardanobjectofinteresttounderstandthemovementsofotherswhoturntowardanobject,thatis,thattheywillgenerallyattendtoobjectsofinterestorsignificance.Someresearchersincomparativedisciplineshavehesitatedtoputatoo-ponderousweightonimitationasacriticalprecursortoadvancedhumansocial-cognitiveskillslikementalizingandempathizing,especiallyiftrueimitationisnolongeremployedbyadults.AtestofimitationbyAlexandraHorowitz[29]foundthatadultsubjectsimitatedanexperimenterdemonstratinganoveltaskfarlesscloselythanchildrendid.Horowitzpointsoutthattheprecisepsychologicalstateunderlyingimitationisunclearandcannot,byitself,beusedtodrawconclusionsaboutthementalstatesofhumans. Whilemuchresearchhasbeendoneoninfants,theoryofminddevelopscontinuouslythroughoutchildhoodandintolateadolescenceasthesynapses(neuronalconnections)intheprefrontalcortexdevelop.Theprefrontalcortexisthoughttobeinvolvedinplanninganddecision-making.[30]Childrenseemtodeveloptheoryofmindskillssequentially.Thefirstskilltodevelopistheabilitytorecognizethatothershavediversedesires.Childrenareabletorecognizethatothershavediversebeliefssoonafter.Thenextskilltodevelopisrecognizingthatothershaveaccesstodifferentknowledgebases.Finally,childrenareabletounderstandthatothersmayhavefalsebeliefsandthatothersarecapableofhidingemotions.Whilethissequencerepresentsthegeneraltrendinskillacquisition,itseemsthatmoreemphasisisplacedonsomeskillsincertaincultures,leadingtomorevaluedskillstodevelopbeforethosethatareconsiderednotasimportant.Forexample,inindividualisticculturessuchastheUnitedStates,agreateremphasisisplacedontheabilitytorecognizethatothershavedifferentopinionsandbeliefs.Inacollectivisticculture,suchasChina,thisskillmaynotbeasimportantandthereforemaynotdevelopuntillater.[31] Language[edit] Thereisevidencetobelievethatthedevelopmentoftheoryofmindiscloselyintertwinedwithlanguagedevelopmentinhumans.Onemeta-analysisshowedamoderatetostrongcorrelation(r=0.43)betweenperformanceontheoryofmindandlanguagetasks.[32]Onemightarguethatthisrelationshipisduesolelytothefactthatbothlanguageandtheoryofmindseemtobegintodevelopsubstantiallyaroundthesametimeinchildren(betweenages2–5).However,manyotherabilitiesdevelopduringthissametimeperiodaswell,anddonotproducesuchhighcorrelationswithoneanothernorwiththeoryofmind. Pragmatictheoriesofcommunication[33]assumethatinfantsmustpossessanunderstandingofbeliefsandmentalstatesofotherstoinferthecommunicativecontentthatproficientlanguageusersintendtoconvey.Sinceaverbalutteranceisoftenunderdetermined,andtherefore,itcanhavedifferentmeaningsdependingontheactualcontext,theoryofmindabilitiescanplayacrucialroleinunderstandingthecommunicativeandinformativeintentionsofothersandinferringthemeaningofwords.Someempiricalresults[34]suggestthateven13-month-oldinfantshaveanearlycapacityforcommunicativemind-readingthatenablesthemtoinferwhatrelevantinformationistransferredbetweencommunicativepartners,whichimpliesthathumanlanguagereliesatleastpartiallyontheoryofmindskills. CarolA.Millerposedfurtherpossibleexplanationsforthisrelationship.Oneideawasthattheextentofverbalcommunicationandconversationinvolvingchildreninafamilycouldexplaintheoryofminddevelopment.Thebeliefisthatthistypeoflanguageexposurecouldhelpintroduceachildtothedifferentmentalstatesandperspectivesofothers.[35]Thishasbeensuggestedempiricallybyfindingsindicatingthatparticipationinfamilydiscussionpredictscoresontheoryofmindtasks,[36]aswellasfindingsshowingthatdeafchildrenwhohavehearingparentsandmaynotbeabletocommunicatewiththeirparentsmuchduringearlyyearsofdevelopmenttendtoscorelowerontheoryofmindtasks.[37] Anotherexplanationoftherelationshipbetweenlanguageandtheoryofminddevelopmenthastodowithachild'sunderstandingofmentalstatewordssuchas"think"and"believe".Sinceamentalstateisnotsomethingthatonecanobservefrombehavior,childrenmustlearnthemeaningsofwordsdenotingmentalstatesfromverbalexplanationsalone,requiringknowledgeofthesyntacticrules,semanticsystems,andpragmaticsofalanguage.[35]Studieshaveshownthatunderstandingofthesementalstatewordspredictstheoryofmindinfour-year-olds.[38] Athirdhypothesisisthattheabilitytodistinguishawholesentence("Jimmythinkstheworldisflat")fromitsembeddedcomplement("theworldisflat")andunderstandthatonecanbetruewhiletheothercanbefalseisrelatedtotheoryofminddevelopment.Recognizingthesesententialcomplementsasbeingindependentofoneanotherisarelativelycomplexsyntacticskillandhasbeenshowntoberelatedtoincreasedscoresontheoryofmindtasksinchildren.[39] Inadditiontothesehypotheses,thereisalsoevidencethattheneuralnetworksbetweentheareasofthebrainresponsibleforlanguageandtheoryofmindarecloselyconnected.Thetemporoparietaljunctionhasbeenshowntobeinvolvedintheabilitytoacquirenewvocabulary,aswellasperceiveandreproducewords.Thetemporoparietaljunctionalsocontainsareasthatspecializeinrecognizingfaces,voices,andbiologicalmotion,inadditiontotheoryofmind.Sincealloftheseareasarelocatedsocloselytogether,itisreasonabletoconcludethattheyworktogether.Moreover,studieshavereportedanincreaseinactivityintheTPJwhenpatientsareabsorbinginformationthroughreadingorimagesregardingotherpeoples'beliefsbutnotwhileobservinginformationaboutphysicalcontrolstimuli.[40] Theoryofmindinadults[edit] Neurotypicaladultshavethetheoryofmindconceptsthattheydevelopedaschildren(conceptssuchasbelief,desire,knowledgeandintention).Afocalquestionishowtheyusetheseconceptstomeetthediversedemandsofsociallife,rangingfromsnapdecisionsabouthowtotrickanopponentinacompetitivegame,tokeepingupwithwhoknowswhatinafast-movingconversation,tojudgingtheguiltorinnocenceoftheaccusedinacourtoflaw.[41] BoazKeysar,DaleBarrandcolleaguesfoundthatadultsoftenfailedtousetheirtheoryofmindabilitiestointerpretaspeaker'smessage,eventhoughtheywereperfectlywellawarethatthespeakerlackedcriticalknowledge.