Is it really “panic buying”? Public perceptions and experiences ...

Shopping behaviour in response to extreme events is often characterized as “panic buying” which connotes irrationality and loss of control. BrowseSubjectAreas ? ClickthroughthePLOStaxonomytofindarticlesinyourfield. FormoreinformationaboutPLOSSubjectAreas,click here. Article Authors Metrics Comments MediaCoverage PeerReview ReaderComments Figures Figures AbstractShoppingbehaviourinresponsetoextremeeventsisoftencharacterizedas“panicbuying”whichconnotesirrationalityandlossofcontrol.However,“panicbuying”hasbeencriticizedforattributingshoppingbehaviourtopeople’sallegedpsychologicalfrailtywhileignoringotherpsychologicalandstructuralfactorsthatmightbeatplay.WereportaqualitativeexplorationoftheexperiencesandunderstandingsofshoppingbehaviourofmembersofthepublicattheonsetoftheCOVID-19pandemic.Throughathematicanalysisofsemi-structuredinterviewswith23participants,wedevelopedthreethemes.Thefirstthemeaddressespeople’sunderstandingsof“panicbuying”.Whenparticipantsreferredto“panicbuying”theymeantobservedproductshortages(ratherthantheunderlyingpsychologicalprocessesthatcanleadtosuchbehaviours),preparednessbehaviours,oremotionssuchasfearandworry.Thesecondthemefocusesontheinfluenceofthemediaandotherpeople’sbehaviourinshapingsubsequentshoppingbehaviours.Thethirdthemeaddressesthemeaningfulmotivationsbehindincreasedshopping,whichparticipantsdescribedintermsofpreparedness;someparticipantsreportedincreasedshoppingbehavioursasaresponsetootherpeoplestockpiling,toreducetheirtripstosupermarkets,ortoprepareforproductshortagesandlongerstaysathome.Overall,despitefrequentlyusingtheterm‘panic’,theirrationalistconnotationsof“panicbuying”werelargelyabsentfromparticipants’accounts.Thus,“panicbuying”isnotausefulconceptandshouldnotbeusedasitconstructsexpectedresponsestothreatasirrationalorpathological.Itcanalsofacilitatesuchbehaviours,creatingaself-fulfillingprophecy. Citation:NtontisE,VestergrenS,SaavedraP,NevilleF,JurstakovaK,CockingC,etal.(2022)Isitreally“panicbuying”?PublicperceptionsandexperiencesofextrabuyingattheonsetoftheCOVID-19pandemic.PLoSONE17(2): e0264618. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0264618Editor:MumtazAlam,FijiNationalUniversity,FIJIReceived:November16,2021;Accepted:February14,2022;Published:February25,2022Copyright:©2022Ntontisetal.ThisisanopenaccessarticledistributedunderthetermsoftheCreativeCommonsAttributionLicense,whichpermitsunrestricteduse,distribution,andreproductioninanymedium,providedtheoriginalauthorandsourcearecredited.DataAvailability:Inthispaperwereportfindingsfromasetofqualitative,semi-structuredinterviews.Duetoethicalconcernsandthelimitationsimposedtousbytheethicscommittee,wedonothavepermissiontopubliclysharethefullinterviewtranscriptswithanyoneotherthantheauthorsofthispaper.However,inlinewiththeguidelinesofPLOSfordataavailability,andparticularlyregardingqualitativedata(https://journals.plos.org/plosone/s/data-availability),wehavemadepubliclyavailablealltheanonymizedrelatedquotesandinterviewexcerptsthatweidentifiedinthedatasetduringthecodingphaseoftheanalysis.Allrelevantinterviewexcerptscanbefoundinthefollowinglink:https://osf.io/t43qx/.Funding:TheresearchpresentedherewassupportedbyaQRseedgrantbytheSchoolofPsychologyandLifeSciencesatCanterburyChristChurchUniversityawardedtoEvangelosNtontis,andbyaUKRIgrantawardedtoJohnDrury,CliffordStott,StephenReicher,FergusNevilleandEvangelosNtontis(ES/V005383/1).Thefundershadnoroleinstudydesign,datacollectionandanalysis,decisiontopublish,orpreparationofthemanuscript.Competinginterests:Theauthorsdeclarethattherearenopotentialconflictsofinterestwithrespecttotheresearch,authorship,and/orpublicationofthisarticle. IntroductionAttheonsetoftheCOVID-19pandemicinearly2020,newspapersinseveralcountriespublishedphotosofemptysupermarketshelvestoillustrateshortagesoffoodandotherproducts[1–3].Suchobservationswereoftencharacterizedasinstancesof“panicbuying”[3].Theunderlyingassumptionwasthatperceptionsofactualorexpectedshortagesledpeopletobehaveirrationallyandoverreact,andthatoverreactiontooktheformofselfishbehavioursandaggressivecompetition,eventuallyaccentuatingproblemsofsupplyforthepublic.However,onlyaverysmallpercentageofshoppersboughtverylargeamountsofproducts(e.g.,3%boughtexcessiveamountsofpasta[4]).Onemajorreasonforproductshortageswasnotduetoirrationalitybutduetopeople’sbehaviouralchanges(e.g.,manypeopleincreasingtheirpurchasesbyasmallamountinordertoreducetripstothesupermarketsamidstthepandemic)thatcausedproblemstomodernfragilejust-in-timesupplychains[4,5]. TheaimofthispaperistoexploretheexperiencesofmembersofthepublicregardingproductshortagesduringtheonsetoftheCOVID-19pandemicaswellastheirunderstandingofthefactorsthatcanaffecttheirownandotherpeople’sshoppingbehaviours.Thisstudyisimportantforvariousreasons.First,evidenceshowsthatproductshortagesarepredominantlyrelatedtostructuralfactors[4,5]ratherthanpathologiesresidingwithinpeople’spsychology.Second,thereisarichhistoryandimplicationsof(mis)usingpathologizingpsychologicaldiscoursessuchaspanicinrelationtosocialbehaviour[6,7]butnosignificantattentionhasbeenpaidtothenotionof“panicbuying”,despiteitbeingaconceptfrequentlyinvokedbythemediaandinpublicdiscourse.Third,aswewillshow,previousstudieshavepredominantlybeenquantitativewithin-depthexaminationsofthephenomenologyofexperiencingandreactingtoproductshortageslargelymissing.Theimportanceofourstudyliesintheargumentthatabetterunderstandingofthemotivationsbehindrapidspikesindemandcanbecrucialinbuildingpracticalandsustainablesolutions,inunderminingpotentialforconflict,andininformingpublicpolicyandcommunicationwithoutreproducingmythsaboutthedrivingforcesofsocialbehaviour. Factorsassociatedwithshoppingbehavioursinextremeevents AttheonsetoftheCOVID-19pandemic,thereweresharpincreasesinspendingandreportsofstockpilingofgroceries,paperproducts[8]andmedicalsupplies[9,10].Therearetwotypesofpsychologicalexplanationsinrelationtothefactorsthatmobilizedsuchbehaviours;first,explanationsthatpredominantlycharacterizethepresenceofemptyshelvesasinstancesof“panicbuying”attributedtopeople’sallegedpsychologicalfrailty.Second,explanationsthatconsidersocio-psychologicalfactorssuchasriskperceptionandtheinfluenceofstructuralfactors(e.g.,demographiccharacteristics).Despitetheirsignificantdifferencesandinsightfulfindingsaswewilldescribebelow,studiesonshoppingbehavioursduringextremeeventsincludingCOVID-19havelargelyavoidedexaminingthephenomenologyofsuchinstances;thatis,in-depthaccountsofpeople’sperceptions,experiences,andofthesocialcontextsthatshapedsubsequentdecisionmakingarescarce. Pathologizingexplanationsofshoppingbehaviour.Pathologizingpsychologicaldiscoursesfeaturedheavilyinlayaccountsofshoppingbehavioursattheonsetofthepandemic.Largelyinabsenceofempiricaldata,mediareportscommonlyattributed“panicbuying”to“contagionoffear”[11],“amplifiedfear”[12],or“herdbehaviour”[13].