Brain–computer interface - Wikipedia

A brain–computer interface (BCI), sometimes called a brain–machine interface (BMI), is a direct communication pathway between the brain's electrical ... Brain–computerinterface FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Fordirectbraincontrolofprostheticdevices,seeNeuroprosthetics. Directcommunicationpathwaybetweenanenhancedorwiredbrainandanexternaldevice Neuropsychology Topics Brainregions Clinicalneuropsychology Cognitiveneuropsychology Cognitiveneuroscience Dementia Humanbrain Neuroanatomy Neurophysiology Neuropsychologicalassessment Neuropsychologicalrehabilitation Traumaticbraininjury Brainfunctions Arousal Attention Consciousness Decisionmaking Executivefunctions Naturallanguage Learning Memory Motorcoordination Perception Planning Problemsolving Thought People AlanBaddeley ArthurL.Benton DavidBohm AntonioDamasio PhineasGage NormanGeschwind ElkhononGoldberg PatriciaGoldman-Rakic DonaldO.Hebb KennethHeilman EricKandel EdithKaplan MurielLezak BenjaminLibet RodolfoLlinás AlexanderLuria BrendaMilner KarlH.Pribram PaskoRakic OliverSacks MarkRosenzweig RogerW.Sperry Hans-LukasTeuber HenryMolaison("H.M.",patient) K.C.(patient) Tests BentonVisualRetentionTest ContinuousPerformanceTask Halstead-ReitanNeuropsychologicalBattery HaylingandBrixtontests LexicalDecisionTask Luria-Nebraskaneuropsychologicalbattery Mini–MentalStateExamination Rey–Osterriethcomplexfigure StroopTest WechslerAdultIntelligenceScale WechslerMemoryScale WisconsinCardSortingTask  Psychologyportal  Philosophyportal  Medicineportal vte Abrain–computerinterface(BCI),sometimescalledabrain–machineinterface(BMI),isadirectcommunicationpathwaybetweenthebrain'selectricalactivityandanexternaldevice,mostcommonlyacomputerorroboticlimb.BCIsareoftendirectedatresearching,mapping,assisting,augmenting,orrepairinghumancognitiveorsensory-motorfunctions.[1]ImplementationsofBCIsrangefromnon-invasive(EEG,MEG,EOG,MRI)andpartiallyinvasive(ECoGandendovascular)toinvasive(microelectrodearray),basedonhowcloseelectrodesgettobraintissue.[2] ResearchonBCIsbeganinthe1970sbyJacquesVidalattheUniversityofCalifornia,LosAngeles(UCLA)underagrantfromtheNationalScienceFoundation,followedbyacontractfromDARPA.[3][4]TheVidal's1973papermarksthefirstappearanceoftheexpressionbrain–computerinterfaceinscientificliterature. Duetothecorticalplasticityofthebrain,signalsfromimplantedprosthesescan,afteradaptation,behandledbythebrainlikenaturalsensororeffectorchannels.[5]Followingyearsofanimalexperimentation,thefirstneuroprostheticdevicesimplantedinhumansappearedinthemid-1990s. Recently,studiesinhuman-computerinteractionviatheapplicationofmachinelearningtostatisticaltemporalfeaturesextractedfromthefrontallobe(EEGbrainwave)datahashadhighlevelsofsuccessinclassifyingmentalstates(Relaxed,Neutral,Concentrating),[6]mentalemotionalstates(Negative,Neutral,Positive)[7]andthalamocorticaldysrhythmia.[8] Contents 1History 2BCIsversusneuroprosthetics 3AnimalBCIresearch 3.1Earlywork 3.2Prominentresearchsuccesses 3.2.1KennedyandYangDan 3.2.2Nicolelis 3.2.3Donoghue,SchwartzandAndersen 3.2.4Otherresearch 3.2.5TheBCIAward 4HumanBCIresearch 4.1InvasiveBCIs 4.1.1Vision 4.1.2Movement 4.1.3Communication 4.1.4Technicalchallenges 4.2PartiallyinvasiveBCIs 4.2.1Endovascular 4.2.2ECoG 4.3Non-invasiveBCIs 4.3.1Non-EEG-basedhuman–computerinterface 4.3.1.1Electrooculography(EOG) 4.3.1.2Pupil-sizeoscillation 4.3.2Functionalnear-infraredspectroscopy 4.3.3Electroencephalography(EEG)-basedbrain-computerinterfaces 4.3.4Dryactiveelectrodearrays 4.3.5SSVEPmobileEEGBCIs 4.3.6Limitations 4.3.7Prosthesisandenvironmentcontrol 4.3.8DIYandopensourceBCI 4.3.9MEGandMRI 4.3.10BCIcontrolstrategiesinneurogaming 4.3.10.1Motorimagery 4.3.10.2Bio/neurofeedbackforpassiveBCIdesigns 4.3.10.3Visualevokedpotential(VEP) 4.4Synthetictelepathy/silentcommunication 5Cell-cultureBCIs 6CollaborativeBCIs 7Ethicalconsiderations 7.1User-centricissues 7.2Legalandsocial 8Low-costBCI-basedinterfaces 9Futuredirections 9.1Disordersofconsciousness(DOC) 9.2Motorrecovery 9.3Functionalbrainmapping 9.4Flexibledevices 9.5Neuraldust 10Seealso 11Notes 12References 13Furtherreading 14Externallinks History[edit] Thehistoryofbrain–computerinterfaces(BCIs)startswithHansBerger'sdiscoveryoftheelectricalactivityofthehumanbrainandthedevelopmentofelectroencephalography(EEG).In1924BergerwasthefirsttorecordhumanbrainactivitybymeansofEEG.Bergerwasabletoidentifyoscillatoryactivity,suchasBerger'swaveorthealphawave(8–13 Hz),byanalyzingEEGtraces. Berger'sfirstrecordingdevicewasveryrudimentary.Heinsertedsilverwiresunderthescalpsofhispatients.Thesewerelaterreplacedbysilverfoilsattachedtothepatient'sheadbyrubberbandages.BergerconnectedthesesensorstoaLippmanncapillaryelectrometer,withdisappointingresults.However,moresophisticatedmeasuringdevices,suchastheSiemensdouble-coilrecordinggalvanometer,whichdisplayedelectricvoltagesassmallasonetenthousandthofavolt,ledtosuccess. BergeranalyzedtheinterrelationofalternationsinhisEEGwavediagramswithbraindiseases.EEGspermittedcompletelynewpossibilitiesfortheresearchofhumanbrainactivities. Althoughthetermhadnotyetbeencoined,oneoftheearliestexamplesofaworkingbrain-machineinterfacewasthepieceMusicforSoloPerformer(1965)bytheAmericancomposerAlvinLucier.ThepiecemakesuseofEEGandanalogsignalprocessinghardware(filters,amplifiers,andamixingboard)tostimulateacousticpercussioninstruments.Toperformthepieceonemustproducealphawavesandthereby"play"thevariouspercussioninstrumentsvialoudspeakerswhichareplacednearordirectlyontheinstrumentsthemselves.[9] UCLAProfessorJacquesVidalcoinedtheterm"BCI"andproducedthefirstpeer-reviewedpublicationsonthistopic.[3][4]VidaliswidelyrecognizedastheinventorofBCIsintheBCIcommunity,asreflectedinnumerouspeer-reviewedarticlesreviewinganddiscussingthefield(e.g.,[10][11][12]).AreviewpointedoutthatVidal's1973paperstatedthe"BCIchallenge"[13]ofcontrollingexternalobjectsusingEEGsignals,andespeciallyuseofContingentNegativeVariation(CNV)potentialasachallengeforBCIcontrol.The1977experimentVidaldescribedwasthefirstapplicationofBCIafterhis1973BCIchallenge.ItwasanoninvasiveEEG(actuallyVisualEvokedPotentials(VEP))controlofacursor-likegraphicalobjectonacomputerscreen.Thedemonstrationwasmovementinamaze.[14] Afterhisearlycontributions,VidalwasnotactiveinBCIresearch,norBCIeventssuchasconferences,formanyyears.In2011,however,hegavealectureinGraz,Austria,supportedbytheFutureBNCIproject,presentingthefirstBCI,whichearnedastandingovation.Vidalwasjoinedbyhiswife,LaryceVidal,whopreviouslyworkedwithhimatUCLAonhisfirstBCIproject. In1988,areportwasgivenonnoninvasiveEEGcontrolofaphysicalobject,arobot.TheexperimentdescribedwasEEGcontrolofmultiplestart-stop-restartoftherobotmovement,alonganarbitrarytrajectorydefinedbyalinedrawnonafloor.Theline-followingbehaviorwasthedefaultrobotbehavior,utilizingautonomousintelligenceandautonomoussourceofenergy.[15][16]This1988reportwrittenbyStevoBozinovski,MihailSestakov,andLiljanaBozinovskawasthefirstoneaboutarobotcontrolusingEEG.[17][18] In1990,areportwasgivenonaclosedloop,bidirectionaladaptiveBCIcontrollingcomputerbuzzerbyananticipatorybrainpotential,theContingentNegativeVariation(CNV)potential.[19][20]Theexperimentdescribedhowanexpectationstateofthebrain,manifestedbyCNV,controlsinafeedbacklooptheS2buzzerintheS1-S2-CNVparadigm.TheobtainedcognitivewaverepresentingtheexpectationlearninginthebrainisnamedElectroexpectogram(EXG).TheCNVbrainpotentialwaspartoftheBCIchallengepresentedbyVidalinhis1973paper. Studiesin2010ssuggestedthepotentialabilityofneuralstimulationtorestorefunctionalconnectivelyandassociatedbehaviorsthroughmodulationofmolecularmechanismsofsynapticefficacy.[21][22]ThisopenedthedoorfortheconceptthatBCItechnologiesmaybeabletorestorefunctioninadditiontoenablingfunctionality. Since2013,DARPAhasfundedBCItechnologythroughtheBRAINinitiative,whichhassupportedworkoutoftheUniversityofPittsburghMedicalCenter,[23]Paradromics,[24]Brown,[25]andSynchron,[26]amongothers. BCIsversusneuroprosthetics[edit] Mainarticle:Neuroprosthetics Neuroprostheticsisanareaofneuroscienceconcernedwithneuralprostheses,thatis,usingartificialdevicestoreplacethefunctionofimpairednervoussystemsandbrain-relatedproblems,orofsensoryorgansororgansitself(bladder,diaphragm,etc.).AsofDecember2010,cochlearimplantshadbeenimplantedasneuroprostheticdeviceinapproximately220,000peopleworldwide.[27]Therearealsoseveralneuroprostheticdevicesthataimtorestorevision,includingretinalimplants.Thefirstneuroprostheticdevice,however,wasthepacemaker. Thetermsaresometimesusedinterchangeably.NeuroprostheticsandBCIsseektoachievethesameaims,suchasrestoringsight,hearing,movement,abilitytocommunicate,andevencognitivefunction.