[42]Otherstudiesconvergeinshowingthatadultsareproneto"egocentricbiases",wherebytheyareinfluencedbytheirownbeliefs,knowledgeorpreferenceswhenjudgingthoseofotherpeople,orelseneglectotherpeople'sperspectivesentirely.[43]Thereisalsoevidencethatadultswithgreatermemoryandinhibitorycapacityandgreatermotivationaremorelikelytousetheirtheoryofmindabilities.[44][45] Incontrast,evidencefromtaskslookingforindirecteffectsofthinkingaboutotherpeople'smentalstatessuggeststhatadultsmaysometimesusetheirtheoryofmindautomatically.AgnesKovacsandcolleaguesmeasuredthetimeittookadultstodetectthepresenceofaballasitwasrevealedfrombehindanoccluder.Theyfoundthatadults’speedofresponsewasinfluencedbywhetherornotanavatarinthescenethoughttherewasaballbehindtheoccluder,eventhoughadultswerenotaskedtopayattentiontowhattheavatarthought.[46]DanaSamsonandcolleaguesmeasuredthetimeittookadultstojudgethenumberofdotsonthewallofaroom.Theyfoundthatadultsrespondedmoreslowlywhenanavatarstandingintheroomhappenedtoseefewerdotsthantheydid,evenwhentheyhadneverbeenaskedtopayattentiontowhattheavatarcouldsee.[47]Ithasbeenquestionedwhetherthese"altercentricbiases"trulyreflectautomaticprocessingofwhatanotherpersonisthinkingorseeing,orwhethertheyinsteadreflectattentionandmemoryeffectscuedbytheavatar,butnotinvolvinganyrepresentationofwhattheythinkorsee.[48] Differenttheorieshavesoughttoexplainthesepatternsofresults.Theideathattheoryofmindisautomaticisattractivebecauseitwouldhelpexplainhowpeoplekeepupwiththetheoryofminddemandsofcompetitivegamesandfast-movingconversations.Itmightalsoexplainevidencethathumaninfantsandsomenon-humanspeciessometimesappearcapableoftheoryofmind,despitetheirlimitedresourcesformemoryandcognitivecontrol.[49]Theideathattheoryofmindiseffortfulandnotautomaticisattractivebecauseitfeelseffortfultodecidewhetheradefendantisguiltyorinnocent,orwhetheranegotiatorisbluffing,andeconomyofeffortwouldhelpexplainwhypeoplesometimesneglecttousetheirtheoryofmind.IanApperlyandStephenButterfillhavesuggestedthatpeopledoinfacthave"twosystems"fortheoryofmind,[50]incommonwith"twosystems"accountsinmanyotherareasofpsychology.[51]Onthisaccount,"system1"iscognitivelyefficientandenablestheoryofmindforalimitedbutusefulsetofcircumstances."System2"iscognitivelyeffortful,butenablesmuchmoreflexibletheoryofmindabilities.Thisaccounthasbeencriticisedbyphilosopher,PeterCarrutherswhosuggeststhatthesamecoretheoryofmindabilitiescanbeusedinbothsimpleandcomplexways.[52]TheaccounthasbeencriticisedbyCeliaHeyeswhosuggeststhat"system1"theoryofmindabilitiesdonotrequirerepresentationofmentalstatesofotherpeople,andsoarebetterthoughtofas"sub-mentalising".[48] Aging[edit] Inolderage,theoryofmindcapacitiesdecline,irrespectiveofhowexactlytheyaretested(e.g.stories,eyes,videos,falsebelief-video,falsebelief-otherandfauxpas).[53]However,thedeclineinothercognitivefunctionsisevenstronger,suggestingthatsocialcognitionissomewhatpreserved.Incontrasttotheoryofmind,empathyshowsnoimpairmentsinaging.[54] Therearetwokindsoftheoryofmindrepresentations:cognitive(concerningthementalstates,beliefs,thoughts,andintentionsofothers)andaffective(concerningtheemotionsofothers).Cognitivetheoryofmindisfurtherseparatedintofirstorder(e.g.,Ithinkshethinksthat)andsecondorder(e.g.hethinksthatshethinksthat).Thereisevidencethatcognitiveandaffectivetheoryofmindprocessesarefunctionallyindependentfromoneanother.[55]InstudiesofAlzheimer'sdisease,whichtypicallyoccursinolderadults,thepatientsdisplayimpairmentwithsecondordercognitivetheoryofmind,butusuallynotwithfirstordercognitiveoraffectivetheoryofmind.However,itisdifficulttodiscernaclearpatternoftheoryofmindvariationduetoage.Therehavebeenmanydiscrepanciesinthedatacollectedthusfar,likelyduetosmallsamplesizesandtheuseofdifferenttasksthatonlyexploreoneaspectoftheoryofmind.Manyresearcherssuggestthatthetheoryofmindimpairmentissimplyduetothenormaldeclineincognitivefunction.[56] Culturalvariations[edit] Researchershaveproposedthatfivekeyaspectsoftheoryofminddevelopsequentiallyforallchildrenbetweentheagesofthreetofive.[57]Thisfive-steptheoryofmindscaleconsistsofthedevelopmentofdiversedesires(DD),diversebeliefs(DB),knowledgeaccess(KA),falsebeliefs(FB),andhiddenemotions(HE).[57]Australian,AmericanandEuropeanchildrenacquiretheoryofmindinthisexactorder,[58]andstudieswithchildreninCanada,India,Peru,Samoa,andThailandindicatethattheyallpassthefalsebelieftaskataroundthesametime,suggestingthatthechildrendeveloptheoryofmindconsistentlyaroundtheworld.[59] However,childrenfromIranandChinadeveloptheoryofmindinaslightlydifferentorder.Althoughtheybeginthedevelopmentoftheoryofmindaroundthesametime,toddlersfromthesecountriesunderstandknowledgeaccess(KA)beforeWesternchildrenbuttakelongertounderstanddiversebeliefs(DB).[58][60]ResearchersbelievethisswapinthedevelopmentalorderisrelatedtothecultureofcollectivisminIranandChina,whichemphasizesinterdependenceandsharedknowledgeasopposedtothecultureofindividualisminWesterncountries,whichpromotesindividualityandacceptsdifferingopinions.Becauseofthesedifferentculturalvalues,IranianandChinesechildrenmighttakelongertounderstandthatotherpeoplehavedifferentbeliefsandopinions.Thissuggeststhatthedevelopmentoftheoryofmindisnotuniversalandsolelydeterminedbyinnatebrainprocessesbutalsoinfluencedbysocialandculturalfactors.