Two-factor theory of intelligence - Wikipedia

Spearman's two-factor theory of intelligence Two-factortheoryofintelligence FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Thisarticleisanorphan,asnootherarticleslinktoit.Pleaseintroducelinkstothispagefromrelatedarticles;trytheFindlinktoolforsuggestions.(April2017) Mainarticle:CharlesSpearman§ TheoryofIntelligence CharlesSpearmandevelopedhistwo-factortheoryofintelligenceusingfactoranalysis.[1]Hisresearchnotonlyledhimtodeveloptheconceptofthegfactorofgeneralintelligence,butalsothesfactorofspecificintellectualabilities.[2]L.L.Thurstone,HowardGardner,andRobertSternbergalsoresearchedthestructureofintelligence,andinanalyzingtheirdata,concludedthatasingleunderlyingfactorwasinfluencingthegeneralintelligenceofindividuals.However,Spearmanwascriticizedin1916byGodfreyThomson,whoclaimedthattheevidencewasnotascrucialasitseemed.[3]ModernresearchisstillexpandingthistheorybyinvestigatingSpearman'slawofdiminishingreturns,[4]andaddingconnectedconceptstotheresearch.[5] Contents 1Spearman'stwo-factortheoryofintelligence 2Structureofintelligencedebate 3DevelopmentofSpearman'stheory 3.1ExperimentalEvidence 3.2gands 4Impactonpsychology 4.1Intelligencetesting 4.2Modernpsychology 5References 6Furtherreading Spearman'stwo-factortheoryofintelligence[edit] In1904,[2]CharlesSpearmanhaddevelopedastatisticalprocedurecalledfactoranalysis.Infactoranalysis,relatedvariablesaretestedforcorrelationtoeachother,thenthecorrelationoftherelateditemsareevaluatedtofindclustersorgroupsofthevariables.[1]Spearmantestedhowwellpeopleperformedonvarioustasksrelatingtointelligence.Suchtasksinclude:distinguishingpitch,perceivingweightandcolors,directions,andmathematics.[2]Whenanalyzingthedatahecollected,Spearmannotedthatthosethatdidwellinoneareaalsoscoredhigherinotherareas.Withthisdata,Spearmanconcludedthattheremustbeonecentralfactorthatinfluencesourcognitiveabilities.Spearmantermedthisgeneralintelligenceg.[6][7] Structureofintelligencedebate[edit] Duetothecontroversyofthestructureofintelligence,otherpsychologistsalsopublishedtheirrelevantresearch.OtherthanCharlesSpearman,threeothersdevelopedahypothesisregardingthestructureofintelligence.L.L.Thurstonetestedsubjectson56differentabilities;fromhisdataheestablishedsevenprimarymentalabilitiesrelatingtointelligence.Hecategorizedthemas:spatialability,numericalability,wordfluency,memory,perceptualspeed,verbalcomprehension,andinductivereasoning.Otherresearchers,interestedinthisnewresearchstudy,analyzedThurstone'sdata,discoveringthatthosescoredhighinonecategoryoftendidwellintheothers.[6]Thisfindinggivessupportthatthereisanunderlyingfactorinfluencingthem,namelyg. HowardGardnersuggestedinhistheoryofmultipleintelligencesthatintelligenceisformedoutofmultipleabilities.Herecognizedeightintelligences:linguistic,musical,spatial,intrapersonal,interpersonal,logical-mathematical,bodily-kinesthetic,andnaturalist.Healsoconsideredthepossibilityofaninthintelligentability,existentialintelligence.[6]Gardnerproposedthatindividualswhoexcelledinoneabilitywouldlackinanother.Instead,hisresultsshowedthateachofhiseightintelligencescorrelatepositivelywitheachother.Afterfurtheranalysis,Gardnerfoundthatlogic,spatialabilities,language,andmathematicsarealllinkedinsomeway,givingsupportforanunderlyinggfactorthatisprominentinalmostallintelligenceingeneral.[2] RobertSternbergagreedwithGardnerthatthereweremultipleintelligences,buthenarrowedhisscopetojustthreeinhistriarchictheoryofintelligence:analytical,creative,andpractical.Heclassifiedanalyticalintelligenceasproblem-solvingskillsintestsandacademics.Creativeintelligenceisconsideredhowpeoplereactadaptivelyinnewsituations,orcreatenovelideas.Practicalintelligenceisdefinedastheeverydaylogicusedwhenmultiplesolutionsordecisionsarepossible.