[1]Bothusesimilarexperimentalmethodsandsurgicaltechniques. AnimalBCIresearch[edit] SeverallaboratorieshavemanagedtorecordsignalsfrommonkeyandratcerebralcorticestooperateBCIstoproducemovement.Monkeyshavenavigatedcomputercursorsonscreenandcommandedroboticarmstoperformsimpletaskssimplybythinkingaboutthetaskandseeingthevisualfeedback,butwithoutanymotoroutput.[28]InMay2008photographsthatshowedamonkeyattheUniversityofPittsburghMedicalCenteroperatingaroboticarmbythinkingwerepublishedinanumberofwell-knownsciencejournalsandmagazines.[29]SheeptoohavebeenusedtoevaluateBCItechnologyincludingSynchron'sStentrode. In2020,ElonMusk'sNeuralinkwassuccessfullyimplantedinapig,[30]announcedinawidelyviewedwebcast.In2021ElonMuskannouncedthathehadsuccessfullyenabledamonkeytoplayvideogames[31]usingNeuralink'sdevice. Earlywork[edit] Monkeyoperatingaroboticarmwithbrain–computerinterfacing(Schwartzlab,UniversityofPittsburgh) In1969theoperantconditioningstudiesofFetzandcolleagues, attheRegionalPrimateResearchCenterandDepartmentofPhysiologyandBiophysics,UniversityofWashingtonSchoolofMedicineinSeattle,showedforthefirsttimethatmonkeyscouldlearntocontrolthedeflectionofabiofeedbackmeterarmwithneuralactivity.[32]Similarworkinthe1970sestablishedthatmonkeyscouldquicklylearntovoluntarilycontrolthefiringratesofindividualandmultipleneuronsintheprimarymotorcortexiftheywererewardedforgeneratingappropriatepatternsofneuralactivity.[33] Studiesthatdevelopedalgorithmstoreconstructmovementsfrommotorcortexneurons,whichcontrolmovement,datebacktothe1970s.Inthe1980s,ApostolosGeorgopoulosatJohnsHopkinsUniversityfoundamathematicalrelationshipbetweentheelectricalresponsesofsinglemotorcortexneuronsinrhesusmacaquemonkeysandthedirectioninwhichtheymovedtheirarms(basedonacosinefunction).Healsofoundthatdispersedgroupsofneurons,indifferentareasofthemonkey'sbrains,collectivelycontrolledmotorcommands,butwasabletorecordthefiringsofneuronsinonlyoneareaatatime,becauseofthetechnicallimitationsimposedbyhisequipment.[34] TherehasbeenrapiddevelopmentinBCIssincethemid-1990s.[35]Severalgroupshavebeenabletocapturecomplexbrainmotorcortexsignalsbyrecordingfromneuralensembles(groupsofneurons)andusingthesetocontrolexternaldevices. Prominentresearchsuccesses[edit] KennedyandYangDan[edit] PhillipKennedy(wholaterfoundedNeuralSignalsin1987)andcolleaguesbuiltthefirstintracorticalbrain–computerinterfacebyimplantingneurotrophic-coneelectrodesintomonkeys.[citationneeded] YangDanandcolleagues'recordingsofcatvisionusingaBCIimplantedinthelateralgeniculatenucleus(toprow:originalimage;bottomrow:recording)In1999,researchersledbyYangDanattheUniversityofCalifornia,Berkeleydecodedneuronalfiringstoreproduceimagesseenbycats.Theteamusedanarrayofelectrodesembeddedinthethalamus(whichintegratesallofthebrain'ssensoryinput)ofsharp-eyedcats.Researcherstargeted177braincellsinthethalamuslateralgeniculatenucleusarea,whichdecodessignalsfromtheretina.Thecatswereshowneightshortmovies,andtheirneuronfiringswererecorded.Usingmathematicalfilters,theresearchersdecodedthesignalstogeneratemoviesofwhatthecatssawandwereabletoreconstructrecognizablescenesandmovingobjects.[36]SimilarresultsinhumanshavesincebeenachievedbyresearchersinJapan(seebelow). Nicolelis[edit] MiguelNicolelis,aprofessoratDukeUniversity,inDurham,NorthCarolina,hasbeenaprominentproponentofusingmultipleelectrodesspreadoveragreaterareaofthebraintoobtainneuronalsignalstodriveaBCI. Afterconductinginitialstudiesinratsduringthe1990s,NicolelisandhiscolleaguesdevelopedBCIsthatdecodedbrainactivityinowlmonkeysandusedthedevicestoreproducemonkeymovementsinroboticarms.Monkeyshaveadvancedreachingandgraspingabilitiesandgoodhandmanipulationskills,makingthemidealtestsubjectsforthiskindofwork. By2000,thegroupsucceededinbuildingaBCIthatreproducedowlmonkeymovementswhilethemonkeyoperatedajoystickorreachedforfood.[37]TheBCIoperatedinrealtimeandcouldalsocontrolaseparaterobotremotelyoverInternetprotocol.Butthemonkeyscouldnotseethearmmovinganddidnotreceiveanyfeedback,aso-calledopen-loopBCI. DiagramoftheBCIdevelopedbyMiguelNicolelisandcolleaguesforuseonrhesusmonkeys LaterexperimentsbyNicolelisusingrhesusmonkeyssucceededinclosingthefeedbackloopandreproducedmonkeyreachingandgraspingmovementsinarobotarm.Withtheirdeeplycleftandfurrowedbrains,rhesusmonkeysareconsideredtobebettermodelsforhumanneurophysiologythanowlmonkeys.Themonkeysweretrainedtoreachandgraspobjectsonacomputerscreenbymanipulatingajoystickwhilecorrespondingmovementsbyarobotarmwerehidden.[38][39]Themonkeyswerelatershowntherobotdirectlyandlearnedtocontrolitbyviewingitsmovements.TheBCIusedvelocitypredictionstocontrolreachingmovementsandsimultaneouslypredictedhandgrippingforce.In2011O'DohertyandcolleaguesshowedaBCIwithsensoryfeedbackwithrhesusmonkeys.Themonkeywasbraincontrollingthepositionofanavatararmwhilereceivingsensoryfeedbackthroughdirectintracorticalstimulation(ICMS)inthearmrepresentationareaofthesensorycortex.[40] Donoghue,SchwartzandAndersen[edit] BCIsareacorefocusoftheCarneyInstituteforBrainScienceatBrownUniversity OtherlaboratorieswhichhavedevelopedBCIsandalgorithmsthatdecodeneuronsignalsincludetheCarneyInstituteforBrainScienceatBrownUniversityandthelabsofAndrewSchwartzattheUniversityofPittsburghandRichardAndersenatCaltech.TheseresearchershavebeenabletoproduceworkingBCIs,evenusingrecordedsignalsfromfarfewerneuronsthandidNicolelis(15–30neuronsversus50–200neurons). JohnDonoghue'slabattheCarneyInstitutereportedtrainingrhesusmonkeystouseaBCItotrackvisualtargetsonacomputerscreen(closed-loopBCI)withorwithoutassistanceofajoystick.[41]Schwartz'sgroupcreatedaBCIforthree-dimensionaltrackinginvirtualrealityandalsoreproducedBCIcontrolinaroboticarm.[42]Thesamegroupalsocreatedheadlineswhentheydemonstratedthatamonkeycouldfeeditselfpiecesoffruitandmarshmallowsusingaroboticarmcontrolledbytheanimal'sownbrainsignals.[43][44][45] Andersen'sgroupusedrecordingsofpremovementactivityfromtheposteriorparietalcortexintheirBCI,includingsignalscreatedwhenexperimentalanimalsanticipatedreceivingareward.[46] Otherresearch[edit] Inadditiontopredictingkinematicandkineticparametersoflimbmovements,BCIsthatpredictelectromyographicorelectricalactivityofthemusclesofprimatesarebeingdeveloped.[47]SuchBCIscouldbeusedtorestoremobilityinparalyzedlimbsbyelectricallystimulatingmuscles. MiguelNicolelisandcolleaguesdemonstratedthattheactivityoflargeneuralensemblescanpredictarmposition.ThisworkmadepossiblecreationofBCIsthatreadarmmovementintentionsandtranslatethemintomovementsofartificialactuators.Carmenaandcolleagues[38]programmedtheneuralcodinginaBCIthatallowedamonkeytocontrolreachingandgraspingmovementsbyaroboticarm.Lebedevandcolleagues[39]arguedthatbrainnetworksreorganizetocreateanewrepresentationoftheroboticappendageinadditiontotherepresentationoftheanimal'sownlimbs. In2019,researchersfromUCSFpublishedastudywheretheydemonstratedaBCIthathadthepotentialtohelppatientswithspeechimpairmentcausedbyneurologicaldisorders.TheirBCIusedhigh-densityelectrocorticographytotapneuralactivityfromapatient'sbrainanduseddeeplearningmethodstosynthesizespeech.[48][49]In2021,researchersfromthesamegrouppublishedastudyshowingthepotentialofaBCItodecodewordsandsentencesinananarthricpatientwhohadbeenunabletospeakforover15years.[50][51] ThebiggestimpedimenttoBCItechnologyatpresentisthelackofasensormodalitythatprovidessafe,accurateandrobustaccesstobrainsignals.Itisconceivableorevenlikely,however,thatsuchasensorwillbedevelopedwithinthenexttwentyyears.TheuseofsuchasensorshouldgreatlyexpandtherangeofcommunicationfunctionsthatcanbeprovidedusingaBCI. DevelopmentandimplementationofaBCIsystemiscomplexandtime-consuming.Inresponsetothisproblem,GerwinSchalkhasbeendevelopingageneral-purposesystemforBCIresearch,calledBCI2000.BCI2000hasbeenindevelopmentsince2000inaprojectledbytheBrain–ComputerInterfaceR&DProgramattheWadsworthCenteroftheNewYorkStateDepartmentofHealthinAlbany,NewYork,UnitedStates. Anew'wireless'approachuseslight-gatedionchannelssuchasChannelrhodopsintocontroltheactivityofgeneticallydefinedsubsetsofneuronsinvivo.Inthecontextofasimplelearningtask,illuminationoftransfectedcellsinthesomatosensorycortexinfluencedthedecision-makingprocessoffreelymovingmice.[52] TheuseofBMIshasalsoledtoadeeperunderstandingofneuralnetworksandthecentralnervoussystem.Researchhasshownthatdespitetheinclinationofneuroscientiststobelievethatneuronshavethemosteffectwhenworkingtogether,singleneuronscanbeconditionedthroughtheuseofBMIstofireatapatternthatallowsprimatestocontrolmotoroutputs.TheuseofBMIshasledtodevelopmentofthesingleneuroninsufficiencyprinciplewhichstatesthatevenwithawelltunedfiringratesingleneuronscanonlycarryanarrowamountofinformationandthereforethehighestlevelofaccuracyisachievedbyrecordingfiringsofthecollectiveensemble.OtherprinciplesdiscoveredwiththeuseofBMIsincludetheneuronalmultitaskingprinciple,theneuronalmassprinciple,theneuraldegeneracyprinciple,andtheplasticityprinciple.