[58] Historiography[edit] Theoryofmindcanalsohelphistorianstomoreproperlyunderstandhistoricalfigures'character,e.g.ThomasJefferson,whoemancipationists,likeDouglasL.WilsonandscholarsattheThomasJeffersonFoundation,viewasanopponentofslaveryallhislife,notingthatJeffersondidwhathecouldwithinthelimitedrangeofoptionsavailabletohimtoundermineit,hismanyattemptsatabolitionlegislation,themannerinwhichheprovidedforslaves,andhisadvocacyoftheirmorehumanetreatment.ThisisincontrasttotherevisionistslikePaulFinkelman,criticizesJeffersonforracism,slavery,andhypocrisy.Emancipationistviewsonthishypocrisyrecognizethatifhetriedtobetruetohisword,itwouldhavealienatedhisfellowVirginians.FranklinD.RooseveltdidnotjoinNAACPleadersinpushingforfederalanti-lynchinglegislation,ashebelievedthatsuchlegislationwasunlikelytopassandthathissupportforitwouldalienateSoutherncongressmen,includingmanyofRoosevelt'sfellowDemocrats. Empiricalinvestigation[edit] Whetherchildrenyoungerthan3or4yearsoldmayhaveanytheoryofmindisatopicofdebateamongresearchers.Itisachallengingquestion,duetothedifficultyofassessingwhatpre-linguisticchildrenunderstandaboutothersandtheworld.TasksusedinresearchintothedevelopmentofTheoryofMindmusttakeintoaccounttheumwelt—(theGermanwordUmweltmeans"environment"or"surroundingworld")—ofthepre-verbalchild.[clarificationneeded] False-belieftask[edit] Oneofthemostimportantmilestonesintheoryofminddevelopmentistheabilitytoattributefalsebelief:inotherwords,theunderstandingthatotherpeoplecanbelievethingswhicharenottrue.Todothis,itissuggested,onemustunderstandhowknowledgeisformed,thatpeople'sbeliefsarebasedontheirknowledge,thatmentalstatescandifferfromreality,andthatpeople'sbehaviorcanbepredictedbytheirmentalstates.Numerousversionsofthefalse-belieftaskhavebeendeveloped,basedontheinitialtaskcreatedbyWimmerandPerner(1983).[61] Inthemostcommonversionofthefalse-belieftask(oftencalledthe"'Sally-Anne'test"or"'Sally-Anne'task"),childrenaretoldorshownastoryinvolvingtwocharacters.Forexample,thechildisshowntwodolls,SallyandAnne,whohaveabasketandabox,respectively.Sallyalsohasamarble,whichsheplacesintoherbasket,andthenleavestheroom.Whilesheisoutoftheroom,Annetakesthemarblefromthebasketandputsitintothebox.Sallyreturns,andthechildisthenaskedwhereSallywilllookforthemarble.ThechildpassesthetaskifsheanswersthatSallywilllookinthebasket,whereSallyputthemarble;thechildfailsthetaskifsheanswersthatSallywilllookinthebox,wherethechildknowsthemarbleishidden,eventhoughSallycannotknowthis,sinceshedidnotseeithiddenthere.Topassthetask,thechildmustbeabletounderstandthatanother'smentalrepresentationofthesituationisdifferentfromtheirown,andthechildmustbeabletopredictbehaviorbasedonthatunderstanding.[62] Anotherexampleiswhenaboyleaveschocolateonashelfandthenleavestheroom.Hismotherputsitinthefridge.Topassthetask,thechildmustunderstandthattheboy,uponreturning,holdsthefalsebeliefthathischocolateisstillontheshelf.[63] Theresultsofresearchusingfalse-belieftaskshavebeenfairlyconsistent:mosttypicallydevelopingchildrenareabletopassthetasksfromaroundagefour.[64]Notably,whilemostchildren,includingthosewithDownsyndrome,areabletopassthistest,inonestudy,80%ofchildrendiagnosedwithautismwereunabletodoso.[65] Adultsmayalsoexperienceproblemswithfalsebeliefs.Forinstance,whentheyshowhindsightbias,definedas:"theinclinationtoseeeventsthathavealreadyhappenedasbeingmorepredictablethantheywerebeforetheytookplace."[66]InanexperimentbyFischhoffin1975,adultsubjectswhowereaskedforanindependentassessmentwereunabletodisregardinformationonactualoutcome.Alsoinexperimentswithcomplicatedsituations,whenassessingothers'thinking,adultscanbeunabletodisregardcertaininformationthattheyhavebeengiven.[63] Unexpectedcontents[edit] Othertaskshavebeendevelopedtotrytosolvetheproblemsinherentinthefalse-belieftask.Inthe"Unexpectedcontents",or"Smarties"task,experimentersaskchildrenwhattheybelievetobethecontentsofaboxthatlooksasthoughitholdsacandycalled"Smarties".Afterthechildguesses(usually)"Smarties",itisshownthattheboxinfactcontainedpencils.Theexperimenterthenre-closestheboxandasksthechildwhatshethinksanotherperson,whohasnotbeenshownthetruecontentsofthebox,willthinkisinside.Thechildpassesthetaskifhe/sherespondsthatanotherpersonwillthinkthat"Smarties"existinthebox,butfailsthetaskifsherespondsthatanotherpersonwillthinkthattheboxcontainspencils.Gopnik&Astington(1988)[67]foundthatchildrenpassthistestatagefourorfiveyears. Othertasks[edit] The"false-photograph"task[68][69]isanothertaskthatservesasameasureoftheoryofminddevelopment.Inthistask,childrenmustreasonaboutwhatisrepresentedinaphotographthatdiffersfromthecurrentstateofaffairs.Withinthefalse-photographtask,eitheralocationoridentitychangeexists.[70]Inthelocation-changetask,theexaminerputsanobjectinonelocation(e.g.chocolateinanopengreencupboard),whereuponthechildtakesaPolaroidphotographofthescene.Whilethephotographisdeveloping,theexaminermovestheobjecttoadifferentlocation(e.g.abluecupboard),allowingthechildtoviewtheexaminer'saction.Theexaminerasksthechildtwocontrolquestions:"Whenwefirsttookthepicture,wherewastheobject?"and"Whereistheobjectnow?"Thesubjectisalsoaskeda"false-photograph"question:"Whereistheobjectinthepicture?"Thechildpassesthetaskifhe/shecorrectlyidentifiesthelocationoftheobjectinthepictureandtheactuallocationoftheobjectatthetimeofthequestion.However,thelastquestionmightbemisinterpretedas"Whereinthisroomistheobjectthatthepicturedepicts?"andthereforesomeexaminersuseanalternativephrasing.[citationneeded] Tomakeiteasierforanimals,youngchildren,andindividualswithclassical(LeoKanner-type)autismtounderstandandperformtheoryofmindtasks,researchershavedevelopedtestsinwhichverbalcommunicationisde-emphasized:somewhoseadministrationdoesnotinvolveverbalcommunicationonthepartoftheexaminer,somewhosesuccessfulcompletiondoesnotrequireverbalcommunicationonthepartofthesubject,andsomethatmeetbothoftheforegoingstandards.Onecategoryoftasksusesapreferentiallookingparadigm,withlookingtimeasthedependentvariable.Forinstance,9-month-oldinfantspreferlookingatbehaviorsperformedbyahumanhandoverthosemadebyaninanimatehand-likeobject.[71]Otherparadigmslookatratesofimitativebehavior,theabilitytoreplicateandcompleteunfinishedgoal-directedacts,[26]andratesofpretendplay.