Monsoon - Wikipedia

Northeast monsoon Monsoon FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Seasonalchangesinatmosphericcirculationandprecipitation Thisarticleisabouttheseasonalwinds.Forotheruses,seeMonsoon(disambiguation). "Habagat"redirectshere.ForthePhilippineMerchantMarineAcademyvesselRPLSHabagat,seeUSFWSHughM.Smith. AdvancingmonsooncloudsandshowersinAralvaimozhy,nearNagercoil,India MonsooncloudsarrivingatPortBlair,Andaman,India PartofaseriesonWeather Temperateandpolarseasons Winter Spring Summer Autumn Tropicalseasons Dryseason Harmattan Wetseason Storms Cloud Cumulonimbuscloud Arcuscloud Downburst Microburst Heatburst Derecho Lightning Volcaniclightning Thunderstorm Air-massthunderstorm Thundersnow Drythunderstorm Mesocyclone Supercell Tornado Anticyclonictornado Landspout Waterspout Dustdevil Firewhirl Anticyclone Cyclone Polarlow Extratropicalcyclone Europeanwindstorm Nor'easter Subtropicalcyclone Tropicalcyclone Atlantichurricane Typhoon Stormsurge Duststorm Simoom Haboob Monsoon Amihan Gale Sirocco Firestorm Winterstorm Icestorm Blizzard Groundblizzard Snowsquall Precipitation Drizzle Freezing Graupel Hail Megacryometeor Icepellets Diamonddust Rain Freezing Cloudburst Snow Rainandsnowmixed Snowgrains Snowroller Slush Topics Airpollution Atmosphere Chemistry Convection Physics River Climate Cloud Physics Fog Fogseason Coldwave Heatwave Jetstream Meteorology Severeweather List Extreme Severeweatherterminology Canada Japan UnitedStates Weatherforecasting Weathermodification Glossaries Meteorology Climatechange Tornadoterms Tropicalcycloneterms  Weatherportalvte Amonsoon(/mɒnˈsuːn/)istraditionallyaseasonalreversingwindaccompaniedbycorrespondingchangesinprecipitation,[1]butisnowusedtodescribeseasonalchangesinatmosphericcirculationandprecipitationassociatedwithannuallatitudinaloscillationoftheIntertropicalConvergenceZonebetweenitslimitstothenorthandsouthoftheequator.Usually,thetermmonsoonisusedtorefertotherainyphaseofaseasonallychangingpattern,althoughtechnicallythereisalsoadryphase.Thetermisalsosometimesusedtodescribelocallyheavybutshort-termrains.[2][3] ThemajormonsoonsystemsoftheworldconsistoftheWestAfricanandAsia–Australianmonsoons.TheinclusionoftheNorthAmericanMonsoonandSouthAmericanmonsoonwithincompletewindreversalhasbeendebated.[4] ThetermwasfirstusedinEnglishinBritishIndiaandneighbouringcountriestorefertothebigseasonalwindsblowingfromtheBayofBengalandArabianSeainthesouthwestbringingheavyrainfalltothearea.[5][6] Contents 1Etymology 2History 3Strengthofimpact 4Process 5Globalmonsoon 5.1Summarytable 5.2Africa(WestAfricanandSoutheastAfrican) 5.3NorthAmerica 5.4Asia 5.4.1SouthAsianmonsoon 5.4.1.1Southwestmonsoon 5.4.1.2Northeastmonsoon 5.4.2EastAsianMonsoon 5.5Australia 5.6Europe 6Seealso 7References 8Furtherreading 9Externallinks Etymology MonsooncloudsoverLucknow,UttarPradesh,India Theetymologyofthewordmonsoonisnotwhollycertain.[7]TheEnglishmonsooncamefromPortuguesemonçãoultimatelyfromArabicموسم(mawsim,"season"),"perhapspartlyviaearlymodernDutchmonson".[8] History StrengtheningoftheAsianmonsoonhasbeenlinkedtotheupliftoftheTibetanPlateauafterthecollisionoftheIndiansubcontinentandAsiaaround50 millionyearsago.