“Herdbehaviour”wasunderstoodasregressiontoasurvivalmodedrivenbyprimitive,animalisticinstincts,andasobscuringrationality[13]. Empiricalresearchonthepsychologicalbasisofshoppingbehavioursinextremeeventsremainsrelativelyscarce,andattheonsetofCOVID-19,someacademicaccountsechoedthesepathologizingmediadiscourses.EarlyscientificcommentariesthataddressedshoppingbehavioursattheonsetofCOVID-19weremostlyspeculativeandsometimespathologizing.Someattributedshoppingbehaviourstopeople’sattemptstoreduceinternalconflictanduncertaintyordescribeditasaformofsocialinfluencedrivenbyotherpeople’sbehavioursanddueto“contagion”ofpsychologicalresponses[14].Loxtonandcollaborators[15]partiallyattributedstockpilingtoanemerging“herdmentality”andthedisappearanceoflogicandindividuality,aswellastothe“TragedyoftheCommons”,wherebypeopleareoverwhelmedby“panic”andselfishopportunism,actingagainstthecollectiveinterest.Similarly,Prentice,Quachandcolleagues[16]conceptualized“panicbuying”throughthelensofclassical,pathologizingtheoriesofcrowdpsychologyandbehaviouralcontagion(e.g.,[17];foracriticaloverviewsee[6]).Inotherstudies(e.g.,[18,19]),“panicbuying”wasusedtodescribefear,worrying,anduncertainty,withoutofferingaprecisedefinitionofwhat“panicbuying”meansbeyondtheseemotionalresponses. Apartfromthepathologizingelementsthatarecommonacrossmanymediaandacademicaccountsaspresentedearlier,anothersharedsimilarityinthatliteratureisalackofpersonalaccountsfrompeoplewhowerepresentedas“panicbuying”.Rather,journalistsoracademicauthorsofsuchaccountsseemtobemakingadhocexplanationsofobservedbehaviourasexternalobserversandinabsenceofempiricaldataonthesubjectiveexperiencesofthoseinvolved. Psychologicalandstructuralfactorsasdriversofshoppingbehavioursinextremeevents.Ratherthanresortingtopathologizingconcepts,someresearchershaveexaminedtheroleofnon-pathologizingpsychologicalandstructuralfactorsindrivingshoppingbehavioursinextremeevents.Somestudieshavedrawnongametheorytoarguethat“panicbuying”isbasedonpeople’sunderstandingthattheirpayoffisdependentonboththeirownandotherpeople’sbehaviours[20].However,Taylor[21]arguesthat,despitebeingpotentiallyinsightful,gametheoryisinsufficientasanexplanationforstockpilingasitcannotexplainwhyonlycertainproductsbecometargetsofstockpilingbehaviours.Thetheoryalsocannotaccountforhowcontextualfactors(e.g.,thesocialenvironmentortheinformationavailabletoparticipants)canshapepsychologicalreactionsandbehaviour[22].Forexample,consumers’behaviourcanbeaffectedbyobservingotherpeople’sbehaviour[23,24].Stockpilingmaybeginwhenotherpeople’sstockpilingbehaviourscrossacertainthreshold,whereasbehavioursperceivedasunderthethresholddonotincreasestockpilingdemands.Consequently,seeingotherpeoplestockpilingorobservingqueuesinsupermarketseitherinpersonorthroughmediareportscangenerateuncertaintyaboutone’sownchoicesandbeliefs,andfacilitatestockpilingbehavioursthroughaformofsociallearning[23]. Themediacanalsoplayasignificantroleincreatinganddisseminatingperceptionsofhighrisk,eventuallyfacilitatingstockpilingbehaviours[24].StudyingtheeffectsofCOVID-19inNewZealand,Hallandcollaborators[25]demonstratedthatstockpilingoccurredsimultaneouslywithincreasingmediacoverageandpublicawarenessofthesituation,lastingforlessthanaweek.Similarly,Paekandcollaborators[26]showedthatexposuretoemergency-relatednewswaspositivelyassociatedwiththenumberofemergency-preparednessitemsowned.Inconsequence,itisoftenpeoplewhoarelesspreparedfororwhohaveexperienceddisastersinthepastthattendtostockpile.Additionally,mediareportsoftenfocusonisolatedstockpilingbehaviours,heighteningmarketdemandsandfurtherfacilitatingstockpiling[27].Consideringtheaforementionedfactors,Taylor[21]presentsamodelofhowstockpilingescalates,arguingthataspeoplevisitstorestostockupforpotentiallockdowns,mediareportsexaggeratethesignificanceofaminorityofshopperswhomightover-purchase.Suchimagesinturnmightbecomewidespreadandcreateperceptionsofscarcity,eventuallyamplifyingperceptionsofscarcityandurgencyamongthemajority.Thus,stockpilingisasnow-ballingeffectbasedonthefearcreatedbyperceptionsofscarcityandthroughobservingotherpeople’sbehaviour.Similarly,StermanandDogan[28]arguethatstockpilingmaybetriggeredbysituationalfactorssuchasstressorscreatedbyperceptionsofscarcityorpoorsupplydeliveryratherthanidiosyncraticattributesresidingwithintheindividuals.Thesefindingsareinlinewithreviewsoftheliteratureshowingthatperceptionsofscarcityandthreat,aswellasuncertaintyduetofearoftheunknown,canaffectstockpilingbehaviours[24]. Governmentalpolicies,trustingovernment,aswellasdemographicandhouseholdconditionscanaffectshoppingbehavioursinextremeevents[24,29,30].AnanalysisofsecondarydatainAustraliashowedthatshoppingbehavioursescalatedinmid-March2020whenmorestrictmeasureswereintroducedsuchasextendedlockdownsandsocialdistancing[31],whereaspurchasesremainedatnormallevelswhensmaller-scalemeasureswereinplaceduringthepreviousmonths[31].Similarly,stockinguponsuppliesduringextremeeventscanbedrivenbyperceptionsofrestrictionsinmovementandtheavailabilityofsuppliesaswellasexpectedpricehikes[32,alsosee33].Bentallandcolleagues[34]presentamodelthatconsidersseveraloftheaforementionedfactors,showingthatstockpilingintheUKandtheRepublicofIrelandwaspositivelypredictedbyincome,havingchildrenathome,psychologicaldistress,threatsensitivity,andmistrustofothers. Incontrasttopathologizingaccountsthatwebrieflydiscussedintheprevioussection,thestudiesdiscussedaboveconsideredthepsychologicalandstructuralfactorsthatcanaffectshoppingbehaviourinextremeevents.Forinstance,someofthefactorsconsideredwererelatedtosocialtrustandtrustinthegovernment,demographiccharacteristics,otherpeople’sbehaviour,aswellastheroleofthemediaincreatingperceptionsofscarcityandpotentiallyfacilitatingstockpiling.However,thevastmajorityofresearchthataddressesshoppingbehavioursinextremeevents,evenifnotpathologizingandirrationalistinnature,ismostlyquantitativeandfocusesonmodellingthepredictorsofsuchbehaviours.Whatwehavenotidentifiedarephenomenologicalstudiesthatprovidein-depthaccountsofpeople’ssubjectiveexperiencesandperceptionsregardingshoppingbehavioursinextremeevents.Suchstudiesareimportantastheycanprovideinsightsonthesocialcontextwithinwhichpeople’sdecision-makingprocessesoccurred,givevoicetothoseinvolvedtoexplaintherationalebehindtheiractions,andcanhelpidentifyfurtherfactorstobesubsequentlytestedthroughquantitativemethods. Thepresentstudy OuraiminthispaperistoexaminetheperceptionsandexperiencesofmembersofthepublicinrelationtoproductshortagesattheonsetoftheCOVID-19pandemic.Morespecifically,weareinterestedinaccountsofmembersofthepublicnotonlytoexaminetherangeofexperiences,understandings,andreactionstoproductshortagesbutalsobecausetheyallowustoexplorethenarrativesemployedtoaccountforpersonalandotherpeople’sbehaviours.Thisfocushasbeenlargelyabsentfrompreviousstudiesduetotheiremphasisonquantificationandpredictionofvariousassociatedvariablesratherthanonthelivedexperienceofthephenomenon. Method Participants,recruitment,andinterviewquestions Toexploresubjectiveexperiences,wecarriedoutsemi-structuredinterviewswith23membersofthepublic.Ouronlyinclusioncriteriawerethatparticipantswereover18yearsoldandresidedintheUnitedKingdomattheonsetandthroughtheearlycourseofthepandemic.ResidingintheUKduringthepandemicwasimportantasitensuredthatparticipantsweresubjecttosimilarnewsreportsandgovernmentalannouncementsandhadbroadlysimilarshoppingexperiencesandexposuretootherpeople’sbehaviours.Weusedopportunitysamplingandparticipantswererecruitedthroughpersonalcontacts,snowballing,andsocialmedia(Facebook,Twitter)onthebasisoftheirwillingnesstoparticipateinourstudy.Thus,thesampleisnotrepresentativeoftheUKpopulation.Followingtheinitialinterviews,weaskedparticipantstointroduceustofurthercontactsthatmightbewillingtoparticipate.Nineteenparticipantswereinterviewedindividually,and4wereinterviewedascouplesbasedontheirpreferences.Eighteenparticipantswerefemalesand5weremales,andallresidedinEngland(Southern,Midlands,Northern)andScotland.Participants’agesrangedbetween23and76yearsold(M=36.4years,SD=15.1)[exactagesoftwoparticipantsapproximatelyintheir40sand50sarenotavailable].Therewasvariationinparticipants’employmentstatus;fulltimeorpart-timeemployees,self-employed,retired,unemployed,ordoctoralstudents.Thetotaldurationoftheinterviewswas567minutes(M=27.01minutes,SD=9.74).Duetorestrictionsincollectingface-to-facedatainMay2020,interviewswerecarriedoutonlineviaMSTeamsorZoom.Onlyoneinterviewwascarriedoutatanoutdoorspacewithparticipantswearingmasksandkeepingappropriatephysicaldistancing.EthicalapprovalforthestudywasobtainedfromtheResearchEthicsCommitteeofCanterburyChristChurchUniversity(ETH1920-0200).Beforetheinterviewscommenced,participantshadtoprovidetheinterviewerswiththeirconsent.Sincetheinterviewswerecarriedoutonlineorwhileobservingsocialdistancingmeasures,aconsentformwassenttoparticipantsinadvanceelectronicallytogetherwithaparticipantinformationsheetwhichdescribedtheaimsoftheproject.Participantsthenhadtoconfirmverballythattheyreadandunderstoodtheinformationsheet,thattheirparticipationwasvoluntaryandthattheycouldwithdrawatanypointwithouttheneedtoprovideareason,thattheyagreedtotheinterviewbeingaudiorecorded,thattheirinformationwouldbekeptstrictlyconfidentialinlinewiththeleadauthor’sUniversityResearchPrivacyNotice,andthattheyagreedtotakepartintheprojectoverall. Interviewswereconductedbythefirst,second,fourth,fifth,andsixthauthors.Thefirstauthordraftedaninterviewschedulewhichwasrevisedcarefullybythewholeteambeforedatacollectionstarted.Interviewquestionsincludedwhetherandhowthepandemichasaffectedparticipants’lives(Hasthepandemicaffectedyouinanyway?),theirreactionsandfeelings(Howdidyoureactwhenyoufirstheardaboutthepandemicinyourcountry/localarea?),waysofpreparing(Didyouprepare/areyoupreparinginanywaytoprotectagainsttheoutbreak?),concernsaboutshortagesofsuppliesandshoppinghabits(Do/didyouworrythattheremightbeashortageoffoodorothergoods?Whyyes/no?),reactionstowardsgovernmentannouncements(Didtheofficialannouncementshaveaneffectonyourpreparation?),andperceptionsofmediaandofotherpeople’sperceptionsandbehaviours(Didsocialmediahaveanyeffectsonyourpreparation?Didotherpeople’sbehaviourhaveanyeffectonyourpreparations?).ThecompletelistofinterviewquestionscanbefoundintheSupportingInformationprovided.Consideringthat“panicbuying”isnotaneutralconceptandisloadedwithassumptionsregardingthefragilityofhumanpsychology,weintentionallydidnotincludeitinourinterviewquestionsandonlyreferredtoitwhenparticipantshadalreadysuggesteditthemselvesinordertofurtherexplorethemeaningsattributedtoit.Thetermwasonlyusedinoneinterviewquestion,inwhichweaskedparticipantswhethertheybelievedthegovernmentstatementsthattherewasenoughfoodandtherewasnoneedto“panicbuy”.ThisquestionwasdevelopedinresponsetoastatementmadebytheUK’sPrimeMinisterBorisJohnsoninMarch2020that“peopleshouldhavenoneedtostockpileortopanicbuy”[35].Allinterviewswereaudio-recordedandthentranscribedverbatim. Analyticprocedure