[72] Earlyprecursors[edit] Recentresearchontheearlyprecursorsoftheoryofmindhaslookedatinnovativewaysatcapturingpreverbalinfants'understandingofotherpeople'smentalstates,includingperceptionandbeliefs.Usingavarietyofexperimentalprocedures,studieshaveshownthatinfantsfromtheirfirstyearoflifehaveanimplicitunderstandingofwhatotherpeoplesee[73]andwhattheyknow.[74][75]Apopularparadigmusedtostudyinfants'theoryofmindistheviolationofexpectationprocedure,whichpredicatesoninfants'tendencytolooklongeratunexpectedandsurprisingeventscomparedtofamiliarandexpectedevents.Therefore,theirlooking-timesmeasureswouldgiveresearchersanindicationofwhatinfantsmightbeinferring,ortheirimplicitunderstandingofevents.Onerecentstudyusingthisparadigmfoundthat16-month-oldstendtoattributebeliefstoapersonwhosevisualperceptionwaspreviouslywitnessedasbeing"reliable",comparedtosomeonewhosevisualperceptionwas"unreliable".Specifically,16-month-oldsweretrainedtoexpectaperson'sexcitedvocalizationandgazeintoacontainertobeassociatedwithfindingatoyinthereliable-lookerconditionoranabsenceofatoyintheunreliable-lookercondition.Followingthistrainingphase,infantswitnessed,inanobject-searchtask,thesamepersonseithersearchingforatoyinthecorrectorincorrectlocationaftertheybothwitnessedthelocationofwherethetoywashidden.Infantswhoexperiencedthereliablelookerweresurprisedandthereforelookedlongerwhenthepersonsearchedforthetoyintheincorrectlocationcomparedtothecorrectlocation.Incontrast,thelookingtimeforinfantswhoexperiencedtheunreliablelookerdidnotdifferforeithersearchlocations.Thesefindingssuggestthat16-month-oldinfantscandifferentiallyattributebeliefsaboutatoy'slocationbasedontheperson'spriorrecordofvisualperception.[76] Methodologicalproblems[edit] Withthemethodsusedtotesttheoryofmind,ithasbeenexperimentallyshownthatverysimplerobotsthatonlyreactbyreflexesandarenotbuilttohaveanycomplexcognitionatallcanpassthetestsashavingtheoryofmindabilitiesthatpsychologytextbooksassumetobeexclusivetohumansolderthan4or5years.Ithasalsobeenshownthatwhetherornotsucharobotpassesorfailsthetestisinfluencedbycompletelynon-cognitivefactorssuchasplacementofobjectsandthestructureoftherobotbodyinfluencinghowthereflexesareconducted.Ithasthereforebeensuggestedthattheoryofmindtestsmaynotactuallytestcognitiveabilities.[77] Deficits[edit] Thetheoryofmindimpairmentdescribesadifficultysomeonewouldhavewithperspective-taking.Thisisalsosometimesreferredtoasmind-blindness.Thismeansthatindividualswithatheoryofmindimpairmentwouldhaveadifficulttimeseeingphenomenafromanyotherperspectivethantheirown.[78]Individualswhoexperienceatheoryofminddeficithavedifficultydeterminingtheintentionsofothers,lackunderstandingofhowtheirbehavioraffectsothers,andhaveadifficulttimewithsocialreciprocity.[79]TheoryofMinddeficitshavebeenobservedinpeoplewithautismspectrumdisorders,peoplewithschizophrenia,peoplewithnonverballearningdisorder,peoplewithattentiondeficithyperactivitydisorder,[2]personsundertheinfluenceofalcoholandnarcotics,sleep-deprivedpersons,andpersonswhoareexperiencingsevereemotionalorphysicalpain.Theoryofminddeficitshavealsobeenobservedindeafchildrenwhoarelatesigners(i.e.areborntohearingparents),butthedeficitisduetothedelayinlanguagelearning,notanycognitivedeficit,andthereforedisappearsoncethechildlearnssignlanguage.[80] Autism[edit] In1985SimonBaron-Cohen,AlanM.LeslieandUtaFrithsuggestedthatchildrenwithautismdonotemploytheoryofmind[65]andsuggestedthatautisticchildrenhaveparticulardifficultieswithtasksrequiringthechildtounderstandanotherperson'sbeliefs.Thesedifficultiespersistwhenchildrenarematchedforverbalskills[81]andhavebeentakenasakeyfeatureofautism. Manyindividualsclassifiedasautistichaveseveredifficultyassigningmentalstatestoothers,andsomeseemtolacktheoryofmindcapabilities.[82]Researcherswhostudytherelationshipbetweenautismandtheoryofmindattempttoexplaintheconnectioninavarietyofways.Oneaccountassumesthattheoryofmindplaysaroleintheattributionofmentalstatestoothersandinchildhoodpretendplay.[83]AccordingtoLeslie,[83]theoryofmindisthecapacitytomentallyrepresentthoughts,beliefs,anddesires,regardlessofwhetherornotthecircumstancesinvolvedarereal.Thismightexplainwhysomeautisticindividualsshowextremedeficitsinboththeoryofmindandpretendplay.However,Hobsonproposesasocial-affectivejustification,[84]whichsuggeststhatwithanautisticperson,deficitsintheoryofmindresultfromadistortioninunderstandingandrespondingtoemotions.Hesuggeststhattypicallydevelopingindividuals,unlikeautisticindividuals,arebornwithasetofskills(suchassocialreferencingability)thatlaterletsthemcomprehendandreacttootherpeople'sfeelings.Otherscholarsemphasizethatautisminvolvesaspecificdevelopmentaldelay,sothatautisticchildrenvaryintheirdeficiencies,becausetheyexperiencedifficultyindifferentstagesofgrowth.Veryearlysetbackscanalterproperadvancementofjoint-attentionbehaviors,whichmayleadtoafailuretoformafulltheoryofmind.[82] Ithasbeenspeculated[72]thatTheoryofMindexistsonacontinuumasopposedtothetraditionalviewofadiscretepresenceorabsence.Whilesomeresearchhassuggestedthatsomeautisticpopulationsareunabletoattributementalstatestoothers,[9]recentevidencepointstothepossibilityofcopingmechanismsthatfacilitateaspectrumofmindfulbehavior.[85] AbinaryviewregardingTheoryofMindalsocontributestothestigmatizationofautisticadultsthatdopossessperspective-takingcapacity,astheassumptionthatautisticpeopledonothaveempathycanbecomearationalefordehumanization.[86] Tineetal.suggestthatautisticchildrenscoresubstantiallyloweronmeasuresofsocialtheoryofmindincomparisontochildrendiagnosedwithAspergersyndrome.[87] Generally,childrenwithmoreadvancedtheoryofmindabilitiesdisplaymoreadvancedsocialskills,greateradaptabilitytonewsituations,andgreatercooperationwithothers.Asaresult,thesechildrenaretypicallywell-liked.However,"childrenmayusetheirmind-readingabilitiestomanipulate,outwit,tease,ortricktheirpeers".