[9]BecauseofstudiesofrecordsfromtheArabianSeaandthatofthewind-blowndustintheLoessPlateauofChina,manygeologistsbelievethemonsoonfirstbecamestrongaround8 millionyearsago.Morerecently,studiesofplantfossilsinChinaandnewlong-durationsedimentrecordsfromtheSouthChinaSealedtoatimingofthemonsoonbeginning15–20 millionyearsagoandlinkedtoearlyTibetanuplift.[10]TestingofthishypothesisawaitsdeepoceansamplingbytheIntegratedOceanDrillingProgram.[11]Themonsoonhasvariedsignificantlyinstrengthsincethistime,largelylinkedtoglobalclimatechange,especiallythecycleofthePleistoceneiceages.[12]AstudyofmarineplanktonsuggestedthattheIndianMonsoonstrengthenedaround5 millionyearsago.Then,duringiceperiods,thesealevelfellandtheIndonesianSeawayclosed.Whenthishappened,coldwatersinthePacificwereimpededfromflowingintotheIndianOcean.ItisbelievedthattheresultingincreaseinseasurfacetemperaturesintheIndianOceanincreasedtheintensityofmonsoons.[13] FiveepisodesduringtheQuaternaryat2.22Ma([clarificationneeded]PL-1),1.83Ma(PL-2),0.68Ma(PL-3),0.45Ma(PL-4)and0.04Ma(PL-5)wereidentifiedwhichshowedaweakeningoftheLeeuwinCurrent(LC).TheweakeningoftheLCwouldhaveaneffectontheseasurfacetemperature(SST)fieldintheIndianOcean,astheIndonesianThroughflowgenerallywarmstheIndianOcean.ThusthesefiveintervalscouldprobablybethoseofconsiderableloweringofSSTintheIndianOceanandwouldhaveinfluencedIndianmonsoonintensity.DuringtheweakLC,thereisthepossibilityofreducedintensityoftheIndianwintermonsoonandstrongsummermonsoon,becauseofchangeintheIndianOceandipoleduetoreductioninnetheatinputtotheIndianOceanthroughtheIndonesianThroughflow.ThusabetterunderstandingofthepossiblelinksbetweenElNiño,WesternPacificWarmPool,IndonesianThroughflow,windpatternoffwesternAustralia,andicevolumeexpansionandcontractioncanbeobtainedbystudyingthebehaviouroftheLCduringQuaternaryatclosestratigraphicintervals.[14] Strengthofimpact OnMay28,inthedryseasonOnAugust28,intherainyseasonWesternGhatsin2010 ThisvisualizationshowstheAsianmonsoonandhowitdevelopsusingobservationalandmodeleddata.Italsoshowssomeoftheimpacts. Theimpactofmonsoononthelocalweatherisdifferentfromplacetoplace.Insomeplacesthereisjustalikelihoodofhavingalittlemoreorlessrain.Inotherplaces,quasisemi-desertsareturnedintovividgreengrasslandswhereallsortsofplantsandcropscanflourish. TheIndianMonsoonturnslargepartsofIndiafromakindofsemi-desertintogreenlands.SeephotosonlytakenthreemonthsapartintheWesternGhats.Inplaceslikethisitiscrucialforfarmerstohavetherighttimingforputtingtheseedsonthefields,asitisessentialtousealltherainthatisavailableforgrowingcrops. Process Monsoonswereonceconsideredasalarge-scaleseabreeze[15]causedbyhighertemperatureoverlandthanintheocean.Thisisnolongerconsideredasthecauseandthemonsoonisnowconsideredaplanetary-scalephenomenoninvolvingtheannualmigrationoftheIntertropicalConvergenceZonebetweenitsnorthernandsouthernlimits.ThelimitsoftheITCZvaryaccordingtotheland–seaheatingcontrastanditisthoughtthatthenorthernextentofthemonsooninSouthAsiaisinfluencedbythehighTibetanPlateau.