[53] BCIsarealsoproposedtobeappliedbyuserswithoutdisabilities.Auser-centeredcategorizationofBCIapproachesbyThorstenO.ZanderandChristianKotheintroducesthetermpassiveBCI.[54]NexttoactiveandreactiveBCIthatareusedfordirectedcontrol,passiveBCIsallowforassessingandinterpretingchangesintheuserstateduringHuman-ComputerInteraction(HCI).Inasecondary,implicitcontrolloopthecomputersystemadaptstoitsuserimprovingitsusabilityingeneral. BeyondBCIsystemsthatdecodeneuralactivitytodriveexternaleffectors,BCIsystemsmaybeusedtoencodesignalsfromtheperiphery.ThesesensoryBCIdevicesenablereal-time,behaviorally-relevantdecisionsbaseduponclosed-loopneuralstimulation.[55] TheBCIAward[edit] TheAnnualBCIResearchAwardisawardedinrecognitionofoutstandingandinnovativeresearchinthefieldofBrain-ComputerInterfaces.Eachyear,arenownedresearchlaboratoryisaskedtojudgethesubmittedprojects.Thejuryconsistsofworld-leadingBCIexpertsrecruitedbytheawardinglaboratory.Thejuryselectstwelvenominees,thenchoosesafirst,second,andthird-placewinner,whoreceiveawardsof$3,000,$2,000,and$1,000,respectively. HumanBCIresearch[edit] InvasiveBCIs[edit] InvasiveBCIrequiressurgerytoimplantelectrodesunderscalpforcommunicatingbrainsignals.Themainadvantageistoprovidemoreaccuratereading;however,itsdownsideincludessideeffectsfromthesurgery.Afterthesurgery,scartissuesmayformwhichcanmakebrainsignalsweaker.Inaddition,accordingtotheresearchofAbdulkaderetal.,(2015),[56]thebodymaynotaccepttheimplantedelectrodesandthiscancauseamedicalcondition. Vision[edit] InvasiveBCIresearchhastargetedrepairingdamagedsightandprovidingnewfunctionalityforpeoplewithparalysis.InvasiveBCIsareimplanteddirectlyintothegreymatterofthebrainduringneurosurgery.Becausetheylieinthegreymatter,invasivedevicesproducethehighestqualitysignalsofBCIdevicesbutarepronetoscar-tissuebuild-up,causingthesignaltobecomeweaker,orevennon-existent,asthebodyreactstoaforeignobjectinthebrain.[57] Invisionscience,directbrainimplantshavebeenusedtotreatnon-congenital(acquired)blindness.OneofthefirstscientiststoproduceaworkingbraininterfacetorestoresightwasprivateresearcherWilliamDobelle. Dobelle'sfirstprototypewasimplantedinto"Jerry",amanblindedinadulthood,in1978.Asingle-arrayBCIcontaining68electrodeswasimplantedontoJerry'svisualcortexandsucceededinproducingphosphenes,thesensationofseeinglight.Thesystemincludedcamerasmountedonglassestosendsignalstotheimplant.Initially,theimplantallowedJerrytoseeshadesofgreyinalimitedfieldofvisionatalowframe-rate.Thisalsorequiredhimtobehookeduptoamainframecomputer,butshrinkingelectronicsandfastercomputersmadehisartificialeyemoreportableandnowenablehimtoperformsimpletasksunassisted.[58] DummyunitillustratingthedesignofaBrainGateinterface In2002,JensNaumann,alsoblindedinadulthood,becamethefirstinaseriesof16payingpatientstoreceiveDobelle'ssecondgenerationimplant,markingoneoftheearliestcommercialusesofBCIs.Thesecondgenerationdeviceusedamoresophisticatedimplantenablingbettermappingofphosphenesintocoherentvision.Phosphenesarespreadoutacrossthevisualfieldinwhatresearcherscall"thestarry-nighteffect".Immediatelyafterhisimplant,Jenswasabletousehisimperfectlyrestoredvisiontodriveanautomobileslowlyaroundtheparkingareaoftheresearchinstitute.[59]Unfortunately,Dobellediedin2004[60]beforehisprocessesanddevelopmentsweredocumented.Subsequently,whenMr.Naumannandtheotherpatientsintheprogrambeganhavingproblemswiththeirvision,therewasnoreliefandtheyeventuallylosttheir"sight"again.NaumannwroteabouthisexperiencewithDobelle'sworkinSearchforParadise:APatient'sAccountoftheArtificialVisionExperiment[61]andhasreturnedtohisfarminSoutheastOntario,Canada,toresumehisnormalactivities.[62] Movement[edit] BCIsfocusingonmotorneuroprostheticsaimtoeitherrestoremovementinindividualswithparalysisorprovidedevicestoassistthem,suchasinterfaceswithcomputersorrobotarms. ResearchersatEmoryUniversityinAtlanta,ledbyPhilipKennedyandRoyBakay,werefirsttoinstallabrainimplantinahumanthatproducedsignalsofhighenoughqualitytosimulatemovement.Theirpatient,JohnnyRay(1944–2002),sufferedfrom'locked-insyndrome'afterhavingabrain-stemstrokein1997.Ray'simplantwasinstalledin1998andhelivedlongenoughtostartworkingwiththeimplant,eventuallylearningtocontrolacomputercursor;hediedin2002ofabrainaneurysm.[63] TetraplegicMattNaglebecamethefirstpersontocontrolanartificialhandusingaBCIin2005aspartofthefirstnine-monthhumantrialofCyberkinetics'sBrainGatechip-implant.ImplantedinNagle'srightprecentralgyrus(areaofthemotorcortexforarmmovement),the96-electrodeBrainGateimplantallowedNagletocontrolaroboticarmbythinkingaboutmovinghishandaswellasacomputercursor,lightsandTV.[64]Oneyearlater,professorJonathanWolpawreceivedtheprizeoftheAltranFoundationforInnovationtodevelopaBrainComputerInterfacewithelectrodeslocatedonthesurfaceoftheskull,insteadofdirectlyinthebrain. Morerecently,researchteamsledbytheBrainGategroupatBrownUniversity[65]andagroupledbyUniversityofPittsburghMedicalCenter,[66]bothincollaborationswiththeUnitedStatesDepartmentofVeteransAffairs,havedemonstratedfurthersuccessindirectcontrolofroboticprostheticlimbswithmanydegreesoffreedomusingdirectconnectionstoarraysofneuronsinthemotorcortexofpatientswithtetraplegia. Communication[edit] InMay2021,aStanfordUniversityteamreportedasuccessfulproof-of-concepttestthatenabledaquadraplegicparticipanttoinputEnglishsentencesatabout86charactersperminuteand18wordsperminute.Theparticipantimaginedmovinghishandtowriteletters,andthesystemperformedhandwritingrecognitiononelectricalsignalsdetectedinthemotorcortex,utilizinghiddenMarkovmodelsandrecurrentneuralnetworksfordecoding.[67][68] AreportpublishedinJuly2021reportedaparalyzedpatientwasabletocommunicate15wordsperminuteusingabrainimplantthatanalyzedmotorneuronsthatpreviouslycontrolledthevocaltract.[69][50] Inarecentreviewarticle,researchersraisedanopenquestionofwhetherhumaninformationtransferratescansurpassthatoflanguagewithBCIs.Giventhatrecentlanguageresearchhasdemonstratedthathumaninformationtransferratesarerelativelyconstantacrossmanylanguages,theremayexistalimitatthelevelofinformationprocessinginthebrain.Onthecontrary,this"upperlimit"ofinformationtransferratemaybeintrinsictolanguageitself,asamodalityforinformationtransfer.[70] Technicalchallenges[edit] ThereexistanumberoftechnicalchallengestorecordingbrainactivitywithinvasiveBCIs.AdvancesinCMOStechnologyarepushingandenablingintegrated,invasiveBCIdesignswithsmallersize,lowerpowerrequirements,andhighersignalacquisitioncapabilities.[71]InvasiveBCIsinvolveelectrodesthatpenetratebraintissueinanattempttorecordactionpotentialsignals(alsoknownasspikes)fromindividual,orsmallgroupsof,neuronsneartheelectrode.TheinterfacebetweenarecordingelectrodeandtheelectrolyticsolutionsurroundingneuronshasbeenmodelledusingtheHodgkin-Huxleymodel.[72][73] ElectroniclimitationstoinvasiveBCIshavebeenanactiveareaofresearchinrecentdecades.Whileintracellularrecordingsofneuronsrevealactionpotentialvoltagesonthescaleofhundredsofmillivolts,chronicinvasiveBCIsrelyonrecordingextracellularvoltageswhichtypicallyarethreeordersofmagnitudesmaller,existingathundredsofmicrovolts.[74]Furtheraddingtothechallengeofdetectingsignalsonthescaleofmicrovoltsisthefactthattheelectrode-tissueinterfacehasahighcapacitanceatsmallvoltages.Duetothenatureofthesesmallsignals,forBCIsystemsthatincorporatefunctionalityontoanintegratedcircuit,eachelectroderequiresitsownamplifierandADC,whichconvertanalogextracellularvoltagesintodigitalsignals.[74]Becauseatypicalneuronactionpotentiallastsforonemillisecond,BCIsmeasuringspikesmusthavesamplingratesrangingfrom300 Hzto5 kHz.YetanotherconcernisthatinvasiveBCIsmustbelow-power,soastodissipatelessheattosurroundingtissue;atthemostbasiclevelmorepoweristraditionallyneededtooptimizesignal-to-noiseratio.[73]OptimalbatterydesignisanactiveareaofresearchinBCIs.[75]IllustrationofinvasiveandpartiallyinvasiveBCIs:electrocorticography(ECoG),endovascular,andintracorticalmicroelectrode.ChallengesexistingintheareaofmaterialsciencearecentraltothedesignofinvasiveBCIs.Variationsinsignalqualityovertimehavebeencommonlyobservedwithimplantablemicroelectrodes.[76]OptimalmaterialandmechanicalcharacteristicsforlongtermsignalstabilityininvasiveBCIshasbeenanactiveareaofresearch.[77]Ithasbeenproposedthattheformationofglialscarring,secondarytodamageattheelectrode-tissueinterface,islikelyresponsibleforelectrodefailureandreducedrecordingperformance.[78]Researchhassuggestedthatblood-brainbarrierleakage,eitheratthetimeofinsertionorovertime,mayberesponsiblefortheinflammatoryandglialreactiontochronicmicroelectrodesimplantedinthebrain.