[88]Individualspossessinginferiortheoryofmindskills,suchaschildrenwithautismspectrumdisorder,maybesociallyrejectedbytheirpeerssincetheyareunabletocommunicateeffectively.Socialrejectionhasbeenproventonegativelyimpactachild'sdevelopmentandcanputthechildatgreaterriskofdevelopingdepressivesymptoms.[89] Peer-mediatedinterventions(PMI)areaschool-basedtreatmentapproachforchildrenandadolescentswithautismspectrumdisorderinwhichpeersaretrainedtoberolemodelsinordertopromotesocialbehavior.Laghietal.studiedifanalysisofprosocial(nice)andantisocial(nasty)theoryofmindbehaviorscouldbeused,inadditiontoteacherrecommendations,toselectappropriatecandidatesforPMIprograms.Selectingchildrenwithadvancedtheoryofmindskillswhousetheminprosocialwayswilltheoreticallymaketheprogrammoreeffective.WhiletheresultsindicatedthatanalyzingthesocialusesoftheoryofmindofpossiblecandidatesforaPMIprogramisinvaluable,itmaynotbeagoodpredictorofacandidate'sperformanceasarolemodel.[30] A2014CochranereviewoninterventionsbasedonTheoryofMindfoundthatitcanbetaughttoindividualswithautismbutthere'slittleevidenceofskillmaintenance,generalizationtoothersettingsordevelopmenteffectsonrelatedskills.[90] Ina2021reviewoftheempiricalevidence,GernsbacherandYergeauarguedthat"theclaimthatautisticpeoplelackatheoryofmindisempiricallyquestionable".[91] Schizophrenia[edit] Individualswiththediagnosisofschizophreniacanshowdeficitsintheoryofmind.MirjamSprongandcolleaguesinvestigatedtheimpairmentbyexamining29differentstudies,withatotalofover1500participants.[92]Thismeta-analysisshowedsignificantandstabledeficitoftheoryofmindinpeoplewithschizophrenia.Theyperformedpoorlyonfalse-belieftasks,whichtesttheabilitytounderstandthatotherscanholdfalsebeliefsabouteventsintheworld,andalsoonintention-inferencetasks,whichassesstheabilitytoinferacharacter'sintentionfromreadingashortstory.Schizophreniapatientswithnegativesymptoms,suchaslackofemotion,motivation,orspeech,havethemostimpairmentintheoryofmindandareunabletorepresentthementalstatesofthemselvesandofothers.Paranoidschizophrenicpatientsalsoperformpoorlybecausetheyhavedifficultyaccuratelyinterpretingothers'intentions.Themeta-analysisadditionallyshowedthatIQ,gender,andageoftheparticipantsdonotsignificantlyaffecttheperformanceoftheoryofmindtasks.[92] Currentresearchsuggeststhatimpairmentintheoryofmindnegativelyaffectsclinicalinsight,thepatient'sawarenessoftheirmentalillness.[93]Insightrequirestheoryofmind—apatientmustbeabletoadoptathird-personperspectiveandseetheselfasothersdo.[94]Apatientwithgoodinsightwouldbeabletoaccuratelyself-represent,bycomparingoneselfwithothersandbyviewingoneselffromtheperspectiveofothers.[93]Insightallowsapatienttorecognizeandreactappropriatelytohissymptoms;however,apatientwholacksinsightwouldnotrealizethathehasamentalillness,becauseofhisinabilitytoaccuratelyself-represent.Therapiesthatteachpatientsperspective-takingandself-reflectionskillscanimproveabilitiesinreadingsocialcuesandtakingtheperspectiveofanotherperson.[93] Themajorityofthecurrentliteraturesupportstheargumentthatthetheoryofminddeficitisastabletrait-characteristicratherthanastate-characteristicofschizophrenia.[95]Themeta-analysisconductedbySprongetal.showedthatpatientsinremissionstillhadimpairmentintheoryofmind.Theresultsindicatethatthedeficitisnotmerelyaconsequenceoftheactivephaseofschizophrenia.[92] Schizophrenicpatients'deficitintheoryofmindimpairstheirdailyinteractionswithothers.Anexampleofadisruptedinteractionisonebetweenaschizophrenicparentandachild.Theoryofmindisparticularlyimportantforparents,whomustunderstandthethoughtsandbehaviorsoftheirchildrenandreactaccordingly.Dysfunctionalparentingisassociatedwithdeficitsinthefirst-ordertheoryofmind,theabilitytounderstandanotherperson'sthoughts,andthesecond-ordertheoryofmind,theabilitytoinferwhatonepersonthinksaboutanotherperson'sthoughts.[96]Comparedwithhealthymothers,motherswithschizophreniaarefoundtobemoreremote,quiet,self-absorbed,insensitive,unresponsive,andtohavefewersatisfyinginteractionswiththeirchildren.[96]Theyalsotendtomisinterprettheirchildren'semotionalcues,andoftenmisunderstandneutralfacesasnegative.[96]Activitiessuchasrole-playingandindividualorgroup-basedsessionsareeffectiveinterventionsthathelptheparentsimproveonperspective-takingandtheoryofmind.[96]Althoughthereisastrongassociationbetweentheoryofminddeficitandparentalroledysfunction,futurestudiescouldstrengthentherelationshipbypossiblyestablishingacausalroleoftheoryofmindonparentingabilities. Alcoholusedisorders[edit] Impairmentsintheoryofmind,aswellasothersocial-cognitivedeficitsarecommonlyfoundinpeoplesufferingfromalcoholism,duetotheneurotoxiceffectsofalcoholonthebrain,particularlytheprefrontalcortex.[4] Depressionanddysphoria[edit] Individualsinacurrentmajordepressiveepisode,adisordercharacterizedbysocialimpairment,showdeficitsintheoryofminddecoding.[97]Theoryofminddecodingistheabilitytouseinformationavailableintheimmediateenvironment(e.g.,facialexpression,toneofvoice,bodyposture)toaccuratelylabelthementalstatesofothers.Theoppositepattern,enhancedtheoryofmind,isobservedinindividualsvulnerabletodepression,includingthoseindividualswithpastmajordepressivedisorder(MDD),[citationneeded]dysphoricindividuals,[98]andindividualswithamaternalhistoryofMDD.[99] Developmentallanguagedisorder[edit] Childrendiagnosedwithdevelopmentallanguagedisorder(DLD)exhibitmuchlowerscoresonreadingandwritingsectionsofstandardizedtests,yethaveanormalnonverbalIQ.Theselanguagedeficitscanbeanyspecificdeficitsinlexicalsemantics,syntax,orpragmatics,oracombinationofmultipleproblems.Theyoftenexhibitpoorersocialskillsthannormallydevelopingchildren,andseemtohaveproblemsdecodingbeliefsinothers.Arecentmeta-analysisconfirmedthatchildrenwithDLDhavesubstantiallylowerscoresontheoryofmindtaskscomparedtotypicallydevelopingchildren.