[6]WhenSternberganalyzedhisdatatherelationshipbetweenthethreeintelligencessurprisedhim.Thedataresembledwhattheotherpsychologistshadfound.Allthreementalabilitiescorrelatedhighlywithoneanother,andevidencethatonebasicfactor,g,wastheprimaryinfluence.[2] NotallpsychologistsagreedwithSpearmanandhisgeneralintelligence.In1916,[3]GodfreyThomsonwroteapapercriticizingSpearman'sg:TheobjectofthispaperistoshowthatthecasesbroughtforwardbyProfessorSpearmaninfavoroftheexistenceofGeneralAbilityarebynomeans"crucial."Theyareitistruenotinconsistentwiththeexistenceofsuchacommonelementbutneitheraretheyinconsistentwithitsnon-existence.TheessentialpointaboutProfessorSpearman'shypothesisistheexistenceofthisGeneralFactor.BothheandhisopponentsareagreedthatthereareSpecificFactorspeculiartoindividualtests,bothheandhisopponentsagreethatthereareGroupFactorswhichrunthroughsomebutnotalltests.ThedifferencebetweenthemisthatProfessorSpearmansaysthereisafurthersinglefactorwhichrunsthroughalltests,andthatbypoolingafewteststheGroupFactorscansoonbeeliminatedandapointreachedwhereallthecorrelationsareduetotheGeneralFactoralone.(pp.217)[3] DevelopmentofSpearman'stheory[edit] ExperimentalEvidence[edit] SpearmanoriginallycameupwiththetermGeneralIntelligence,orashecalledit,g,tomeasureintelligenceinhisTwoTheoryonIntelligence.Spearmanfirstresearchedinanexperimentwith24childrenfromasmallvillageschoolmeasuringthreeintellectualmeasures,basedonteachersrankings,toaddressintellectualandsensoryasthetwodifferentsetsofmeasure:SchoolCleverness,CommonSenseAandCommonSenseB.[8]Hisresultsshowedtheaveragerbetweenintellectualandsensorymeasurestobe+.38,SchoolClevernessandCommonsensetobeat+0.55,andthethreetasksintercorrelatedat+0.25.[8]Thisdatawaslookedatotherpopulationsincludinghighschool.Spearmanproposedthatintellectualandsensorymeasurebecombinedasassessmentofgeneralintelligence.[8] gands[edit] Spearman'stwo-factortheoryproposesthatintelligencehastwocomponents:generalintelligence("g")andspecificability("s").[7]Toexplainthedifferencesinperformanceondifferenttasks,Spearmanhypothesizedthatthe"s"componentwasspecifictoacertainaspectofintelligence.[2]Regardingg,Spearmansawindividualsashavingsomelevelofmoreorlessgeneralintelligence,whilesvariedfrompersontopersonbasedonthespecifictask.[7]In1999,behaviorgeneticistRobertPlomindescribedgbysaying:"gisoneofthemostreliableandvalidmeasuresinthebehavioraldomain...anditpredictsimportantsocialoutcomessuchaseducationalandoccupationallevelsfarbetterthananyothertrait."[6] Tovisualizeg,imagineaVenndiagramwithfourcirclesoverlapping.Inthemiddleoftheoverlappingcircles,wouldbeg,whichinfluencesallthespecificintelligences,whilesisrepresentedbythefourcircles.Thoughthespecificnumberofsfactorsareunknown,afewhavebeenrelativelyaccepted:mechanical,spatial,logical,andarithmetical.[2] RisinginterestinthedebateonthestructureofintelligencepromptedSpearmantoelaborateandargueforhishypothesis.Heclaimedthatgwasnotmadeupofonesingleability,butrathertwogeneticallyinfluenced,uniqueabilitiesworkingtogether.Hecalledtheseabilities"eductive"and"reproductive".Hesuggestedthatfutureunderstandingoftheinteractionbetweenthesetwodifferentabilitieswoulddrasticallychangehowindividualdifferencesandcognitionareunderstoodinpsychology,possiblycreatingthebasisforwisdom.[9] Impactonpsychology[edit] Intelligencetesting[edit] ManyresearchesarecurrentlyusingSpearman'sformofintelligencetestingintheircurrentstudies.AlthoughnotallofthestudiesarecurrentlyusingSpearman'sexactmodelforintelligencetesting,theyareaddingsomemodernconceptstothatstudy.SpearmandescribedthattherewasafunctionalrelationshipbetweenintelligenceandSensoryDiscriminatoryAbilities.[5]RecentresearchhasdeterminedthatthereisanoverlapbetweenWorkingMemory,GeneralDiscriminatoryAbilities,andFluidIntelligence.[5]Hisworkhasbeenbuilton,expanded,andlinkedtomanyotherfactorsrelatedtointelligence. Intelligencetestingmeasuringthegfactorhasbeenstudiedrecentlytore-exploreSpearman'slawofdiminishingreturns.