[78][79]Asaresult,flexible[80][81][82]andtissue-likedesigns[83][84]havebeenresearchedanddevelopedtominimizeforeign-bodyreactionbymeansofmatchingtheYoung'smodulusoftheelectrodeclosertothatofbraintissue.[83] PartiallyinvasiveBCIs[edit] PartiallyinvasiveBCIdevicesareimplantedinsidetheskullbutrestoutsidethebrainratherthanwithinthegreymatter.Theyproducebetterresolutionsignalsthannon-invasiveBCIswherethebonetissueofthecraniumdeflectsanddeformssignalsandhavealowerriskofformingscar-tissueinthebrainthanfullyinvasiveBCIs.TherehasbeenpreclinicaldemonstrationofintracorticalBCIsfromthestrokeperilesionalcortex.[85] Endovascular[edit] Asystematicreviewpublishedin2020detailedmultiplestudies,bothclinicalandnon-clinical,datingbackdecadesinvestigatingthefeasibilityofendovascularBCIs.[86] Inrecentyears,thebiggestadvanceinpartiallyinvasiveBCIshasemergedintheareaofinterventionalneurology.[2]In2010,researchersaffiliatedwithUniversityofMelbournehadbegundevelopingaBCIthatcouldbeinsertedviathevascularsystem.TheAustralianneurologistThomasOxley(MountSinaiHospital)conceivedtheideaforthisBCI,calledStentrode,whichhasreceivedfundingfromDARPA.Preclinicalstudiesevaluatedthetechnologyinsheep. TheStentrode,amonolithicstentelectrodearray,isdesignedtobedeliveredviaanintravenouscatheterunderimage-guidancetothesuperiorsagittalsinus,intheregionwhichliesadjacenttomotorcortex.[87]ThisproximitytomotorcortexunderliestheStentrode'sabilitytomeasureneuralactivity.Theprocedureismostsimilartohowvenoussinusstentsareplacedforthetreatmentofidiopathicintracranialhypertension.[88]TheStentrodecommunicatesneuralactivitytoabattery-lesstelemetryunitimplantedinthechest,whichcommunicateswirelesslywithanexternaltelemetryunitcapableofpoweranddatatransfer.WhileanendovascularBCIbenefitsfromavoidingcraniotomyforinsertion,riskssuchasclottingandvenousthrombosisarepossible.Inpre-clinicalanimalstudiesimplantedwithStentrode,twentyanimalsshowednoevidenceofthrombusformationafter190days,possiblyduetoendothelialincorporationoftheStentrodeintothevesselwall.[87] First-in-humantrialswiththeStentrodeareunderway.[87]InNovember2020,twoparticipantswithamyotrophiclateralsclerosiswereabletowirelesslycontrolanoperatingsystemtotext,email,shop,andbankusingdirectthoughtthroughtheStentrodebrain-computerinterface,[89]markingthefirsttimeabrain-computerinterfacewasimplantedviathepatient'sbloodvessels,eliminatingtheneedforopenbrainsurgery. ECoG[edit] Electrocorticography(ECoG)measurestheelectricalactivityofthebraintakenfrombeneaththeskullinasimilarwaytonon-invasiveelectroencephalography,buttheelectrodesareembeddedinathinplasticpadthatisplacedabovethecortex,beneaththeduramater.[90]ECoGtechnologieswerefirsttrialledinhumansin2004byEricLeuthardtandDanielMoranfromWashingtonUniversityinStLouis.Inalatertrial,theresearchersenabledateenageboytoplaySpaceInvadersusinghisECoGimplant.[91]Thisresearchindicatesthatcontrolisrapid,requiresminimaltraining,andmaybeanidealtradeoffwithregardstosignalfidelityandlevelofinvasiveness.[note1] Signalscanbeeithersubduralorepidural,butarenottakenfromwithinthebrainparenchymaitself.Ithasnotbeenstudiedextensivelyuntilrecentlyduetothelimitedaccessofsubjects.Currently,theonlymannertoacquirethesignalforstudyisthroughtheuseofpatientsrequiringinvasivemonitoringforlocalizationandresectionofanepileptogenicfocus. ECoGisaverypromisingintermediateBCImodalitybecauseithashigherspatialresolution,bettersignal-to-noiseratio,widerfrequencyrange,andlesstrainingrequirementsthanscalp-recordedEEG,andatthesametimehaslowertechnicaldifficulty,lowerclinicalrisk,andmayhavesuperiorlong-termstabilitythanintracorticalsingle-neuronrecording.[93]Thisfeatureprofileandrecentevidenceofthehighlevelofcontrolwithminimaltrainingrequirementsshowspotentialforrealworldapplicationforpeoplewithmotordisabilities.[94][95]LightreactiveimagingBCIdevicesarestillintherealmoftheory. RecentworkpublishedbyEdwardChangandJosephMakinfromUCSFrevealedthatECoGsignalscouldbeusedtodecodespeechfromepilepsypatientsimplantedwithhigh-densityECoGarraysovertheperi-Sylviancortices.[96][97]Theirstudyachievedworderrorratesof3%(amarkedimprovementfrompriorpublications)utilizinganencoder-decoderneuralnetwork,whichtranslatedECoGdataintooneoffiftysentencescomposedof250uniquewords. Non-invasiveBCIs[edit] Therehavealsobeenexperimentsinhumansusingnon-invasiveneuroimagingtechnologiesasinterfaces.ThesubstantialmajorityofpublishedBCIworkinvolvesnoninvasiveEEG-basedBCIs.NoninvasiveEEG-basedtechnologiesandinterfaceshavebeenusedforamuchbroadervarietyofapplications.AlthoughEEG-basedinterfacesareeasytowearanddonotrequiresurgery,theyhaverelativelypoorspatialresolutionandcannoteffectivelyusehigher-frequencysignalsbecausetheskulldampenssignals,dispersingandblurringtheelectromagneticwavescreatedbytheneurons.EEG-basedinterfacesalsorequiresometimeandeffortpriortoeachusagesession,whereasnon-EEG-basedones,aswellasinvasiveonesrequirenoprior-usagetraining.Overall,thebestBCIforeachuserdependsonnumerousfactors. Non-EEG-basedhuman–computerinterface[edit] Electrooculography(EOG)[edit] In1989,areportwasgivenoncontrolofamobilerobotbyeyemovementusingElectrooculography(EOG)signals.AmobilerobotwasdrivenfromastarttoagoalpointusingfiveEOGcommands,interpretedasforward,backward,left,right,andstop.[98]TheEOGasachallengeofcontrollingexternalobjectswaspresentedbyVidalinhis1973paper.[3] Pupil-sizeoscillation[edit] A2016article[99]describedanentirelynewcommunicationdeviceandnon-EEG-basedhuman-computerinterface,whichrequiresnovisualfixation,orabilitytomovetheeyesatall.Theinterfaceisbasedoncovertinterest;directingone'sattentiontoachosenletteronavirtualkeyboard,withouttheneedtomoveone'seyestolookdirectlyattheletter.Eachletterhasitsown(background)circlewhichmicro-oscillatesinbrightnessdifferentlyfromalloftheotherletters.Theletterselectionisbasedonbestfitbetweenunintentionalpupil-sizeoscillationandthebackgroundcircle'sbrightnessoscillationpattern.Accuracyisadditionallyimprovedbytheuser'smentalrehearsingofthewords'bright'and'dark'insynchronywiththebrightnesstransitionsoftheletter'scircle. Functionalnear-infraredspectroscopy[edit] In2014and2017,aBCIusingfunctionalnear-infraredspectroscopyfor"locked-in"patientswithamyotrophiclateralsclerosis(ALS)wasabletorestoresomebasicabilityofthepatientstocommunicatewithotherpeople.[100][101] Electroencephalography(EEG)-basedbrain-computerinterfaces[edit] Recordingsofbrainwavesproducedbyanelectroencephalogram AftertheBCIchallengewasstatedbyVidalin1973,theinitialreportsonnon-invasiveapproachincludedcontrolofacursorin2DusingVEP(Vidal1977),controlofabuzzerusingCNV(Bozinovskaetal.1988,1990),controlofaphysicalobject,arobot,usingabrainrhythm(alpha)(Bozinovskietal.1988),controlofatextwrittenonascreenusingP300(FarwellandDonchin,1988).[13] IntheearlydaysofBCIresearch,anothersubstantialbarriertousingElectroencephalography(EEG)asabrain–computerinterfacewastheextensivetrainingrequiredbeforeuserscanworkthetechnology.Forexample,inexperimentsbeginninginthemid-1990s,NielsBirbaumerattheUniversityofTübingeninGermanytrainedseverelyparalysedpeopletoself-regulatetheslowcorticalpotentialsintheirEEGtosuchanextentthatthesesignalscouldbeusedasabinarysignaltocontrolacomputercursor.[102](Birbaumerhadearliertrainedepilepticstopreventimpendingfitsbycontrollingthislowvoltagewave.)Theexperimentsawtenpatientstrainedtomoveacomputercursorbycontrollingtheirbrainwaves.Theprocesswasslow,requiringmorethananhourforpatientstowrite100characterswiththecursor,whiletrainingoftentookmanymonths.However,theslowcorticalpotentialapproachtoBCIshasnotbeenusedinseveralyears,sinceotherapproachesrequirelittleornotraining,arefasterandmoreaccurate,andworkforagreaterproportionofusers. Anotherresearchparameteristhetypeofoscillatoryactivitythatismeasured.GertPfurtschellerfoundedtheBCILab1991andfedhisresearchresultsonmotorimageryinthefirstonlineBCIbasedonoscillatoryfeaturesandclassifiers.TogetherwithBirbaumerandJonathanWolpawatNewYorkStateUniversitytheyfocusedondevelopingtechnologythatwouldallowuserstochoosethebrainsignalstheyfoundeasiesttooperateaBCI,includingmuandbetarhythms. AfurtherparameteristhemethodoffeedbackusedandthisisshowninstudiesofP300signals.PatternsofP300wavesaregeneratedinvoluntarily(stimulus-feedback)whenpeopleseesomethingtheyrecognizeandmayallowBCIstodecodecategoriesofthoughtswithouttrainingpatientsfirst.Bycontrast,thebiofeedbackmethodsdescribedaboverequirelearningtocontrolbrainwavessotheresultingbrainactivitycanbedetected. In2005itwasreportedresearchonEEGemulationofdigitalcontrolcircuitsforBCI,withexampleofaCNVflip-flop.[103]In2009itwasreportednoninvasiveEEGcontrolofaroboticarmusingaCNVflip-flop.