[100]Thisstrengthenstheclaimthatlanguagedevelopmentisrelatedtotheoryofmind. Brainmechanisms[edit] Inneurotypicalhumans[edit] Researchontheoryofmindinautismledtotheviewthatmentalizingabilitiesaresubservedbydedicatedmechanismsthatcan-insomecases-beimpairedwhilegeneralcognitivefunctionremainslargelyintact. Neuroimagingresearchhassupportedthisview,demonstratingspecificbrainregionsconsistentlyengagedduringtheoryofmindtasks.PETresearchontheoryofmind,usingverbalandpictorialstorycomprehensiontasks,hasidentifiedasetofbrainregionsincludingthemedialprefrontalcortex(mPFC),andareaaroundposteriorsuperiortemporalsulcus(pSTS),andsometimesprecuneusandamygdala/temporopolarcortex.[101]Subsequently,researchontheneuralbasisoftheoryofmindhasdiversified,withseparatelinesofresearchfocusedontheunderstandingofbeliefs,intentions,andmorecomplexpropertiesofmindssuchaspsychologicaltraits. StudiesfromRebeccaSaxe'slabatMIT,usingafalse-beliefversusfalse-photographtaskcontrastaimedatisolatingthementalizingcomponentofthefalse-belieftask,haveveryconsistentlyfoundactivationinmPFC,precuneus,andtemporo-parietaljunction(TPJ),right-lateralized.[102][103]Inparticular,ithasbeenproposedthattherightTPJ(rTPJ)isselectivelyinvolvedinrepresentingthebeliefsofothers.[104]However,somedebateexists,assomescientistshavenotedthatthesamerTPJregionhasbeenconsistentlyactivatedduringspatialreorientingofvisualattention;[105][106]JeanDecetyfromtheUniversityofChicagoandJasonMitchellfromHarvardhavethusproposedthattherTPJsubservesamoregeneralfunctioninvolvedinbothfalse-beliefunderstandingandattentionalreorienting,ratherthanamechanismspecializedforsocialcognition.However,itispossiblethattheobservationofoverlappingregionsforrepresentingbeliefsandattentionalreorientingmaysimplybeduetoadjacent,butdistinct,neuronalpopulationsthatcodeforeach.TheresolutionoftypicalfMRIstudiesmaynotbegoodenoughtoshowthatdistinct/adjacentneuronalpopulationscodeforeachoftheseprocesses.InastudyfollowingDecetyandMitchell,Saxeandcolleaguesusedhigher-resolutionfMRIandshowedthatthepeakofactivationforattentionalreorientingisapproximately6-10mmabovethepeakforrepresentingbeliefs.Furthercorroboratingthatdifferingpopulationsofneuronsmaycodeforeachprocess,theyfoundnosimilarityinthepatterningoffMRIresponseacrossspace.[107] Usingsinglecellrecordingsinthehumandorsomedialprefrontalcortex(dmPFC),researchersatMGHidentifiedneuronsthatencodeinformationaboutothers'beliefs,whichweredistinctfromselfbeliefs,acrossdifferentscenariosinaFalse-belieftask.Theyfurthershowedhighspecificitybetweencellsbasedonthecontentoftheothers’beliefsandwereabletoaccuratelypredictwhetherthesebeliefsweretrueorfalse.[108]ThesefindingssuggestaprominentroleofdistinctneuronalpopulationsinthedmPFCinTheoryofMindcomplementedbytheTPJandpSTS. FunctionalimaginghasalsobeenusedtostudythedetectionofmentalstateinformationinHeider-Simmel-esqueanimationsofmovinggeometricshapes,whichtypicalhumansautomaticallyperceiveassocialinteractionsladenwithintentionandemotion.Threestudiesfoundremarkablysimilarpatternsofactivationduringtheperceptionofsuchanimationsversusarandomordeterministicmotioncontrol:mPFC,pSTS,fusiformfacearea(FFA),andamygdalawereselectivelyengagedduringtheTheoryofMindcondition.[109][110][111]Anotherstudypresentedsubjectswithananimationoftwodotsmovingwithaparameterizeddegreeofintentionality(quantifyingtheextenttowhichthedotschasedeachother),andfoundthatpSTSactivationcorrelatedwiththisparameter.[112] Aseparatebodyofresearchhasimplicatedtheposteriorsuperiortemporalsulcusintheperceptionofintentionalityinhumanaction;thisareaisalsoinvolvedinperceivingbiologicalmotion,includingbody,eye,mouth,andpoint-lightdisplaymotion.[113]OnestudyfoundincreasedpSTSactivationwhilewatchingahumanlifthishandversushavinghishandpushedupbyapiston(intentionalversusunintentionalaction).[114]SeveralstudieshavefoundincreasedpSTSactivationwhensubjectsperceiveahumanactionthatisincongruentwiththeactionexpectedfromtheactor'scontextandinferredintention.Exampleswouldbe:ahumanperformingareach-to-graspmotiononemptyspacenexttoanobject,versusgraspingtheobject;[115]ahumanshiftingeyegazetowardemptyspacenexttoacheckerboardtargetversusshiftinggazetowardthetarget;[116]anunladenhumanturningonalightwithhisknee,versusturningonalightwithhiskneewhilecarryingapileofbooks;[117]andawalkinghumanpausingashepassesbehindabookshelf,versuswalkingataconstantspeed.[118]Inthesestudies,actionsinthe"congruent"casehaveastraightforwardgoal,andareeasytoexplainintermsoftheactor'sintention.Theincongruentactions,ontheotherhand,requirefurtherexplanation(whywouldsomeonetwistemptyspacenexttoagear?),andthenapparentlywoulddemandmoreprocessingintheSTS.Notethatthisregionisdistinctfromthetemporo-parietalareaactivatedduringfalsebelieftasks.[118]AlsonotethatpSTSactivationinmostoftheabovestudieswaslargelyright-lateralized,followingthegeneraltrendinneuroimagingstudiesofsocialcognitionandperception.Alsoright-lateralizedaretheTPJactivationduringfalsebelieftasks,theSTSresponsetobiologicalmotion,andtheFFAresponsetofaces. Neuropsychologicalevidencehasprovidedsupportforneuroimagingresultsregardingtheneuralbasisoftheoryofmind.Studieswithpatientssufferingfromalesionofthefrontallobesandthetemporoparietaljunctionofthebrain(betweenthetemporallobeandparietallobe)reportedthattheyhavedifficultywithsometheoryofmindtasks.[119][120]Thisshowsthattheoryofmindabilitiesareassociatedwithspecificpartsofthehumanbrain.However,thefactthatthemedialprefrontalcortexandtemporoparietaljunctionarenecessaryfortheoryofmindtasksdoesnotimplythattheseregionsarespecifictothatfunction.