[16][17]Thesetemperatureimbalanceshappenbecauseoceansandlandabsorbheatindifferentways.Overoceans,theairtemperatureremainsrelativelystablefortworeasons:waterhasarelativelyhighheatcapacity(3.9to4.2Jg−1K−1),[18]andbecausebothconductionandconvectionwillequilibrateahotorcoldsurfacewithdeeperwater(upto50metres).Incontrast,dirt,sand,androckshavelowerheatcapacities(0.19to0.35Jg−1K−1),[19]andtheycanonlytransmitheatintotheearthbyconductionandnotbyconvection.Therefore,bodiesofwaterstayatamoreeventemperature,whilelandtemperaturearemorevariable. Duringwarmermonthssunlightheatsthesurfacesofbothlandandoceans,butlandtemperaturesrisemorequickly.Astheland'ssurfacebecomeswarmer,theairaboveitexpandsandanareaoflowpressuredevelops.Meanwhile,theoceanremainsatalowertemperaturethantheland,andtheairaboveitretainsahigherpressure.Thisdifferenceinpressurecausesseabreezestoblowfromtheoceantotheland,bringingmoistairinland.Thismoistairrisestoahigheraltitudeoverlandandthenitflowsbacktowardtheocean(thuscompletingthecycle).However,whentheairrises,andwhileitisstillovertheland,theaircools.Thisdecreasestheair'sabilitytoholdwater,andthiscausesprecipitationovertheland.Thisiswhysummermonsoonscausesomuchrainoverland. Inthecoldermonths,thecycleisreversed.Thenthelandcoolsfasterthantheoceansandtheairoverthelandhashigherpressurethanairovertheocean.Thiscausestheairoverthelandtoflowtotheocean.Whenhumidairrisesovertheocean,itcools,andthiscausesprecipitationovertheoceans.(Thecoolairthenflowstowardsthelandtocompletethecycle.) Mostsummermonsoonshaveadominantwesterlycomponentandastrongtendencytoascendandproducecopiousamountsofrain(becauseofthecondensationofwatervaporintherisingair).Theintensityandduration,however,arenotuniformfromyeartoyear.Wintermonsoons,bycontrast,haveadominanteasterlycomponentandastrongtendencytodiverge,subsideandcausedrought.[20] Similarrainfalliscausedwhenmoistoceanairisliftedupwardsbymountains,[21]surfaceheating,[22]convergenceatthesurface,[23]divergencealoft,orfromstorm-producedoutflowsatthesurface.[24]Howevertheliftingoccurs,theaircoolsduetoexpansioninlowerpressure,andthisproducescondensation. Globalmonsoon Summarytable Location Monsoon/sub-system Averagedateofarrival Averagedateofwithdrawal Notes NorthernMexico NorthAmerican/GulfofCalifornia-SouthwestUSA lateMay[25] September incompletewindreversal,waves Tucson,Arizona,USA NorthAmerican/GulfofCalifornia-SouthwestUSA earlyJuly[25] September incompletewindreversal,waves CentralAmerica Central/SouthAmericanMonsoon April[citationneeded] October[citationneeded] truemonsoon AmazonBrazil SouthAmericanmonsoon September[citationneeded] May[citationneeded] SoutheastBrazil SouthAmericanmonsoon November[citationneeded] March[citationneeded] WestAfrica WestAfrican June22[26] Sept[27]/October[26] waves SoutheastAfrica SoutheastAfricamonsoonw/Harmattan Jan[27] March[27] Kerala,India Indianmonsoon Jun1[28] Dec1[28] persistent Mumbai,India Indianmonsoon June10[28] Oct1[28] Karachi,Pakistan Indianmonsoon July15[28] August[28] Lahore,Pakistan Indianmonsoon lateJuly[28] Sep1[28] Phuket,Thailand Indo-Australian February/March December Colombo,SriLanka Indo-Australian May25[28] Dec15[28] persistent Bangkok,Thailand