[104]In2011itwasreportedcontroloftworoboticarmssolvingTowerofHanoitaskwiththreedisksusingaCNVflip-flop.[105]In2015itwasdescribedEEG-emulationofaSchmidttrigger,flip-flop,demultiplexer,andmodem.[106] WhileanEEGbasedbrain-computerinterfacehasbeenpursuedextensivelybyanumberofresearchlabs,recentadvancementsmadebyBinHeandhisteamattheUniversityofMinnesotasuggestthepotentialofanEEGbasedbrain-computerinterfacetoaccomplishtasksclosetoinvasivebrain-computerinterface.UsingadvancedfunctionalneuroimagingincludingBOLDfunctionalMRIandEEGsourceimaging,BinHeandco-workersidentifiedtheco-variationandco-localizationofelectrophysiologicalandhemodynamicsignalsinducedbymotorimagination.[107] Refinedbyaneuroimagingapproachandbyatrainingprotocol,BinHeandco-workersdemonstratedtheabilityofanon-invasiveEEGbasedbrain-computerinterfacetocontroltheflightofavirtualhelicopterin3-dimensionalspace,baseduponmotorimagination.[108]InJune2013itwasannouncedthatBinHehaddevelopedthetechniquetoenablearemote-controlhelicoptertobeguidedthroughanobstaclecourse.[109] Inadditiontoabrain-computerinterfacebasedonbrainwaves,asrecordedfromscalpEEGelectrodes,BinHeandco-workersexploredavirtualEEGsignal-basedbrain-computerinterfacebyfirstsolvingtheEEGinverseproblemandthenusedtheresultingvirtualEEGforbrain-computerinterfacetasks.Well-controlledstudiessuggestedthemeritsofsuchasourceanalysisbasedbrain-computerinterface.[110] A2014studyfoundthatseverelymotor-impairedpatientscouldcommunicatefasterandmorereliablywithnon-invasiveEEGBCI,thanwithanymuscle-basedcommunicationchannel.[111] A2016studyfoundthattheEmotivEPOCdevicemaybemoresuitableforcontroltasksusingtheattention/meditationleveloreyeblinkingthantheNeuroskyMindWavedevice.[112] A2019studyfoundthattheapplicationofevolutionaryalgorithmscouldimproveEEGmentalstateclassificationwithanon-invasiveMusedevice,enablinghighqualityclassificationofdataacquiredbyacheapconsumer-gradeEEGsensingdevice.[113] Ina2021systematicreviewofrandomizedcontrolledtrialsusingBCIforupper-limbrehabilitationafterstroke,EEG-basedBCIwasfoundtohavesignificantefficacyinimprovingupper-limbmotorfunctioncomparedtocontroltherapies.Morespecifically,BCIstudiesthatutilizedbandpowerfeatures,motorimagery,andfunctionalelectricalstimulationintheirdesignwerefoundtobemoreefficaciousthanalternatives.[114]Another2021systematicreviewfocusedonrobotic-assistedEEG-basedBCIforhandrehabilitationafterstroke.Improvementinmotorassessmentscoreswasobservedinthreeofelevenstudiesincludedinthesystematicreview.[115] Dryactiveelectrodearrays[edit] Intheearly1990sBabakTaheri,atUniversityofCalifornia,Davisdemonstratedthefirstsingleandalsomultichanneldryactiveelectrodearraysusingmicro-machining.ThesinglechanneldryEEGelectrodeconstructionandresultswerepublishedin1994.[116]Thearrayedelectrodewasalsodemonstratedtoperformwellcomparedtosilver/silverchlorideelectrodes.Thedeviceconsistedoffoursitesofsensorswithintegratedelectronicstoreducenoisebyimpedancematching.Theadvantagesofsuchelectrodesare:(1)noelectrolyteused,(2)noskinpreparation,(3)significantlyreducedsensorsize,and(4)compatibilitywithEEGmonitoringsystems.Theactiveelectrodearrayisanintegratedsystemmadeofanarrayofcapacitivesensorswithlocalintegratedcircuitryhousedinapackagewithbatteriestopowerthecircuitry.Thislevelofintegrationwasrequiredtoachievethefunctionalperformanceobtainedbytheelectrode. TheelectrodewastestedonanelectricaltestbenchandonhumansubjectsinfourmodalitiesofEEGactivity,namely:(1)spontaneousEEG,(2)sensoryevent-relatedpotentials,(3)brainstempotentials,and(4)cognitiveevent-relatedpotentials.Theperformanceofthedryelectrodecomparedfavorablywiththatofthestandardwetelectrodesintermsofskinpreparation,nogelrequirements(dry),andhighersignal-to-noiseratio.[117] In1999researchersatCaseWesternReserveUniversity,inCleveland,Ohio,ledbyHunterPeckham,used64-electrodeEEGskullcaptoreturnlimitedhandmovementstoquadriplegicJimJatich.AsJatichconcentratedonsimplebutoppositeconceptslikeupanddown,hisbeta-rhythmEEGoutputwasanalysedusingsoftwaretoidentifypatternsinthenoise.Abasicpatternwasidentifiedandusedtocontrolaswitch:Aboveaverageactivitywassettoon,belowaverageoff.AswellasenablingJatichtocontrolacomputercursorthesignalswerealsousedtodrivethenervecontrollersembeddedinhishands,restoringsomemovement.[118] SSVEPmobileEEGBCIs[edit] In2009,theNCTUBrain-Computer-Interface-headbandwasreported.TheresearcherswhodevelopedthisBCI-headbandalsoengineeredsilicon-basedmicroelectro-mechanicalsystem(MEMS)dryelectrodesdesignedforapplicationinnon-hairysitesofthebody.TheseelectrodesweresecuredtotheDAQboardintheheadbandwithsnap-onelectrodeholders.ThesignalprocessingmodulemeasuredalphaactivityandtheBluetoothenabledphoneassessedthepatients'alertnessandcapacityforcognitiveperformance.Whenthesubjectbecamedrowsy,thephonesentarousingfeedbacktotheoperatortorousethem.ThisresearchwassupportedbytheNationalScienceCouncil,Taiwan,R.O.C.,NSC,NationalChiao-TungUniversity,Taiwan'sMinistryofEducation,andtheU.S.ArmyResearchLaboratory.[119] In2011,researchersreportedacellularbasedBCIwiththecapabilityoftakingEEGdataandconvertingitintoacommandtocausethephonetoring.ThisresearchwassupportedinpartbyAbraxisBioscienceLLP,theU.S.ArmyResearchLaboratory,andtheArmyResearchOffice.Thedevelopedtechnologywasawearablesystemcomposedofafourchannelbio-signalacquisition/amplificationmodule,awirelesstransmissionmodule,andaBluetoothenabledcellphone. Theelectrodeswereplacedsothattheypickupsteadystatevisualevokedpotentials(SSVEPs).[120]SSVEPsareelectricalresponsestoflickeringvisualstimuliwithrepetitionratesover6 Hz[120]thatarebestfoundintheparietalandoccipitalscalpregionsofthevisualcortex.[121][122][123]ItwasreportedthatwiththisBCIsetup,allstudyparticipantswereabletoinitiatethephonecallwithminimalpracticeinnaturalenvironments.[124] ThescientistsclaimthattheirstudiesusingasinglechannelfastFouriertransform(FFT)andmultiplechannelsystemcanonicalcorrelationanalysis(CCA)algorithmsupportthecapacityofmobileBCIs.[120][125]TheCCAalgorithmhasbeenappliedinotherexperimentsinvestigatingBCIswithclaimedhighperformanceinaccuracyaswellasspeed.[126]WhilethecellularbasedBCItechnologywasdevelopedtoinitiateaphonecallfromSSVEPs,theresearcherssaidthatitcanbetranslatedforotherapplications,suchaspickingupsensorimotormu/betarhythmstofunctionasamotor-imagerybasedBCI.[120] In2013,comparativetestswereperformedonandroidcellphone,tablet,andcomputerbasedBCIs,analyzingthepowerspectrumdensityofresultantEEGSSVEPs.Thestatedgoalsofthisstudy,whichinvolvedscientistssupportedinpartbytheU.S.ArmyResearchLaboratory,wereto"increasethepracticability,portability,andubiquityofanSSVEP-basedBCI,fordailyuse".CitationItwasreportedthatthestimulationfrequencyonallmediumswasaccurate,althoughthecellphone'ssignaldemonstratedsomeinstability.TheamplitudesoftheSSVEPsforthelaptopandtabletwerealsoreportedtobelargerthanthoseofthecellphone.ThesetwoqualitativecharacterizationsweresuggestedasindicatorsofthefeasibilityofusingamobilestimulusBCI.[125] Limitations[edit] In2011,researchersstatedthatcontinuedworkshouldaddresseaseofuse,performancerobustness,reducinghardwareandsoftwarecosts.[120] OneofthedifficultieswithEEGreadingsisthelargesusceptibilitytomotionartifacts.[127]Inmostofthepreviouslydescribedresearchprojects,theparticipantswereaskedtositstill,reducingheadandeyemovementsasmuchaspossible,andmeasurementsweretakeninalaboratorysetting.However,sincetheemphasizedapplicationoftheseinitiativeshadbeenincreatingamobiledevicefordailyuse,[125]thetechnologyhadtobetestedinmotion. In2013,researcherstestedmobileEEG-basedBCItechnology,measuringSSVEPsfromparticipantsastheywalkedonatreadmillatvaryingspeeds.ThisresearchwassupportedbytheOfficeofNavalResearch,ArmyResearchOffice,andtheU.S.ArmyResearchLaboratory.StatedresultswerethatasspeedincreasedtheSSVEPdetectabilityusingCCAdecreased.Asindependentcomponentanalysis(ICA)hadbeenshowntobeefficientinseparatingEEGsignalsfromnoise,[128]thescientistsappliedICAtoCCAextractedEEGdata.TheystatedthattheCCAdatawithandwithoutICAprocessingweresimilar.Thus,theyconcludedthatCCAindependentlydemonstratedarobustnesstomotionartifactsthatindicatesitmaybeabeneficialalgorithmtoapplytoBCIsusedinrealworldconditions.[122] Prosthesisandenvironmentcontrol[edit] Non-invasiveBCIshavealsobeenappliedtoenablebrain-controlofprostheticupperandlowerextremitydevicesinpeoplewithparalysis.Forexample,GertPfurtschellerofGrazUniversityofTechnologyandcolleaguesdemonstratedaBCI-controlledfunctionalelectricalstimulationsystemtorestoreupperextremitymovementsinapersonwithtetraplegiaduetospinalcordinjury.