Ouranalysiswasexploratoryandaimedtounderstandhowparticipantsunderstood“panicbuying”aswellastodelineatethefactorsthatparticipantsperceivedtoshapetheirownaswellasotherpeople’sshoppingbehaviours.Weperformedareflexivethematicanalysisinourdataset[36].Aftertheinterviewsweretranscribedverbatimbyatranscriptioncompany,weconductedmultiplereadingsofthedatacorpuswhiletakinginitialnotesonissuesrelatedtoourresearchquestion.Insubsequentreadingsofthedata,wecreatedcodes(analyticunits;[37])thathelpeduscapturevariousfacetsofourobservations.Suchcodesincludedvariousemotionsreportedbyparticipants,personalandotherpeople’sreactionstothepandemic,ordifferentmeaningsof“panicbuying”.Wethencomparedandcriticallyreflecteduponthosecodesandtheirinterrelationshipswhichfinallyledtothedevelopmentandnamingofthefinalthemespresentedinthefollowingsection.Ouranalyticalclaimsaresupportedbyquotesfrommultipleparticipants.Thesymbol[…]denotestextwhichhasbeenremovedtoeasereadability.Participantsappearbytheirrespectivenumber(e.g.,P1standsfor‘Participant1). FindingsWeconstructedthreethemesbasedonthetranscripts:Thefirstthemeconcernsparticipants’definitionsof“panicbuying”.Thesecondthemereferstoparticipants’perceptionsoffactorscontributingtocertainshoppingbehavioursandmainlyrevolvesaroundtheeffectsofsocialmediaandotherpeople’sbehaviour.Finally,thethirdthemeaddressestheelementofpreparednessandthevariousreasonsthatledparticipantstostockpile.AsummaryofthethemesispresentedinTable1below. Download: PPTPowerPointslidePNGlargerimageTIFForiginalimageTable1.Tableofthemesidentifiedinthedataset. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0264618.t001 Whatdopeoplemeanby“panic”?Productshortages,preparedness,fear,anduncertainty Thenotionof“panic”appearsfrequentlyinmediaandpublicdiscourseandwasoftenemployedbyourparticipantstoexplainordefinetheobservedphenomenaofincreasedshoppingduringtheearlystagesoftheCOVID-19pandemic.Asthisthemedemonstrates,whatparticipantsunderstoodwhenusingtheconceptof“panic”wasnotwhatisconsideredasirrationalityandlossofcontrolbutratherobservationsofalackofproductsorexpectedfeelingsoffearoruncertainty.Theextractbelowillustrateshow“panic”wasequatedtoashortageofproducts: Extract1 I:Yeah.Whenyousaypeoplepanicking,whatdoyoumean,moreorless? P2:Likethebulkbuyingoftoiletrollandtakingallthelong-lifestockofftheshelfs. P1:Yeah,likeallthecannedfoodwasgone[…]Andoilandflourandpastaandstuff[…]Anditwasquitehard.Ithink,initially,likethefirsttwoweekstofindthatinalotofshops. Duetoitsdiffusioninbothlayandscientificdiscourses,thenotionof“panic”wasreadilyavailableforparticipantstoemployasanexplanationforshoppingbehaviours,comparedtoalternativediscoursesthatwerelessaccessible.Forexample,participantsoftenused“panic”and“panicbuying”todescribeinstanceswheretherewereperceptionsorexpectationsofnoorlittleresourcesavailableforprolongedperiodsoftimeratherthanapsychologicalstateofirrationalityas“panic”connotes.Inotherinstances,participantsused“panic”todescribefeelingsoffearorworry: Extract2 I:Andwhydoyouthinkthatis?[peoplebuyingmoresuppliesthanusual] P20:Panic.Ithinkpeoplewerefearfulthattheyweren’tgoingtobeabletofeedthemselves.AndIthinkwithsomepeopletherewas,youknow,“Wehavetogetitfirst.”Yes,therewerealotofpeoplethatseemedto,sortof,gointoselfishmode.[…]Iwouldarguethatpeopleprobablybecomemoreheavilyinfluencedbywhat’sgoingonaroundthemwhentheygointopanicmode. Extract2demonstrateshow‘panic’inparticipants’accountsisunderpinnedbyfearthatstemsfromaneedtosurviveandperceptionsofhowotherpeopleacted.Theuseof“panic”todescribeanunderlyingemotionwasverycommonthroughoutourinterviews.Itisimportanttoemphasisethatwhenourparticipantsused“panic”toexplainordefinethephenomena,itwasmostlyinreferencetoothers’behaviour(cf.