Indo-Australian/Indian-Indochina April–May October/November persistent Yangon,Myanmar Indo-Australian/Indian-Indochina May25[28] Nov1[28] Dhaka,Bangladesh Indo-Australian/Indian-Indochina mid-June October abrupt Cebu,Philippines Indo-Australian/Borneo-Australian October March abrupt Kelantan,Malaysia Indo-Australian/Borneo-Australian October March Jakarta,Indonesia Indo-Australian/Borneo-Australian November March abrupt Kaohsiung,Taiwan EastAsianmonsoon May10[28] Taipei,Taiwan EastAsianmonsoon May20[28] Hanoi,Vietnam EastAsianmonsoon May20[28] Kagoshima,Japan EastAsianmonsoon Jun10[28] Seoul,SouthKorea EastAsianmonsoon July10[28] Beijing,China EastAsianmonsoon July20[28] Darwin,Australia Australianmonsoon Oct[27] April[27] Africa(WestAfricanandSoutheastAfrican) SoutheastAfricanmonsoonclouds,overMayotteisland ThemonsoonofwesternSub-SaharanAfricaistheresultoftheseasonalshiftsoftheIntertropicalConvergenceZoneandthegreatseasonaltemperatureandhumiditydifferencesbetweentheSaharaandtheequatorialAtlanticOcean.[29]TheITCZmigratesnorthwardfromtheequatorialAtlanticinFebruary,reacheswesternAfricaonornearJune22,thenmovesbacktothesouthbyOctober.[26]Thedry,northeasterlytradewinds,andtheirmoreextremeform,theharmattan,areinterruptedbythenorthernshiftintheITCZandresultantsoutherly,rain-bearingwindsduringthesummer.ThesemiaridSahelandSudandependuponthispatternformostoftheirprecipitation. NorthAmerica Mainarticles:NorthAmericanMonsoonandUnitedStatesrainfallclimatology IncomingmonsooncloudsoverPhoenix,Arizona Three-secondvideoofalightningstrikewithinathunderstormoverIslandintheSky,CanyonlandsNationalPark TheNorthAmericanmonsoon(NAM)occursfromlateJuneorearlyJulyintoSeptember,originatingoverMexicoandspreadingintothesouthwestUnitedStatesbymid-July.ItaffectsMexicoalongtheSierraMadreOccidentalaswellasArizona,NewMexico,Nevada,Utah,Colorado,WestTexasandCalifornia.ItpushesasfarwestasthePeninsularRangesandTransverseRangesofSouthernCalifornia,butrarelyreachesthecoastalstrip(awallofdesertthunderstormsonlyahalf-hour'sdriveawayisacommonsummersightfromthesunnyskiesalongthecoastduringthemonsoon).TheNorthAmericanmonsoonisknowntomanyastheSummer,Southwest,MexicanorArizonamonsoon.[30][31]ItisalsosometimescalledtheDesertmonsoonasalargepartoftheaffectedareaaretheMojaveandSonorandeserts.However,itisdebatablewhethertheNorthandSouthAmericanweatherpatternswithincompletewindreversalshouldbecountedastruemonsoons.[4] Asia TheAsianmonsoonsmaybeclassifiedintoafewsub-systems,suchastheIndianSubcontinentalMonsoonwhichaffectstheIndiansubcontinentandsurroundingregionsincludingNepal,andtheEastAsianMonsoonwhichaffectssouthernChina,Taiwan,KoreaandpartsofJapan. SouthAsianmonsoon Mainarticle:MonsoonofSouthAsia Southwestmonsoon OnsetdatesandprevailingwindcurrentsofthesouthwestsummermonsoonsinIndia ThesouthwesternsummermonsoonsoccurfromJulythroughSeptember.TheTharDesertandadjoiningareasofthenorthernandcentralIndiansubcontinentheatupconsiderablyduringthehotsummers.ThiscausesalowpressureareaoverthenorthernandcentralIndiansubcontinent.Tofillthisvoid,themoisture-ladenwindsfromtheIndianOceanrushintothesubcontinent.Thesewinds,richinmoisture,aredrawntowardstheHimalayas.TheHimalayasactlikeahighwall,blockingthewindsfrompassingintoCentralAsia,andforcingthemtorise.Asthecloudsrise,theirtemperaturedrops,andprecipitationoccurs.Someareasofthesubcontinentreceiveupto10,000 