[129]Between2012and2013,researchersattheUniversityofCalifornia,IrvinedemonstratedforthefirsttimethatitispossibletouseBCItechnologytorestorebrain-controlledwalkingafterspinalcordinjury.Intheirspinalcordinjuryresearchstudy,apersonwithparaplegiawasabletooperateaBCI-roboticgaitorthosistoregainbasicbrain-controlledambulation.[130][131] In2009AlexBlainey,anindependentresearcherbasedintheUK,successfullyusedtheEmotivEPOCtocontrola5axisrobotarm.[132]Hethenwentontomakeseveraldemonstrationmindcontrolledwheelchairsandhomeautomationthatcouldbeoperatedbypeoplewithlimitedornomotorcontrolsuchasthosewithparaplegiaandcerebralpalsy. ResearchintomilitaryuseofBCIsfundedbyDARPAhasbeenongoingsincethe1970s.[3][4]Thecurrentfocusofresearchisuser-to-usercommunicationthroughanalysisofneuralsignals.[133] DIYandopensourceBCI[edit] In2001,TheOpenEEGProject[134]wasinitiatedbyagroupofDIYneuroscientistsandengineers.TheModularEEGwastheprimarydevicecreatedbytheOpenEEGcommunity;itwasa6-channelsignalcaptureboardthatcostbetween$200and$400tomakeathome.TheOpenEEGProjectmarkedasignificantmomentintheemergenceofDIYbrain-computerinterfacing. In2010,theFrontierNerdsofNYU'sITPprogrampublishedathoroughtutorialtitledHowToHackToyEEGs.[135]Thetutorial,whichstirredthemindsofmanybuddingDIYBCIenthusiasts,demonstratedhowtocreateasinglechannelat-homeEEGwithanArduinoandaMattelMindflexataveryreasonableprice.ThistutorialamplifiedtheDIYBCImovement. In2013,OpenBCIemergedfromaDARPAsolicitationandsubsequentKickstartercampaign.Theycreatedahigh-quality,open-source8-channelEEGacquisitionboard,knownasthe32bitBoard,thatretailedforunder$500.Twoyearslatertheycreatedthefirst3D-printedEEGHeadset,knownastheUltracortex,aswellasa4-channelEEGacquisitionboard,knownastheGanglionBoard,thatretailedforunder$100. MEGandMRI[edit] Mainarticles:MagnetoencephalographyandMagneticresonanceimaging ATRLabs'reconstructionofhumanvisionusingfMRI(toprow:originalimage;bottomrow:reconstructionfrommeanofcombinedreadings) Magnetoencephalography(MEG)andfunctionalmagneticresonanceimaging(fMRI)havebothbeenusedsuccessfullyasnon-invasiveBCIs.[136]Inawidelyreportedexperiment,fMRIallowedtwousersbeingscannedtoplayPonginreal-timebyalteringtheirhaemodynamicresponseorbrainbloodflowthroughbiofeedbacktechniques.[137] fMRImeasurementsofhaemodynamicresponsesinrealtimehavealsobeenusedtocontrolrobotarmswithaseven-seconddelaybetweenthoughtandmovement.[138] In2008researchdevelopedintheAdvancedTelecommunicationsResearch(ATR)ComputationalNeuroscienceLaboratoriesinKyoto,Japan,allowedthescientiststoreconstructimagesdirectlyfromthebrainanddisplaythemonacomputerinblackandwhiteataresolutionof10x10pixels.ThearticleannouncingtheseachievementswasthecoverstoryofthejournalNeuronof10December2008.[139] In2011researchersfromUCBerkeleypublished[140]astudyreportingsecond-by-secondreconstructionofvideoswatchedbythestudy'ssubjects,fromfMRIdata.Thiswasachievedbycreatingastatisticalmodelrelatingvisualpatternsinvideosshowntothesubjects,tothebrainactivitycausedbywatchingthevideos.Thismodelwasthenusedtolookupthe100one-secondvideosegments,inadatabaseof18millionsecondsofrandomYouTubevideos,whosevisualpatternsmostcloselymatchedthebrainactivityrecordedwhensubjectswatchedanewvideo.These100one-secondvideoextractswerethencombinedintoamashed-upimagethatresembledthevideobeingwatched.[141][142][143] BCIcontrolstrategiesinneurogaming[edit] Motorimagery[edit] Motorimageryinvolvestheimaginationofthemovementofvariousbodypartsresultinginsensorimotorcortexactivation,whichmodulatessensorimotoroscillationsintheEEG.ThiscanbedetectedbytheBCItoinferauser'sintent.MotorimagerytypicallyrequiresanumberofsessionsoftrainingbeforeacceptablecontroloftheBCIisacquired.Thesetrainingsessionsmaytakeanumberofhoursoverseveraldaysbeforeuserscanconsistentlyemploythetechniquewithacceptablelevelsofprecision.Regardlessofthedurationofthetrainingsession,usersareunabletomasterthecontrolscheme.Thisresultsinveryslowpaceofthegameplay.[144]Advancedmachinelearningmethodswererecentlydevelopedtocomputeasubject-specificmodelfordetectingtheperformanceofmotorimagery.ThetopperformingalgorithmfromBCICompetitionIV[145]dataset2formotorimageryistheFilterBankCommonSpatialPattern,developedbyAngetal.fromA*STAR,Singapore).[146] Bio/neurofeedbackforpassiveBCIdesigns[edit] Biofeedbackisusedtomonitorasubject'smentalrelaxation.Insomecases,biofeedbackdoesnotmonitorelectroencephalography(EEG),butinsteadbodilyparameterssuchaselectromyography(EMG),galvanicskinresistance(GSR),andheartratevariability(HRV).Manybiofeedbacksystemsareusedtotreatcertaindisorderssuchasattentiondeficithyperactivitydisorder(ADHD),sleepproblemsinchildren,teethgrinding,andchronicpain.EEGbiofeedbacksystemstypicallymonitorfourdifferentbands(theta:4–7 Hz,alpha:8–12 Hz,SMR:12–15 Hz,beta:15–18 Hz)andchallengethesubjecttocontrolthem.PassiveBCI[54]involvesusingBCItoenrichhuman–machineinteractionwithimplicitinformationontheactualuser'sstate,forexample,simulationstodetectwhenusersintendtopushbrakesduringanemergencycarstoppingprocedure.GamedevelopersusingpassiveBCIsneedtoacknowledgethatthroughrepetitionofgamelevelstheuser'scognitivestatewillchangeoradapt.Withinthefirstplay ofalevel,theuserwillreacttothingsdifferentlyfromduringthesecondplay:forexample,theuserwillbelesssurprisedataneventinthegameiftheyareexpectingit.[144] Visualevokedpotential(VEP)[edit] AVEPisanelectricalpotentialrecordedafterasubjectispresentedwithatypeofvisualstimuli.ThereareseveraltypesofVEPs. Steady-statevisuallyevokedpotentials(SSVEPs)usepotentialsgeneratedbyexcitingtheretina,usingvisualstimulimodulatedatcertainfrequencies.SSVEP'sstimuliareoftenformedfromalternatingcheckerboardpatternsandattimessimplyuseflashingimages.ThefrequencyofthephasereversalofthestimulususedcanbeclearlydistinguishedinthespectrumofanEEG;thismakesdetectionofSSVEPstimulirelativelyeasy.SSVEPhasprovedtobesuccessfulwithinmanyBCIsystems.Thisisduetoseveralfactors,thesignalelicitedismeasurableinaslargeapopulationasthetransientVEPandblinkmovementandelectrocardiographicartefactsdonotaffectthefrequenciesmonitored.Inaddition,theSSVEPsignalisexceptionallyrobust;thetopographicorganizationoftheprimaryvisualcortexissuchthatabroaderareaobtainsafferentsfromthecentralorfovialregionofthevisualfield.SSVEPdoeshaveseveralproblemshowever.AsSSVEPsuseflashingstimulitoinferauser'sintent,theusermustgazeatoneoftheflashingoriteratingsymbolsinordertointeractwiththesystem.Itis,therefore,likelythatthesymbolscouldbecomeirritatinganduncomfortabletouseduringlongerplaysessions,whichcanoftenlastmorethananhourwhichmaynotbeanidealgameplay. AnothertypeofVEPusedwithapplicationsistheP300potential.TheP300event-relatedpotentialisapositivepeakintheEEGthatoccursatroughly300msaftertheappearanceofatargetstimulus(astimulusforwhichtheuseriswaitingorseeking)oroddballstimuli.TheP300amplitudedecreasesasthetargetstimuliandtheignoredstimuligrowmoresimilar.TheP300isthoughttoberelatedtoahigherlevelattentionprocessoranorientingresponseusingP300asacontrolschemehastheadvantageoftheparticipantonlyhavingtoattendlimitedtrainingsessions.ThefirstapplicationtousetheP300modelwastheP300matrix.Withinthissystem,asubjectwouldchoosealetterfromagridof6by6lettersandnumbers.Therowsandcolumnsofthegridflashedsequentiallyandeverytimetheselected"choiceletter"wasilluminatedtheuser'sP300was(potentially)elicited.However,thecommunicationprocess,atapproximately17charactersperminute,wasquiteslow.TheP300isaBCIthatoffersadiscreteselectionratherthanacontinuouscontrolmechanism.TheadvantageofP300usewithingamesisthattheplayerdoesnothavetoteachhimself/herselfhowtouseacompletelynewcontrolsystemandsoonlyhastoundertakeshorttraininginstances,tolearnthegameplaymechanicsandbasicuseoftheBCIparadigm.[144] Synthetictelepathy/silentcommunication[edit] Ina$6.3millionUSArmyinitiativetoinventdevicesfortelepathiccommunication,GerwinSchalk,underwrittenina$2.2milliongrant,foundtheuseofECoGsignalscandiscriminatethevowelsandconsonantsembeddedinspokenandimaginedwords,sheddinglightonthedistinctmechanismsassociatedwithproductionofvowelsandconsonants,andcouldprovidethebasisforbrain-basedcommunicationusingimaginedspeech.[95][147] In2002KevinWarwickhadanarrayof100electrodesfiredintohisnervoussysteminordertolinkhisnervoussystemintotheInternettoinvestigateenhancementpossibilities.WiththisinplaceWarwicksuccessfullycarriedoutaseriesofexperiments.Withelectrodesalsoimplantedintohiswife'snervoussystem,theyconductedthefirstdirectelectroniccommunicationexperimentbetweenthenervoussystemsoftwohumans.[148][149][150][151] Anothergroupofresearcherswasabletoachieveconsciousbrain-to-braincommunicationbetweentwopeopleseparatedbyadistanceusingnon-invasivetechnologythatwasincontactwiththescalpoftheparticipants.Thewordswereencodedbybinarystreamsusingthesequencesof0'sand1'sbytheimaginarymotorinputoftheperson"emitting"theinformation.Astheresultofthisexperiment,pseudo-randombitsoftheinformationcarriedencodedwords"hola"("hi"inSpanish)and"ciao"("goodbye"inItalian)andweretransmittedmind-to-mindbetweenhumansseparatedbyadistance,withblockedmotorandsensorysystems,whichhaslowtonoprobabilityofthishappeningbychance.