[4]Thisstudyinvestigateshowgtestscoreswillmostlikelydecreaseasgincreases.[4]ResearchhasbeendonetoinvestigateifgscoresaremadeupofscoresfromDifferentialAbilityScales,sfactors,andhowthelawofdiminishingreturnscomparetoSpearman'sLawofdiminishingreturns.[4]WiththeuseoflinearandnonlinearConfirmatoryFactorAnalysis,itisshowingthatthenonlinearmodelbestdescribedthedata.[4]Thenonlinearmodelsuggeststhatasgincreases,thesfactorlowerstheoverallscoreandinaccuratelyrepresentsgeneralintelligence. Modernpsychology[edit] Thistheoryisstillgreatlypresentintoday'smodernpsychology.Researchersareexaminingthistheoryandrecreatingitinmodernresearch.Thegfactorisstillfrequentlystudiedincurrentresearch.Forexample,astudycoulduseandbecomparedwithvariousothersimilarintelligencemeasures.ScalessuchastheWechslerIntelligenceScaleforChildrenhasbeencomparedwithSpearman'sg,whichshowsthattherehasadecreaseinstatisticsignificance.[10] ResearchhasbeenadaptedtoincorporatemodernpsychologicaltopicsintoSpearman'sTwoFactorTheoryofIntelligence.NatureversusNurtureisonetopicthathasbeencrossstudiedwithSpearman'sgfactor.Researchshowsthatalthoughenvironmentalfactorsinfluencethegfactordifferently,ithasbeenfoundthatitisaffectedifinfluencedearlyinlife,ratherthanadulthoodwherethereislittletonoimpact.[11]Geneticinfluencehasbeendocumentedtogreatlyinfluencegfactoronintelligence.[11] References[edit] LibraryresourcesaboutTwo-factortheoryofintelligence Resourcesinyourlibrary Resourcesinotherlibraries ^abWeiten,W.(2013).Psychology:ThemesandVariations(9thed.).ThomsonWadsworthPublishing.pg.356 ^abcdefgKalat,J.W.(2014).IntroductiontoPsychology,10thEdition.CengageLearning.pg.295 ^abcThomson,G.H.(1916)."Ahierarchywithoutageneralfactor".BritishJournalofPsychology.8(3):271–281.doi:10.1111/j.2044-8295.1916.tb00133.x. ^abcdeReynolds,M.R.(2013)."InterpretingthegLoadingsofIntelligenceTestCompositeScoresinLightofSpearman'sLawofDiminishingReturns".SchoolPsychologyQuarterly.28(1):63–76.doi:10.1037/spq0000013.PMID 23506024. ^abcVoelke,AnnikE.;Troche,StefanJ.;Rammsayer,ThomasH.;Wagner,FelicitasL.;Roebers,ClaudiaM.(2013)."SensoryDiscrimination,WorkingMemoryandIntelligencein9-Year-Oldand11-Year-OldChildren".InfantandChildDevelopment.22(5):523–538.doi:10.1002/icd.1803. ^abcdeMyers,D.G.(2009).Psychology:NinthEditioninModules.WorthPublishers.ISBN 1-4292-1638-7.pg.405 ^abcThomson,G.H.(1947)."CharlesSpearman.1863-1945".ObituaryNoticesofFellowsoftheRoyalSociety.5(15):373–385.doi:10.1098/rsbm.1947.0006.S2CID 159844032. ^abcFancher,R.E.(1985)."Spearman'soriginalcomputationofg:AmodelforBurt?".BritishJournalofPsychology.76(3):341–352.doi:10.1111/j.2044-8295.1985.tb01957.x. ^Spearman,C.(2005).TheAbilitiesofMan:TheirNatureandMeasurement.TheBlackburnPress.ISBN 1-932846-10-7. ^Kane,H.;Oakland,T.D.(2000)."SecularDeclinesinSpearman'sg:SomeEvidenceFromtheUnitedStates".JournalofGeneticPsychology.161(3):337–345.doi:10.1080/00221320009596716.PMID 10971912.S2CID 32162542. ^abBouchard,J.J.(2009)."Geneticinfluenceonhumanintelligence(Spearman'sg):Howmuch?".AnnalsofHumanBiology.36(5):527–544.doi:10.1080/03014460903103939.PMID 19634053.S2CID 9506624. Furtherreading[edit] Myers,D.G.(2009).Psychology:NinthEditioninModules.WorthPublishers.ISBN 1-4292-1638-7. Kalat,J.W.(2014).IntroductiontoPsychology,10thEdition.CengageLearning. Weiten,W.(2013).Psychology:ThemesandVariations(9thed.).ThomsonWadsworthPublishing. Kulp,D.H.;Davidson,H.H.(1934)."TheapplicationoftheSpearmantwo-factortheorytosocialattitudes".TheJournalofAbnormalandSocialPsychology.29(3):269–275.doi:10.1037/h0070225. Spearman,C(1904).""GeneralIntelligence,"ObjectivelyDeterminedandMeasured".AmericanJournalofPsychology.15(2):201–293.doi:10.2307/1412107.JSTOR 1412107. 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