mm(390 in)ofrainannually. ThesouthwestmonsoonisgenerallyexpectedtobeginaroundthebeginningofJuneandfadeawaybytheendofSeptember.Themoisture-ladenwindsonreachingthesouthernmostpointoftheIndianPeninsula,duetoitstopography,becomedividedintotwoparts:theArabianSeaBranchandtheBayofBengalBranch. TheArabianSeaBranchoftheSouthwestMonsoonfirsthitstheWesternGhatsofthecoastalstateofKerala,India,thusmakingthisareathefirststateinIndiatoreceiverainfromtheSouthwestMonsoon.ThisbranchofthemonsoonmovesnorthwardsalongtheWesternGhats(KonkanandGoa)withprecipitationoncoastalareas,westoftheWesternGhats.TheeasternareasoftheWesternGhatsdonotreceivemuchrainfromthismonsoonasthewinddoesnotcrosstheWesternGhats. TheBayofBengalBranchofSouthwestMonsoonflowsovertheBayofBengalheadingtowardsnorth-eastIndiaandBengal,pickingupmoremoisturefromtheBayofBengal.ThewindsarriveattheEasternHimalayaswithlargeamountsofrain.Mawsynram,situatedonthesouthernslopesoftheKhasiHillsinMeghalaya,India,isoneofthewettestplacesonEarth.AfterthearrivalattheEasternHimalayas,thewindsturnstowardsthewest,travellingovertheIndo-GangeticPlainatarateofroughly1–2weeksperstate,[32]pouringrainallalongitsway.June1isregardedasthedateofonsetofthemonsooninIndia,asindicatedbythearrivalofthemonsooninthesouthernmoststateofKerala. Themonsoonaccountsfornearly80%oftherainfallinIndia.[33][34]Indianagriculture(whichaccountsfor25%oftheGDPandemploys70%ofthepopulation)isheavilydependentontherains,forgrowingcropsespeciallylikecotton,rice,oilseedsandcoarsegrains.Adelayofafewdaysinthearrivalofthemonsooncanbadlyaffecttheeconomy,asevidencedinthenumerousdroughtsinIndiainthe1990s. Themonsooniswidelywelcomedandappreciatedbycity-dwellersaswell,foritprovidesrelieffromtheclimaxofsummerheatinJune.[35]However,theroadstakeabatteringeveryyear.Oftenhousesandstreetsarewaterloggedandslumsarefloodeddespitedrainagesystems.Alackofcityinfrastructurecoupledwithchangingclimatepatternscausessevereeconomiclossincludingdamagetopropertyandlossoflives,asevidencedinthe2005floodinginMumbaithatbroughtthecitytoastandstill.BangladeshandcertainregionsofIndialikeAssamandWestBengal,alsofrequentlyexperienceheavyfloodsduringthisseason.Recently,areasinIndiathatusedtoreceivescantyrainfallthroughouttheyear,liketheTharDesert,havesurprisinglyendedupreceivingfloodsduetotheprolongedmonsoonseason. TheinfluenceoftheSouthwestMonsoonisfeltasfarnorthasinChina'sXinjiang.Itisestimatedthatabout70%ofallprecipitationinthecentralpartoftheTianShanMountainsfallsduringthethreesummermonths,whentheregionisunderthemonsooninfluence;about70%ofthatisdirectlyof"cyclonic"(i.e.,monsoon-driven)origin(asopposedto"localconvection").[36]TheeffectsalsoextendwestwardstotheMediterranean,wherehowevertheimpactofthemonsoonistoinducedroughtviatheRodwell-Hoskinsmechanism.