[1] ResearchintosynthetictelepathyusingsubvocalizationistakingplaceattheUniversityofCalifornia,IrvineunderleadscientistMikeD'Zmura.Thefirstsuchcommunicationtookplaceinthe1960susingEEGtocreateMorsecodeusingbrainalphawaves.UsingEEGtocommunicateimaginedspeechislessaccuratethantheinvasivemethodofplacinganelectrodebetweentheskullandthebrain.[152][153]On27February2013thegroupwithMiguelNicolelisatDukeUniversityandIINN-ELSsuccessfullyconnectedthebrainsoftworatswithelectronicinterfacesthatallowedthemtodirectlyshareinformation,inthefirst-everdirectbrain-to-braininterface.[154][155][156] Cell-cultureBCIs[edit] Mainarticle:Culturedneuronalnetwork Researchershavebuiltdevicestointerfacewithneuralcellsandentireneuralnetworksinculturesoutsideanimals.Aswellasfurtheringresearchonanimalimplantabledevices,experimentsonculturedneuraltissuehavefocusedonbuildingproblem-solvingnetworks,constructingbasiccomputersandmanipulatingroboticdevices.Researchintotechniquesforstimulatingandrecordingfromindividualneuronsgrownonsemiconductorchipsissometimesreferredtoasneuroelectronicsorneurochips.[157] Theworld'sfirstNeurochip,developedbyCaltechresearchersJeromePineandMichaelMaher DevelopmentofthefirstworkingneurochipwasclaimedbyaCaltechteamledbyJeromePineandMichaelMaherin1997.[158]TheCaltechchiphadroomfor16neurons. In2003ateamledbyTheodoreBerger,attheUniversityofSouthernCalifornia,startedworkonaneurochipdesignedtofunctionasanartificialorprosthetichippocampus.Theneurochipwasdesignedtofunctioninratbrainsandwasintendedasaprototypefortheeventualdevelopmentofhigher-brainprosthesis.Thehippocampuswaschosenbecauseitisthoughttobethemostorderedandstructuredpartofthebrainandisthemoststudiedarea.Itsfunctionistoencodeexperiencesforstorageaslong-termmemorieselsewhereinthebrain.[159] In2004ThomasDeMarseattheUniversityofFloridausedacultureof25,000neuronstakenfromarat'sbraintoflyaF-22fighterjetaircraftsimulator.[160]Aftercollection,thecorticalneuronswereculturedinapetridishandrapidlybegantoreconnectthemselvestoformalivingneuralnetwork.Thecellswerearrangedoveragridof60electrodesandusedtocontrolthepitchandyawfunctionsofthesimulator.Thestudy'sfocuswasonunderstandinghowthehumanbrainperformsandlearnscomputationaltasksatacellularlevel. CollaborativeBCIs[edit] Theideaofcombining/integratingbrainsignalsfrommultipleindividualswasintroducedatHumanity+@Caltech,inDecember2010,byaCaltechresearcheratJPL,AdrianStoica;Stoicareferredtotheconceptasmulti-brainaggregation.[161][162][163]AprovisionalpatentapplicationwasfiledonJanuary19,2011,withthenon-provisionalpatentfollowingoneyearlater.[164]InMay2011,YijunWangandTzyy-PingJungpublished,“ACollaborativeBrain-ComputerInterfaceforImprovingHumanPerformance",andinJanuary2012MiguelEcksteinpublished,“Neuraldecodingofcollectivewisdomwithmulti-braincomputing”.[165][166]Stoica'sfirstpaperonthetopicappearedin2012,afterthepublicationofhispatentapplication.[167]Giventhetimingofthepublicationsbetweenthepatentandpapers,Stoica,Wang&Jung,andEcksteinindependentlypioneeredtheconcept,andareallconsideredasfoundersofthefield.Later,StoicawouldcollaboratewithUniversityofEssexresearchers,RiccardoPoliandCaterinaCinel.[168][169]TheworkwascontinuedbyPoliandCinel,andtheirstudents:AnaMatran-Fernandez,DavideValeriani,andSaugatBhattacharyya.[170][171][172] Ethicalconsiderations[edit] Sources:[173][174][175][176][177] User-centricissues[edit] Long-termeffectstotheuserremainlargelyunknown. Obtaininginformedconsentfrompeoplewhohavedifficultycommunicating. TheconsequencesofBCItechnologyforthequalityoflifeofpatientsandtheirfamilies. Health-relatedside-effects(e.g.neurofeedbackofsensorimotorrhythmtrainingisreportedtoaffectsleepquality). Therapeuticapplicationsandtheirpotentialmisuse. Safetyrisks Non-convertibilityofsomeofthechangesmadetothebrain Legalandsocial[edit] Issuesofaccountabilityandresponsibility:claimsthattheinfluenceofBCIsoverridesfreewillandcontroloversensory-motoractions,claimsthatcognitiveintentionwasinaccuratelytranslatedduetoaBCImalfunction. Personalitychangesinvolvedcausedbydeep-brainstimulation. Concernsregardingthestateofbecominga"cyborg"-havingpartsofthebodythatarelivingandpartsthataremechanical. Questionspersonality:whatdoesitmeantobeahuman? Blurringofthedivisionbetweenhumanandmachineandinabilitytodistinguishbetweenhumanvs.machine-controlledactions. Useofthetechnologyinadvancedinterrogationtechniquesbygovernmentalauthorities. Selectiveenhancementandsocialstratification. Questionsofresearchethicsregardinganimalexperimentation Questionsofresearchethicsthatarisewhenprogressingfromanimalexperimentationtoapplicationinhumansubjects. Moralquestions Mindreadingandprivacy. Trackingand"taggingsystem" Mindcontrol. Movementcontrol Emotioncontrol Intheircurrentform,mostBCIsarefarremovedfromtheethicalissuesconsideredabove.Theyareactuallysimilartocorrectivetherapiesinfunction.Clausenstatedin2009that"BCIsposeethicalchallenges,buttheseareconceptuallysimilartothosethatbioethicistshaveaddressedforotherrealmsoftherapy".[173]Moreover,hesuggeststhatbioethicsiswell-preparedtodealwiththeissuesthatarisewithBCItechnologies.Haselagerandcolleagues[174]pointedoutthatexpectationsofBCIefficacyandvalueplayagreatroleinethicalanalysisandthewayBCIscientistsshouldapproachmedia.Furthermore,standardprotocolscanbeimplementedtoensureethicallysoundinformed-consentprocedureswithlocked-inpatients. ThecaseofBCIstodayhasparallelsinmedicine,aswillitsevolution.Similartohowpharmaceuticalsciencebeganasabalanceforimpairmentsandisnowusedtoincreasefocusandreduceneedforsleep,BCIswilllikelytransformgraduallyfromtherapiestoenhancements.[176]EffortsaremadeinsidetheBCIcommunitytocreateconsensusonethicalguidelinesforBCIresearch,developmentanddissemination.[177]Asinnovationcontinues,ensuringequitableaccesstoBCIswillbecrucial,failingwhichgenerationalinequalitiescanarisewhichcanadverselyaffecttherighttohumanflourishing.[178] TheethicalconsiderationsofBCIsareessentialtothedevelopmentoffutureimplanteddevices.End-users,ethicists,researchers,fundingagencies,physicians,corporations,andallothersinvolvedinBCIuseshouldconsidertheanticipated,andunanticipated,changesthatBCIswillhaveonhumanautonomy,identity,privacy,andmore.[70] Low-costBCI-basedinterfaces[edit] Mainarticle:Consumerbrain–computerinterfaces RecentlyanumberofcompanieshavescaledbackmedicalgradeEEGtechnologytocreateinexpensiveBCIsforresearchaswellasentertainmentpurposes.Forexample,toyssuchastheNeuroSkyandMattelMindFlexhaveseensomecommercialsuccess. In2006Sonypatentedaneuralinterfacesystemallowingradiowavestoaffectsignalsintheneuralcortex.[179] In2007NeuroSkyreleasedthefirstaffordableconsumerbasedEEGalongwiththegameNeuroBoy.ThiswasalsothefirstlargescaleEEGdevicetousedrysensortechnology.[180] In2008OCZTechnologydevelopedadeviceforuseinvideogamesrelyingprimarilyonelectromyography.[181] In2008FinalFantasydeveloperSquareEnixannouncedthatitwaspartneringwithNeuroSkytocreateagame,Judecca.[182][183] In2009MattelpartneredwithNeuroSkytoreleasetheMindflex,agamethatusedanEEGtosteeraballthroughanobstaclecourse.ItisbyfarthebestsellingconsumerbasedEEGtodate.[182][184] In2009UncleMiltonIndustriespartneredwithNeuroSkytoreleasetheStarWarsForceTrainer,agamedesignedtocreatetheillusionofpossessingtheForce.[182][185] In2009EmotivreleasedtheEPOC,a14channelEEGdevicethatcanread4mentalstates,13consciousstates,facialexpressions,andheadmovements.TheEPOCisthefirstcommercialBCItousedrysensortechnology,whichcanbedampenedwithasalinesolutionforabetterconnection.[186] InNovember2011Timemagazineselected"necomimi"producedbyNeurowearasoneofthebestinventionsoftheyear.Thecompanyannouncedthatitexpectedtolaunchaconsumerversionofthegarment,consistingofcatlikeearscontrolledbyabrain-wavereaderproducedbyNeuroSky,inspring2012.[187] InFebruary2014TheyShallWalk(anonprofitorganizationfixedonconstructingexoskeletons,dubbedLIFESUITs,forparaplegicsandquadriplegics)beganapartnershipwithJamesW.ShakarjionthedevelopmentofawirelessBCI.[188] In2016,agroupofhobbyistsdevelopedanopen-sourceBCIboardthatsendsneuralsignalstotheaudiojackofasmartphone,droppingthecostofentry-levelBCIto£20.[189]BasicdiagnosticsoftwareisavailableforAndroiddevices,aswellasatextentryappforUnity.[190] In2020,NextMindreleasedadevkitincludinganEEGheadsetwithdryelectrodesat$399.[191][192]ThedevicecanbeplayedwithsomedemoapplicationsordeveloperscancreatetheirownusecasesusingtheprovidedSoftwareDevelopmentKit. Futuredirections[edit] Brain-computerinterface Aconsortiumconsistingof12EuropeanpartnershascompletedaroadmaptosupporttheEuropeanCommissionintheirfundingdecisionsforthenewframeworkprogramHorizon2020.Theproject,whichwasfundedbytheEuropeanCommission,startedinNovember2013andpublishedaroadmapinApril2015.[193]A2015publicationledbyDr.ClemensBrunnerdescribessomeoftheanalysesandachievementsofthisproject,aswellastheemergingBrain-ComputerInterfaceSociety.[194]Forexample,thisarticlereviewedworkwithinthisprojectthatfurtherdefinedBCIsandapplications,exploredrecenttrends,discussedethicalissues,andevaluateddifferentdirectionsfornewBCIs. OtherrecentpublicationstoohaveexploredfutureBCIdirectionsfornewgroupsofdisabledusers(e.g.,[10][195] Disordersofconsciousness(DOC)[edit] Somepersonshaveadisorderofconsciousness(DOC).Thisstateisdefinedtoincludepersonswithcoma,aswellaspersonsinavegetativestate(VS)orminimallyconsciousstate(MCS).NewBCIresearchseekstohelppersonswithDOCindifferentways.Akeyinitialgoalistoidentifypatientswhoareabletoperformbasiccognitivetasks,whichwouldofcourseleadtoachangeintheirdiagnosis.Thatis,somepersonswhoarediagnosedwithDOCmayinfactbeabletoprocessinformationandmakeimportantlifedecisions(suchaswhethertoseektherapy,wheretolive,andtheirviewsonend-of-lifedecisionsregardingthem).SomepersonswhoarediagnosedwithDOCdieasaresultofend-of-lifedecisions,whichmaybemadebyfamilymemberswhosincerelyfeelthisisinthepatient'sbestinterests.Giventhenewprospectofallowingthesepatientstoprovidetheirviewsonthisdecision,therewouldseemtobeastrongethicalpressuretodevelopthisresearchdirectiontoguaranteethatDOCpatientsaregivenanopportunitytodecidewhethertheywanttolive.[196][197] TheseandotherarticlesdescribenewchallengesandsolutionstouseBCItechnologytohelppersonswithDOC.OnemajorchallengeisthatthesepatientscannotuseBCIsbasedonvision.Hence,newtoolsrelyonauditoryand/orvibrotactilestimuli.Patientsmaywearheadphonesand/orvibrotactilestimulatorsplacedonthewrists,neck,leg,and/orotherlocations.Anotherchallengeisthatpatientsmayfadeinandoutofconsciousness,andcanonlycommunicateatcertaintimes.Thismayindeedbeacauseofmistakendiagnosis.Somepatientsmayonlybeabletorespondtophysicians'requestsduringafewhoursperday(whichmightnotbepredictableaheadoftime)andthusmayhavebeenunresponsiveduringdiagnosis.Therefore,newmethodsrelyontoolsthatareeasytouseinfieldsettings,evenwithoutexperthelp,sofamilymembersandotherpersonswithoutanymedicalortechnicalbackgroundcanstillusethem.Thisreducesthecost,time,needforexpertise,andotherburdenswithDOCassessment.Automatedtoolscanasksimplequestionsthatpatientscaneasilyanswer,suchas"IsyourfathernamedGeorge?"or"WereyoubornintheUSA?"Automatedinstructionsinformpatientsthattheymayconveyyesornoby(forexample)focusingtheirattentiononstimuliontherightvs.leftwrist.ThisfocusedattentionproducesreliablechangesinEEGpatternsthatcanhelpdeterminethatthepatientisabletocommunicate.Theresultscouldbepresentedtophysiciansandtherapists,whichcouldleadtoareviseddiagnosisandtherapy.Inaddition,thesepatientscouldthenbeprovidedwithBCI-basedcommunicationtoolsthatcouldhelpthemconveybasicneeds,adjustbedpositionandHVAC(heating,ventilation,andairconditioning),andotherwiseempowerthemtomakemajorlifedecisionsandcommunicate.[198][199][200] Motorrecovery[edit] Peoplemaylosesomeoftheirabilitytomoveduetomanycauses,suchasstrokeorinjury.ResearchinrecentyearshasdemonstratedtheutilityofEEG-basedBCIsystemsinaidingmotorrecoveryandneurorehabilitationinpatientswhohavehadastroke.[201][202][203][204]SeveralgroupshaveexploredsystemsandmethodsformotorrecoverythatincludeBCIs.[205][206][207][208]Inthisapproach,aBCImeasuresmotoractivitywhilethepatientimaginesorattemptsmovementsasdirectedbyatherapist.TheBCImayprovidetwobenefits:(1)iftheBCIindicatesthatapatientisnotimaginingamovementcorrectly(non-compliance),thentheBCIcouldinformthepatientandtherapist;and(2)rewardingfeedbacksuchasfunctionalstimulationorthemovementofavirtualavataralsodependsonthepatient'scorrectmovementimagery. Sofar,BCIsformotorrecoveryhavereliedontheEEGtomeasurethepatient'smotorimagery.However,studieshavealsousedfMRItostudydifferentchangesinthebrainaspersonsundergoBCI-basedstrokerehabtraining.[209][210][211]ImagingstudiescombinedwithEEG-basedBCIsystemsholdpromiseforinvestigatingneuroplasticityduringmotorrecoverypost-stroke.[211]FuturesystemsmightincludethefMRIandothermeasuresforreal-timecontrol,suchasfunctionalnear-infrared,probablyintandemwithEEGs.Non-invasivebrainstimulationhasalsobeenexploredincombinationwithBCIsformotorrecovery.[212]In2016,scientistsoutoftheUniversityofMelbournepublishedpreclinicalproof-of-conceptdatarelatedtoapotentialbrain-computerinterfacetechnologyplatformbeingdevelopedforpatientswithparalysistofacilitatecontrolofexternaldevicessuchasroboticlimbs,computersandexoskeletonsbytranslatingbrainactivity.[213][214]Clinicaltrialsarecurrentlyunderway.[215] Functionalbrainmapping[edit] Eachyear,about400,000peopleundergobrainmappingduringneurosurgery.Thisprocedureisoftenrequiredforpeoplewithtumorsorepilepsythatdonotrespondtomedication.[216]Duringthisprocedure,electrodesareplacedonthebraintopreciselyidentifythelocationsofstructuresandfunctionalareas.Patientsmaybeawakeduringneurosurgeryandaskedtoperformcertaintasks,suchasmovingfingersorrepeatingwords.Thisisnecessarysothatsurgeonscanremoveonlythedesiredtissuewhilesparingotherregions,suchascriticalmovementorlanguageregions.Removingtoomuchbraintissuecancausepermanentdamage,whileremovingtoolittletissuecanleavetheunderlyingconditionuntreatedandrequireadditionalneurosurgery.Thus,thereisastrongneedtoimprovebothmethodsandsystemstomapthebrainaseffectivelyaspossible. Inseveralrecentpublications,BCIresearchexpertsandmedicaldoctorshavecollaboratedtoexplorenewwaystouseBCItechnologytoimproveneurosurgicalmapping.Thisworkfocuseslargelyonhighgammaactivity,whichisdifficulttodetectwithnon-invasivemeans.Resultshaveledtoimprovedmethodsforidentifyingkeyareasformovement,language,andotherfunctions.Arecentarticleaddressedadvancesinfunctionalbrainmappingandsummarizesaworkshop.[217] Flexibledevices[edit] Flexibleelectronicsarepolymersorotherflexiblematerials(e.g.silk,[218]pentacene,PDMS,Parylene,polyimide[219])thatareprintedwithcircuitry;theflexiblenatureoftheorganicbackgroundmaterialsallowingtheelectronicscreatedtobend,andthefabricationtechniquesusedtocreatethesedevicesresemblesthoseusedtocreateintegratedcircuitsandmicroelectromechanicalsystems(MEMS).[citationneeded]Flexibleelectronicswerefirstdevelopedinthe1960sand1970s,butresearchinterestincreasedinthemid-2000s.[220] Flexibleneuralinterfaceshavebeenextensivelytestedinrecentyearsinanefforttominimizebraintissuetraumarelatedtomechanicalmismatchbetweenelectrodeandtissue.[221]Minimizingtissuetraumacould,intheory,extendthelifespanofBCIsrelyingonflexibleelectrode-tissueinterfaces. Neuraldust[edit] Mainarticle:Neuraldust Neuraldustisatermusedtorefertomillimeter-sizeddevicesoperatedaswirelesslypowerednervesensorsthatwereproposedina2011paperfromtheUniversityofCalifornia,BerkeleyWirelessResearchCenter,whichdescribedboththechallengesandoutstandingbenefitsofcreatingalonglastingwirelessBCI.[222][223]Inoneproposedmodeloftheneuraldustsensor,thetransistormodelallowedforamethodofseparatingbetweenlocalfieldpotentialsandactionpotential"spikes",whichwouldallowforagreatlydiversifiedwealthofdataacquirablefromtherecordings.[222] Seealso[edit] Informatics AlterEgo,asystemthatreadsunspokenverbalizationsandrespondswithbone-conductionheadphones Augmentedlearning Biologicalmachine Corticalimplants Deepbrainstimulation Humansenses Kernel(neurotechnologycompany) Liedetection Microwaveauditoryeffect Neuralengineering Neuralink Neurorobotics Neurostimulation Nootropic ProjectCyborg Simulatedreality Telepresence Thoughtidentification Wholebrainemulation Notes[edit] 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Furtherreading[edit] Brouse,Andrew."AYoungPerson'sGuidetoBrainwaveMusic:FortyyearsofaudiofromthehumanEEG".eContact!14.2–BiotechnologicalPerformancePractice/Pratiquesdeperformancebiotechnologique(July2012).Montréal:CEC. Gupta,CotaNavinandRamaswamyPalanappian."UsingHigh-FrequencyElectroencephalograminVisualandAuditory-BasedBrain-ComputerInterfaceDesigns".[permanentdeadlink]eContact!14.2–BiotechnologicalPerformancePractice/Pratiquesdeperformancebiotechnologique(July2012).Montréal:CEC. Ouzounian,Gascia."TheBiomuseTrioinConversation:AnInterviewwithR.BenjaminKnappandEricLyon".eContact!14.2–BiotechnologicalPerformancePractice/Pratiquesdeperformancebiotechnologique(July2012).Montréal:CEC. Externallinks[edit] WikimediaCommonshasmediarelatedtoBrain-computerinterfaces. ScholiahasatopicprofileforBrain–computerinterface. 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