Cognitive psychology - Scholarpedia

Cognitive psychology is the scientific investigation of human cognition, that is, all our mental abilities – perceiving, learning, ... Cognitivepsychology FromScholarpedia Zhong-LinLuandBarbaraAnneDosher(2007),Scholarpedia,2(8):2769. doi:10.4249/scholarpedia.2769 revision#88969[linkto/citethisarticle] Jumpto:navigation, search Post-publicationactivityCurator:BarbaraAnneDosher Contributors: 0.42-Zhong-LinLu 0.25-EugeneM.Izhikevich 0.25-RobertP.O'Shea 0.08-BenjaminBronner TobiasDenninger MaxColtheart Dr.Zhong-LinLu,NeuroscienceGraduateProgram,UniversityofSouthernCalifornia,LosAngeles,CA Dr.BarbaraAnneDosher,DepartmentofCognitiveScience,UniversityofCalifornia,Irvine Cognitivepsychologyisthescientificinvestigationofhumancognition,thatis,allourmentalabilities–perceiving,learning,remembering,thinking,reasoning,andunderstanding.Theterm“cognition”stemsfromtheLatinword“cognoscere”or"toknow".Fundamentally,cognitivepsychologystudieshowpeopleacquireandapplyknowledgeorinformation.Itiscloselyrelatedtothehighlyinterdisciplinarycognitivescienceandinfluencedbyartificialintelligence,computerscience,philosophy,anthropology,linguistics,biology,physics,andneuroscience. Contents 1History 2Assumptions 3Approaches 4Sub-domainsofCognitivePsychology 5Applications 6References 7ExternalLinks 8SeeAlso History Cognitivepsychologyinitsmodernformincorporatesaremarkablesetofnewtechnologiesinpsychologicalscience.AlthoughpublishedinquiriesofhumancognitioncanbetracedbacktoAristotle’s‘’DeMemoria’’(Hothersall,1984),theintellectualoriginsofcognitivepsychologybeganwithcognitiveapproachestopsychologicalproblemsattheendofthe1800sandearly1900sintheworksofWundt,Cattell,andWilliamJames(Boring,1950). Cognitivepsychologydeclinedinthefirsthalfofthe20thcenturywiththeriseof“behaviorism"–-thestudyoflawsrelatingobservablebehaviortoobjective,observablestimulusconditionswithoutanyrecoursetointernalmentalprocesses(Watson,1913;Boring,1950;Skinner,1950).Itwasthislastrequirement,fundamentaltocognitivepsychology,thatwasoneofbehaviorism'sundoings.Forexample,lackofunderstandingoftheinternalmentalprocessesledtonodistinctionbetweenmemoryandperformanceandfailedtoaccountforcomplexlearning(Tinklepaugh,1928;Chomsky,1959).Theseissueledtothedeclineofbehaviorismasthedominantbranchofscientificpsychologyandtothe“CognitiveRevolution”. TheCognitiveRevolutionbeganinthemid-1950swhenresearchersinseveralfieldsbegantodeveloptheoriesofmindbasedoncomplexrepresentationsandcomputationalprocedures(Miller,1956;Broadbent,1958;Chomsky,1959;Newell,Shaw,&Simon,1958).Cognitivepsychologybecamepredominantinthe1960s(Tulving,1962;Sperling,1960).ItsresurgenceisperhapsbestmarkedbythepublicationofUlricNeisser’sbook,‘’CognitivePsychology’’,in1967.Since1970,morethansixtyuniversitiesinNorthAmericaandEuropehaveestablishedcognitivepsychologyprograms. Assumptions Cognitivepsychologyisbasedontwoassumptions:(1)Humancognitioncanatleastinprinciplebefullyrevealedbythescientificmethod,thatis,individualcomponentsofmentalprocessescanbeidentifiedandunderstood,and(2)Internalmentalprocessescanbedescribedintermsofrulesoralgorithmsininformationprocessingmodels.Therehasbeenmuchrecentdebateontheseassumptions(CostallandStill,1987;Dreyfus,1979;Searle,1990). Approaches Verymuchlikephysics,experimentsandsimulations/modellingarethemajorresearchtoolsincognitivepsychology.Often,thepredictionsofthemodelsaredirectlycomparedtohumanbehaviour.Withtheeaseofaccessandwideuseofbrainimagingtechniques,cognitivepsychologyhasseenincreasinginfluenceofcognitiveneuroscienceoverthepastdecade.Therearecurrentlythreemainapproachesincognitivepsychology:experimentalcognitivepsychology,computationalcognitivepsychology,andneuralcognitivepsychology. Experimentalcognitivepsychologytreatscognitivepsychologyasoneofthenaturalsciencesandappliesexperimentalmethodstoinvestigatehumancognition.Psychophysicalresponses,responsetime,andeyetrackingareoftenmeasuredinexperimentalcognitivepsychology.Computationalcognitivepsychologydevelopsformalmathematicalandcomputationalmodelsofhumancognitionbasedonsymbolicandsubsymbolicrepresentations,anddynamicalsystems.Neuralcognitivepsychologyusesbrainimaging(e.g.,EEG,MEG,fMRI,PET,SPECT,OpticalImaging)andneurobiologicalmethods(e.g.,lesionpatients)tounderstandtheneuralbasisofhumancognition.Thethreeapproachesareofteninter-linkedandprovidebothindependentandcomplementaryinsightsineverysub-domainofcognitivepsychology. Sub-domainsofCognitivePsychology Traditionally,cognitivepsychologyincludeshumanperception,attention,learning,memory,conceptformation,reasoning,judgmentanddecision-making,problemsolving,andlanguageprocessing.Forsome,socialandculturalfactors,emotion,consciousness,animalcognition,evolutionaryapproacheshavealsobecomepartofcognitivepsychology. Perception:Thosestudyingperceptionseektounderstandhowweconstructsubjectiveinterpretationsofproximalinformationfromtheenvironment.Perceptualsystemsarecomposedofseparatesenses(e.g.,visual,auditory,somatosensory)andprocessingmodules(e.g.,form,motion;Livingston&Hubel,1988;Ungerleider&Mishkin,1982;Julesz,1971)andsub-modules(e.g.,Lu&Sperling,1995)thatrepresentdifferentaspectsofthestimulusinformation.Currentresearchalsofocusesonhowtheseseparaterepresentationsandmodulesinteractandareintegratedintocoherentpercepts.Cognitivepsychologistshavestudiedthesepropertiesempiricallywithpsychophysicalmethodsandbrainimaging.Computationalmodels,basedonphysiologicalprinciples,havebeendevelopedformanyperceptualsystems(Grossberg&Mingolla,1985;Marr,1982;Wandell,1995). Attention:Attentionsolvestheproblemofinformationoverloadincognitiveprocessingsystemsbyselectingsomeinformationforfurtherprocessing,orbymanagingresourcesappliedtoseveralsourcesofinformationsimultaneously(Broadbent,1957;Posner,1980;Treisman,1969).Empiricalinvestigationofattentionhasfocusedonhowandwhyattentionimprovesperformance,orhowthelackofattentionhindersperformance(Posner,1980;Weichselgartner&Sperling,1987;Chun&Potter,1995;Pashler,1999).Thetheoreticalanalysisofattentionhastakenseveralmajorapproachestoidentifythemechanismsofattention:thesignal-detectionapproach(Lu&Dosher,1998)andthesimilarity-choiceapproach(Bundesen,1990;Logan,2004).Relatedeffectsofbiasedcompetitionhavebeenstudiedinsinglecellrecordingsinanimals(Reynolds,Chelazzi,&Desimone,1999).Brainimagingstudieshavedocumentedeffectsofattentiononactivationinearlyvisualcortices,andhaveinvestigatedthenetworksforattentioncontrol(Kanwisher&Wojciulik,2000). Learning:Learningimprovestheresponseoftheorganismtotheenvironment.Cognitivepsychologistsstudywhichnewinformationisacquiredandtheconditionsunderwhichitisacquired.Thestudyoflearningbeginswithananalysisoflearningphenomenainanimals(i.e.,habituation,conditioning,andinstrumental,contingency,andassociativelearning)andextendstolearningofcognitiveorconceptualinformationbyhumans(Kandel,1976;Estes,1969;Thompson,1986).Cognitivestudiesofimplicitlearningemphasizethelargelyautomaticinfluenceofpriorexperienceonperformance,andthenatureofproceduralknowledge(Roediger,1990).Studiesofconceptuallearningemphasizethenatureoftheprocessingofincominginformation,theroleofelaboration,andthenatureoftheencodedrepresentation(Craik,2002).Thoseusingcomputationalapproacheshaveinvestigatedthenatureofconceptsthatcanbemoreeasilylearned,andtherulesandalgorithmsforlearningsystems(Holland,Holyoak,Nisbett,&Thagard,1986).Thoseusinglesionandimagingstudiesinvestigatetheroleofspecificbrainsystems(e.g.,temporallobesystems)forcertainclassesofepisodiclearning,andtheroleofperceptualsystemsinimplicitlearning(Tulving,GordonHayman,&MacDonald,1991;Gabrieli,Fleischman,Keane,Reminger,&Morell,1995;Grafton,Hazeltine,&Ivry,1995). Memory:Thestudyofthecapacityandfragilityofhumanmemoryisoneofthemostdevelopedaspectsofcognitivepsychology.Memorystudyfocusesonhowmemoriesareacquired,stored,andretrieved.Memorydomainshavebeenfunctionallydividedintomemoryforfacts,forproceduresorskills,andworkingandshort-termmemorycapacity.Theexperimentalapproacheshaveidentifieddissociablememorytypes(e.g.,proceduralandepisodic;Squire&Zola,1996)orcapacitylimitedprocessingsystemssuchasshort-termorworkingmemory(Cowan,1995;Dosher,1999).Computationalapproachesdescribememoryaspropositionalnetworks,orasholographicorcompositerepresentationsandretrievalprocesses(Anderson,1996,Shiffrin&Steyvers,1997).Brainimagingandlesionstudiesidentifyseparablebrainregionsactiveduringstorageorretrievalfromdistinctprocessingsystems(Gabrieli,1998). ConceptFormation:Conceptorcategoryformationreferstotheabilitytoorganizetheperceptionandclassificationofexperiencesbytheconstructionoffunctionallyrelevantcategories.Theresponsetoaspecificstimulus(i.e.,acat)isdeterminednotbythespecificinstancebutbyclassificationintothecategoryandbyassociationofknowledgewiththatcategory(Medin&Ross,1992).Theabilitytolearnconceptshasbeenshowntodependuponthecomplexityofthecategoryinrepresentationalspace,andbytherelationshipofvariationsamongexemplarsofconceptstofundamentalandaccessibledimensionsofrepresentation(Ashby,2000).Certainconceptslargelyreflectsimilaritystructures,butothersmayreflectfunction,orconceptualtheoriesofuse(Medin,1989).Computationalmodelshavebeendevelopedbasedonaggregationofinstancerepresentations,similaritystructuresandgeneralrecognitionmodels,andbyconceptualtheories(Barsalou,2003).Cognitiveneurosciencehasidentifiedimportantbrainstructuresforaspectsordistinctformsofcategoryformation(Ashby,Alfonso-Reese,Turken,andWaldron,1998). Judgmentanddecision:Humanjudgmentanddecisionmakingisubiquitous–voluntarybehaviorimplicitlyorexplicitlyrequiresjudgmentandchoice.Thehistoricfoundationsofchoicearebasedinnormativeorrationalmodelsandoptimalityrules,beginningwithexpectedutilitytheory(vonNeumann&Morgenstern1944;Luce,1959).Extensiveanalysishasidentifiedwidespreadfailuresofrationalmodelsduetodifferentialassessmentofrisksandrewards(LuceandRaiffa,1989),thedistortedassessmentofprobabilities(Kahneman&Tversky,1979),andthelimitationsinhumaninformationprocessing(i.e.,Russo&Dosher,1983).Newcomputationalapproachesrelyondynamicsystemsanalysesofjudgmentandchoice(Busemeyer&Johnson,2004),andBayesianbeliefnetworksthatmakechoicesbasedonmultiplecriteria(Fenton&Neil,2001)formorecomplexsituations.Thestudyofdecisionmakinghasbecomeanactivetopicincognitiveneuroscience(Bechara,DamasioandDamasio,2000). ‘’’Reasoning:’’’Reasoningistheprocessbywhichlogicalargumentsareevaluatedorconstructed.Originalinvestigationsofreasoningfocusedontheextenttowhichhumanscorrectlyappliedthephilosophicallyderivedrulesofinferenceindeduction(i.e.,AimpliesB;IfAthenB),andthemanywaysinwhichhumansfailtoappreciatesomedeductionsandfalselyconcludeothers.Thesewereextendedtolimitationsinreasoningwithsyllogismsorquantifiers(Johnson-Laird,ByneandSchaeken,1992;RipsandMarcus,1977).Inductivereasoning,incontrast,developsahypothesisconsistentwithasetofobservationsorreasonsbyanalogy(HolyoakandThagard,1995).Oftenreasoningisaffectedbyheuristicjudgments,fallacies,andtherepresentativenessofevidence,andotherframingphenomena(Kahneman,Slovic,Tversky,1982).Computationalmodelshavebeendevelopedforinferencemakingandanalogy(HolyoakandThagard,1995),logicalreasoning(RipsandMarcus,1977),andBayesianreasoning(SanjanaandTenenbaum,2003). ProblemSolving:Thecognitivepsychologyofproblemsolvingisthestudyofhowhumanspursuegoaldirectedbehavior.Thecomputationalstate-spaceanalysisandcomputersimulationofproblemsolvingofNewellandSimon(1972)andtheempiricalandheuristicanalysisofWickelgren(1974)togetherhavesetthecognitivepsychologicalapproachtoproblemsolving.Solvingaproblemisconceivedasfindingoperationstomovefromtheinitialstatetoagoalstateinaproblemspaceusingeitheralgorithmicorheuristicsolutions.Theproblemrepresentationiscriticalinfindingsolutions(Zhang,1997).Expertiseinknowledgerichdomains(i.e.,chess)alsodependsoncomplexpatternrecognition(Gobet&Simon,1996).Problemsolvingmayengageperception,memory,attention,andexecutivefunction,andsomanybrainareasmaybeengagedinproblemsolvingtasks,withanemphasisonpre-frontalexecutivefunctions. LanguageProcessing:Whilelinguisticapproachesfocusontheformalstructuresoflanguagesandlanguageuse(Chomsky,1965),cognitivepsychologyhasfocusedonlanguageacquisition,languagecomprehension,languageproduction,andthepsychologyofreading(Kintsch1974;Pinker,1994;Levelt,1989).Psycholinguisticshasstudiedencodingandlexicalaccessofwords,sentencelevelprocessesofparsingandrepresentation,andgeneralrepresentationsofconcepts,gist,inference,andsemanticassumptions.Computationalmodelshavebeendevelopedforalloftheselevels,includinglexicalsystems,parsingsystems,semanticrepresentationsystems,andreadingaloud(Seidenberg,1997;Coltheart,Rastle,Perry,Langdon,&Ziegler,2001;Just,Carpenter,andWoolley,1982;Thorne,Bratley&Dewar,1968;SchankandAbelson,1977;Massaro,1998).Theneuroscienceoflanguagehasalonghistoryintheanalysisoflesions(Wernicke,1874;Broca,1861),andhasalsobeenextensivelystudiedwithcognitiveimaging(Posneretal,1988). 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ExternalLinks Zhong-LinLu'slabwebsite Zhong-LinLu'swebsite BarbaraAnneDosher'swebsite SeeAlso CognitiveNeuropsychology,EvolutionaryPsychology,Neuropsychology Sponsoredby:EugeneM.Izhikevich,Editor-in-ChiefofScholarpedia,thepeer-reviewedopen-accessencyclopediaReviewedby:AnonymousReviewedby:Dr.MaxColtheart,MacquarieCentreforCognitiveScience,MacquarieUniversity,AustraliaAcceptedon:2007-08-1100:47:35GMT Retrievedfrom"http://www.scholarpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cognitive_psychology&oldid=88969" Categories:PsychologyVisionMemoryNeuroscienceMultipleCurators Personaltools Login/createaccount Namespaces Page Discussion Variants Views Read Viewsource Viewhistory Actions Search Navigation Mainpage About Proposeanewarticle InstructionsforAuthors Randomarticle FAQs Help Focalareas Astrophysics Celestialmechanics Computationalneuroscience Computationalintelligence Dynamicalsystems Physics Touch Moretopics Activity Recentlypublishedarticles Recentlysponsoredarticles Recentchanges Allarticles ListallCurators Listallusers ScholarpediaJournal Tools Whatlinkshere Relatedchanges Specialpages Printableversion Permanentlink "Cognitivepsychology"by Zhong-LinLuandBarbaraAnneDosher islicensedundera CreativeCommonsAttribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike3.0UnportedLicense.PermissionsbeyondthescopeofthislicensearedescribedintheTermsofUse Privacypolicy AboutScholarpedia Disclaimers