[37] Extremedifferenceisverymuchevidentbetweenwetanddryseasonsintropicalseasonalforest.TheimageatleftistakenatBhawalNationalParkincentralBangladeshduringdryseason,andtherightoneistakeninwetmonsoonseason Northeastmonsoon MonsooncloudsinMadhyaPradesh AroundSeptember,withthesunretreatingsouth,thenorthernlandmassoftheIndiansubcontinentbeginstocooloffrapidly,andairpressurebeginstobuildovernorthernIndia.TheIndianOceananditssurroundingatmospherestillholdtheirheat,causingcoldwindtosweepdownfromtheHimalayasandIndo-GangeticPlaintowardsthevastspansoftheIndianOceansouthoftheDeccanpeninsula.ThisisknownastheNortheastMonsoonorRetreatingMonsoon. WhiletravellingtowardstheIndianOcean,thecolddrywindpicksupsomemoisturefromtheBayofBengalandpoursitoverpeninsularIndiaandpartsofSriLanka.CitieslikeChennai,whichgetlessrainfromtheSouthwestMonsoon,receiverainfromthisMonsoon.About50%to60%oftherainreceivedbythestateofTamilNaduisfromtheNortheastMonsoon.[38]InSouthernAsia,thenortheasternmonsoonstakeplacefromOctobertoDecemberwhenthesurfacehigh-pressuresystemisstrongest.[39]Thejetstreaminthisregionsplitsintothesouthernsubtropicaljetandthepolarjet.ThesubtropicalflowdirectsnortheasterlywindstoblowacrosssouthernAsia,creatingdryairstreamswhichproduceclearskiesoverIndia.Meanwhile,alowpressuresystemknownasamonsoontroughdevelopsoverSouth-EastAsiaandAustralasiaandwindsaredirectedtowardAustralia. EastAsianMonsoon Mainarticle:EastAsianMonsoon MonsoonfloodsinthePhilippines TheEastAsianmonsoonaffectslargepartsofIndochina,thePhilippines,China,Taiwan,KoreaandJapan.Itischaracterisedbyawarm,rainysummermonsoonandacold,drywintermonsoon.Therainoccursinaconcentratedbeltthatstretcheseast–westexceptinEastChinawhereitistiltedeast-northeastoverKoreaandJapan.TheseasonalrainisknownasMeiyuinChina,JangmainKorea,andBai-uinJapan,withthelattertworesemblingfrontalrain. TheonsetofthesummermonsoonismarkedbyaperiodofpremonsoonalrainoverSouthChinaandTaiwaninearlyMay.FromMaythroughAugust,thesummermonsoonshiftsthroughaseriesofdryandrainyphasesastherainbeltmovesnorthward,beginningoverIndochinaandtheSouthChinaSea(May),totheYangtzeRiverBasinandJapan(June)andfinallytonorthernChinaandKorea(July).WhenthemonsoonendsinAugust,therainbeltmovesbacktosouthernChina. Australia MonsoonalsquallnearsDarwin,NorthernTerritory,Australia AlsoknownastheIndo-AustralianMonsoon.TherainyseasonoccursfromSeptembertoFebruaryanditisamajorsourceofenergyfortheHadleycirculationduringborealwinter.TheMaritimeContinentMonsoonandtheAustralianMonsoonmaybeconsideredtobethesamesystem,theIndo-AustralianMonsoon. ItisassociatedwiththedevelopmentoftheSiberianHighandthemovementoftheheatingmaximafromtheNorthernHemispheretotheSouthernHemisphere.North-easterlywindsflowdownSoutheastAsia,areturnednorth-westerly/westerlybyBorneotopographytowardsAustralia.ThisformsacycloniccirculationvortexoverBorneo,whichtogetherwithdescendingcoldsurgesofwinterairfromhigherlatitudes,causesignificantweatherphenomenaintheregion.Examplesaretheformationofararelow-latitudetropicalstormin2001,TropicalStormVamei,andthedevastatingfloodofJakartain2007. TheonsetofthemonsoonovertheMaritimeContinenttendstofollowtheheatingmaximadownVietnamandtheMalayPeninsula(September),toSumatra,BorneoandthePhilippines(October),toJava,Sulawesi(November),IrianJayaandnorthernAustralia(December,January).However,themonsoonisnotasimpleresponsetoheatingbutamorecomplexinteractionoftopography,windandsea,asdemonstratedbyitsabruptratherthangradualwithdrawalfromtheregion.TheAustralianmonsoon(the"Wet")occursinthesouthernsummerwhenthemonsoontroughdevelopsoverNorthernAustralia.Overthree-quartersofannualrainfallinNorthernAustraliafallsduringthistime. Europe