[105][121]TPJandmPFCmaysubservemoregeneralfunctionsnecessaryforTheoryofMind. ResearchbyVittorioGallese,LucianoFadigaandGiacomoRizzolatti[122]hasshownthatsomesensorimotorneurons,whicharereferredtoasmirrorneurons,firstdiscoveredinthepremotorcortexofrhesusmonkeys,maybeinvolvedinactionunderstanding.Single-electroderecordingrevealedthattheseneuronsfiredwhenamonkeyperformedanaction,aswellaswhenthemonkeyviewedanotheragentcarryingoutthesametask.Similarly,fMRIstudieswithhumanparticipantshaveshownbrainregions(assumedtocontainmirrorneurons)thatareactivewhenonepersonseesanotherperson'sgoal-directedaction.[123]Thesedatahaveledsomeauthorstosuggestthatmirrorneuronsmayprovidethebasisfortheoryofmindinthebrain,andtosupportsimulationtheoryofmindreading.[124] Thereisalsoevidenceagainstthelinkbetweenmirrorneuronsandtheoryofmind.First,macaquemonkeyshavemirrorneuronsbutdonotseemtohavea'human-like'capacitytounderstandtheoryofmindandbelief.Second,fMRIstudiesoftheoryofmindtypicallyreportactivationinthemPFC,temporalpolesandTPJorSTS,[125]butthesebrainareasarenotpartofthemirrorneuronsystem.Someinvestigators,likedevelopmentalpsychologistAndrewMeltzoffandneuroscientistJeanDecety,believethatmirrorneuronsmerelyfacilitatelearningthroughimitationandmayprovideaprecursortothedevelopmentofTheoryofMind.[126][127]Others,likephilosopherShaunGallagher,suggestthatmirror-neuronactivation,onanumberofcounts,failstomeetthedefinitionofsimulationasproposedbythesimulationtheoryofmindreading.[128][129] Inautism[edit] SeveralneuroimagingstudieshavelookedattheneuralbasistheoryofmindimpairmentinsubjectswithAspergersyndromeandhigh-functioningautism(HFA).ThefirstPETstudyoftheoryofmindinautism(alsothefirstneuroimagingstudyusingatask-inducedactivationparadigminautism)replicatedapriorstudyinneurotypicalindividuals,whichemployedastory-comprehensiontask.[130][131]ThisstudyfounddisplacedanddiminishedmPFCactivationinsubjectswithautism.However,becausethestudyusedonlysixsubjectswithautism,andbecausethespatialresolutionofPETimagingisrelativelypoor,theseresultsshouldbeconsideredpreliminary. AsubsequentfMRIstudyscannednormallydevelopingadultsandadultswithHFAwhileperforminga"readingthemindintheeyes"task:viewingaphotoofahuman'seyesandchoosingwhichoftwoadjectivesbetterdescribestheperson'smentalstate,versusagenderdiscriminationcontrol.[132]Theauthorsfoundactivityinorbitofrontalcortex,STS,andamygdalainnormalsubjects,andfoundnoamygdalaactivationandabnormalSTSactivationinsubjectswithautism. AmorerecentPETstudylookedatbrainactivityinindividualswithHFAandAspergersyndromewhileviewingHeider-Simmelanimations(seeabove)versusarandommotioncontrol.[133]Incontrasttonormallydevelopingsubjects,thosewithautismshowednoSTSorFFAactivation,andsignificantlylessmPFCandamygdalaactivation.ActivityinextrastriateregionsV3andLOwasidenticalacrossthetwogroups,suggestingintactlower-levelvisualprocessinginthesubjectswithautism.ThestudyalsoreportedsignificantlylessfunctionalconnectivitybetweenSTSandV3intheautismgroup.Note,however,thatdecreasedtemporalcorrelationbetweenactivityinSTSandV3wouldbeexpectedsimplyfromthelackofanevokedresponseinSTStointent-ladenanimationsinsubjectswithautism.Amoreinformativeanalysiswouldbetocomputefunctionalconnectivityafterregressingoutevokedresponsesfromall-timeseries. Asubsequentstudy,usingtheincongruent/congruentgaze-shiftparadigmdescribedabove,foundthatinhigh-functioningadultswithautism,posteriorSTS(pSTS)activationwasundifferentiatedwhiletheywatchedahumanshiftgazetowardatargetandthentowardadjacentemptyspace.[134]ThelackofadditionalSTSprocessingintheincongruentstatemaysuggestthatthesesubjectsfailtoformanexpectationofwhattheactorshoulddogivencontextualinformation,orthatfeedbackabouttheviolationofthisexpectationdoesn'treachSTS.Bothexplanationsinvolveanimpairmentintheabilitytolinkeyegazeshiftswithintentionalexplanations.ThisstudyalsofoundasignificantanticorrelationbetweenSTSactivationintheincongruent-congruentcontrastandsocialsubscalescoreontheAutismDiagnosticInterview-Revised,butnotscoresontheothersubscales. In2011,anfMRIstudydemonstratedthattherighttemporoparietaljunction(rTPJ)ofhigher-functioningadultswithautismwasnotmoreselectivelyactivatedformentalizingjudgmentswhencomparedtophysicaljudgmentsaboutselfandother.[135]rTPJselectivityformentalizingwasalsorelatedtoindividualvariationonclinicalmeasuresofsocialimpairment:individualswhoserTPJwasincreasinglymoreactiveformentalizingcomparedtophysicaljudgmentswerelesssociallyimpaired,whilethosewhoshowedlittletonodifferenceinresponsetomentalizingorphysicaljudgmentswerethemostsociallyimpaired.ThisevidencebuildsonworkintypicaldevelopmentthatsuggestsrTPJiscriticalforrepresentingmentalstateinformation,irrespectiveofwhetheritisaboutoneselforothers.Italsopointstoanexplanationattheneurallevelforthepervasivemind-blindnessdifficultiesinautismthatareevidentthroughoutthelifespan.[136] Inschizophrenia[edit] Thebrainregionsassociatedwiththeoryofmindincludethesuperiortemporalgyrus(STS),thetemporoparietaljunction(TPJ),themedialprefrontalcortex(mPFC),theprecuneus,andtheamygdala.[137]ThereducedactivityinthemPFCofindividualswithschizophreniaisassociatedwiththeTheoryofminddeficitandmayexplainimpairmentsinsocialfunctionamongpeoplewithschizophrenia.[138]IncreasedneuralactivityinmPFCisrelatedtobetterperspective-taking,emotionmanagement,andincreasedsocialfunctioning.[138]Disruptedbrainactivitiesinareasrelatedtotheoryofmindmayincreasesocialstressordisinterestinsocialinteraction,andcontributetothesocialdysfunctionassociatedwithschizophrenia.[138] Practicalvalidity[edit] Mainarticle:CollectiveintelligenceGroupmemberaveragescoresoftheoryofmindabilities,measuredwiththeReadingtheMindintheEyestest[139](RME),aresuggestedasdriversofsuccessfulgroupperformance.