Seealso:ClimateofEurope TheEuropeanMonsoon(morecommonlyknownasthereturnofthewesterlies)istheresultofaresurgenceofwesterlywindsfromtheAtlantic,wheretheybecomeloadedwithwindandrain.[40]ThesewesterlywindsareacommonphenomenonduringtheEuropeanwinter,buttheyeaseasspringapproachesinlateMarchandthroughAprilandMay.ThewindspickupagaininJune,whichiswhythisphenomenonisalsoreferredtoas"thereturnofthewesterlies".[41] Therainusuallyarrivesintwowaves,atthebeginningofJune,andagaininmid-tolateJune.TheEuropeanmonsoonisnotamonsooninthetraditionalsenseinthatitdoesn'tmeetalltherequirementstobeclassifiedassuch.Instead,thereturnofthewesterliesismoreregardedasaconveyorbeltthatdeliversaseriesoflow-pressurecentrestoWesternEuropewheretheycreateunsettledweather.Thesestormsgenerallyfeaturesignificantlylower-than-averagetemperatures,fiercerainorhail,thunder,andstrongwinds.[42] ThereturnofthewesterliesaffectsEurope'sNorthernAtlanticcoastline,morepreciselyIreland,GreatBritain,theBeneluxcountries,westernGermany,northernFranceandpartsofScandinavia. 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^"WhyIndia'sTwinMonsoonsAreCriticalToItsWell-Being|TheWeatherChannel".TheWeatherChannel.Retrieved2018-09-05. ^OfficialWebSiteofDistrictSirsa,India.DistrictSirsa.Archived2010-12-28attheWaybackMachineRetrievedon2008-12-27. ^Blumer,FelixP.(1998)."InvestigationsoftheprecipitationconditionsinthecentralpartoftheTianshanmountains".InKovar,Karel(ed.).Hydrology,waterresourcesandecologyinheadwaters.Volume248ofIAHSpublication(PDF).InternationalAssociationofHydrologicalSciences.pp. 343–350.ISBN 978-1-901502-45-9. ^Rodwell,MarkJ.;Hoskins,BrianJ.(1996)."Monsoonsandthedynamicsofdeserts".QuarterlyJournaloftheRoyalMeteorologicalSociety.122(534):1385–1404.Bibcode:1996QJRMS.122.1385R.doi:10.1002/qj.49712253408.ISSN 1477-870X. ^"NORTHEASTMONSOON".Archivedfromtheoriginalon2015-12-29.Retrieved2011-11-07. ^RobertV.Rohli;AnthonyJ.Vega(2007).Climatology.Jones&BartlettPublishers.p. 204.ISBN 978-0-7637-3828-0.Retrieved2009-07-19. ^Visser,S.W.(1953).SomeremarksontheEuropeanmonsoon.Birkhäuser:Basel. ^LeoHickman(2008-07-09)."TheQuestion:WhatistheEuropeanmonsoon?".TheGuardian.Archivedfromtheoriginalon2013-09-02.Retrieved2009-06-09. ^PaulSimons(2009-06-07)."'EuropeanMonsoon'toblameforcoldandrainystarttoJune".TheTimes.Archivedfromtheoriginalon2011-06-04.Retrieved2009-06-09. Furtherreading Chang,C.P.,Wang,Z.,Hendon,H.,2006,TheAsianWinterMonsoon.TheAsianMonsoon,Wang,B.(ed.),Praxis,Berlin,pp. 89–127. InternationalCommitteeoftheThirdWorkshoponMonsoons.TheGlobalMonsoonSystem:ResearchandForecast. Externallinks WikimediaCommonshasmediarelatedtoMonsoon. Wikisourcehasthetextofthe1911EncyclopædiaBritannicaarticle"Monsoon". 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