[140]Inparticular,highgroupaveragescoresontheRMEareshowntobecorrelatedwiththecollectiveintelligencefactorcdefinedasagroup'sabilitytoperformawiderangeofmentaltasks,[140][141]agroupintelligencemeasuresimilartothegfactorforgeneralindividualintelligence.RMEisaTheoryofMindtestforadults[139]thatshowssufficienttest-retestreliability[142]andconstantlydifferentiatescontrolgroupsfromindividualswithfunctionalautismorAspergersyndrome.[139]Itisoneofthemostwidelyacceptedandwell-validatedtestsforTheoryofMindabilitieswithinadults.[143] Evolution[edit] Theevolutionaryoriginoftheoryofmindremainsobscure.Whilemanytheoriesmakeclaimsaboutitsroleinthedevelopmentofhumanlanguageandsocialcognitionfewofthemspecifyindetailanyevolutionaryneurophysiologicalprecursors.ArecenttheoryclaimsthatTheoryofMindhasitsrootsintwodefensivereactions,namelyimmobilizationstressandtonicimmobility,whichareimplicatedinthehandlingofstressfulencountersandalsofigureprominentlyinmammalianchildrearingpractices(Tsoukalas,2018).[144]Theircombinedeffectseemscapableofproducingmanyofthehallmarksoftheoryofmind,e.g.,eye-contact,gaze-following,inhibitorycontrolandintentionalattributions. Non-human[edit] Seealso:AnimalconsciousnessandTheoryofmindinanimals Anopenquestioniswhetherotheranimalsbesideshumanshaveageneticendowmentandsocialenvironmentthatallowsthemtoacquireatheoryofmindinthesamewaythathumanchildrendo.[8]Thisisacontentiousissuebecauseoftheproblemofinferringfromanimalbehaviortheexistenceofthinkingorofparticularthoughts,ortheexistenceofaconceptofselforself-awareness,consciousnessandqualia.Onedifficultywithnon-humanstudiesoftheoryofmindisthelackofsufficientnumbersofnaturalisticobservations,givinginsightintowhattheevolutionarypressuresmightbeonaspecies'developmentoftheoryofmind. Non-humanresearchstillhasamajorplaceinthisfield,however,andisespeciallyusefulinilluminatingwhichnonverbalbehaviorssignifycomponentsoftheoryofmind,andinpointingtopossiblesteppingpointsintheevolutionofwhatmanyclaimtobeauniquelyhumanaspectofsocialcognition.Whileitisdifficulttostudyhuman-liketheoryofmindandmentalstatesinspecieswhosepotentialmentalstateswehaveanincompleteunderstanding,researcherscanfocusonsimplercomponentsofmorecomplexcapabilities.Forexample,manyresearchersfocusonanimals'understandingofintention,gaze,perspective,orknowledge(orrather,whatanotherbeinghasseen).Astudythatlookedatunderstandingofintentioninorangutans,chimpanzeesandchildrenshowedthatallthreespeciesunderstoodthedifferencebetweenaccidentalandintentionalacts.[25]Partofthedifficultyinthislineofresearchisthatobservedphenomenacanoftenbeexplainedassimplestimulus-responselearning,asitisinthenatureofanytheorizersofmindtohavetoextrapolateinternalmentalstatesfromobservablebehavior.Recently,mostnon-humantheoryofmindresearchhasfocusedonmonkeysandgreatapes,whoareofmostinterestinthestudyoftheevolutionofhumansocialcognition.Otherstudiesrelevanttoattributionstheoryofmindhavebeenconductedusingplovers[145]anddogs,[146]andhaveshownpreliminaryevidenceofunderstandingattention—oneprecursoroftheoryofmind—inothers. Therehasbeensomecontroversyovertheinterpretationofevidencepurportingtoshowtheoryofmindability—orinability—inanimals.[147]Twoexamplesserveasdemonstration:first,Povinellietal.(1990)[148]presentedchimpanzeeswiththechoiceoftwoexperimentersfromwhomtorequestfood:onewhohadseenwherefoodwashidden,andonewho,byvirtueofoneofavarietyofmechanisms(havingabucketorbagoverhishead;ablindfoldoverhiseyes;orbeingturnedawayfromthebaiting)doesnotknow,andcanonlyguess.Theyfoundthattheanimalsfailedinmostcasestodifferentiallyrequestfoodfromthe"knower".Bycontrast,Hare,Call,andTomasello(2001)foundthatsubordinatechimpanzeeswereabletousetheknowledgestateofdominantrivalchimpanzeestodeterminewhichcontainerofhiddenfoodtheyapproached.[49]WilliamFieldandSueSavage-Rumbaughbelievethatbonoboshavedevelopedtheoryofmind,andcitetheircommunicationswithacaptivebonobo,Kanzi,asevidence.[149] Ina2016experiment,ravensCorvuscoraxwereshowntotakeintoaccountvisualaccessofunseenconspecifics.Theresearchersarguedthat"ravenscangeneralizefromtheirownperceptualexperiencetoinferthepossibilityofbeingseen".[150] A2016studypublishedbyevolutionaryanthropologistChristopherKrupenyebringsnewlighttotheexistenceofTheoryofMind,andparticularlyfalsebeliefs,innon-humanprimates.[151] Ina2015paper,KerenHaroushandZivWilliamsoutlinedthecaseforagroupofneuronsinprimates'brainsthatuniquelypredictedthechoiceselectionoftheirinteractingpartner.Theseprimates'neurons,locatedintheanteriorcingulatecortexofrhesusmonkeys,wereobservedusingsingle-unitrecordingwhilethemonkeysplayedavariantoftheiterativeprisoner'sdilemmagame.[152]Byidentifyingcellsthatrepresenttheyetunknownintentionsofagamepartner,Haroush&Williams'studysupportstheideathattheoryofmindmaybeafundamentalandgeneralizedprocess,andsuggeststhatanteriorcingulatecortexneuronsmaypotentiallyacttocomplementthefunctionofmirrorneuronsduringsocialinterchange.[153] 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Furtherreading[edit] Excerptstakenfrom:Davis,E.(2007)MentalVerbsinNicaraguanSignLanguageandtheRoleofLanguageinTheoryofMind.Undergraduateseniorthesis,BarnardCollege,ColumbiaUniversity. Externallinks[edit] Wikibookshasabookonthetopicof:Consciousness EyeTestSimonBaronCohen TheComputationalTheoryofMind TheIdentityTheoryofMind Sally-AnneandSmartiestests FunctionalContextualism TheoryofMindarticleintheInternetEncyclopediaofPhilosophy vtePhilosophyofmindPhilosophers Anscombe Austin Aquinas Bain Bergson Bhattacharya Block Brentano Broad Burge Chalmers Churchland Dennett Dharmakirti Davidson Descartes Goldman Heidegger Husserl Feyerabend Fodor James Kierkegaard Leibniz Lewis McDowell Merleau-Ponty Minsky Moore Nagel Parfit Putnam Popper Rorty Ryle Searle Spinoza Turing Vasubandhu Wittgenstein Zhuangzi more... 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