[38]).Whenpromptedtofurtherdiscusstheirexplanations,participantsrelatedthefearorworrytovarioussources;theuncertaintyofthesituation,needforsurvivalorriskmanagement.Hence,whenexplainingthepsychologybehind“panic”ourparticipantssimplyreferredtoexpectedpsychologicalreactionsinacrisis(e.g.,fear)ratherthanalossofcontrol. Inothercases,suchasinthefollowingtwoextracts,participantsassociated“panic”withpeoples’fearandworryduetouncertaintyregardingtheshort-andlong-termimpactofthepandemic.“Panicbuying”wasoftenequatedwiththeuncertaintyofaccesstoproductsandone’seconomicsituation,pointingtoanunderlyingrationaleforthebehaviourofincreasedshopping.Theincreasedshoppingcouldtherebybeawayforpeopletotakecontrolinanuncertainsituationoratleasttoprepareandremainsafewhenconfrontingtheunknown: Extract3 P3:Therewasquitealotofpanic,Iwouldhavesaid. I:Okay.Inwhatway?Whatdoyoumeanbypanic? P3:Well,peopledidn’tknowwhethertheywouldbeabletogetwhattheyneededandtheywerenotsureiftheyweregoingtohave,theywouldn’t,theydidn’tknowwhatkindofimpactitwasgoingtohaveontheireconomicsecurity. And Extract4 I:Yeah.Soyoumentionedpanicbuying,whydoyouthinkpeopledo-firstofall,whatdoyoumeanbypanicbuying,howdoyoudefineitmoreorless? P6:Ithinkitcomesfrompeoplebeingscaredthattherewon’tbeanyresourcesanymoresotheystartyeah,havingtostockeverythingathomesotheycan,ifyeah,Idon’tknow,theendoftheworldreallyhappenedthattheywillhavefoodforseveralweekstosurvive,soIguessitcomesfrombeingafraidoftheunknown Overall,thisthemecapturedthedifferentmeaningsthatparticipantsattributedto“panicbuying”.Asitbecomesevidentfromthedata,illustratedthroughthequotesabove,“panic”wasnotusedtoconnoteirrationalityandlossofcontrol–rather,ourparticipantsusedtheconcepttorefertoeitherobservationsofalackofproductsortoexpectedfeelingsoffearandworryduetouncertaintyandassociatedactsofpreparedness.Whatbecomesapparentisthat“panic”isnotausefulconceptasitdoesnotmeaningfullydescribeobservedbehavioursortheirunderlyingpsychology. Thenextthemeisassociatedwithparticipants’perceivedfactorsthatcanmobilizeshoppingbehaviours;themainreportedfactorswerereportsfromthemediaaswellasobservingotherpeople’sbehaviour. Shoppingbehavioursasinfluencedbymediareportsandotherpeople’sbehaviour Participantsreflectedextensivelyonthereasonsthatmightmotivateshoppingbehaviours.Twoelementsthatfeaturedprominentlywerethemediaandobservingotherpeople’sbehaviour: Extract5 I:So,doyouthink,intermsofpreparations,doyouthinkthatpeoplegenerallyboughtmoresuppliesthanusual? P3:Yes. I:Yeah.Sowhydoyouthinktheydidthat? P3:Becausetheydidn’tknowwhentheyweregoingtobeabletogetsomemore.Andthemore,themoreyouhavemediareportssayingwe’rerunningoutofsomething,themorepeoplethink,well,I’llgettwoifIseethem. Ourparticipantsagreedthatpeopleengagedinincreasedpurchases.However,theexplanationofferedwasnotassociatedwithirrationalityorlossofcontrolastraditional“panic”discoursessuggest.Rather,theyarguedthatinitially,peopleboughtmoreproductsbecausetheywereuncertainregardingfutureavailability.Uncertaintyandsubsequentincreasedpurchaseswerecompoundedbymediareportsshowcasingproductshortages.Suchmediareportswererepresentedasmotivatingpeopletoslightlyincreasetheirpurchases.Inothercases,illustratedforexamplebyextract6below,mediareportswererepresentedasfosteringperceptionsregardingotherpeople’sbehaviours: Extract6 P2:Ithinkalotofpanicbuy,wasfuelledbythemedia,ofthepanicbuying. I:Okay. P2:Sobecauseyouseeitonthenewsandyou’dgo,oh,ohalotpeoplewent,“oh,wellIhavetogooutandbuythesethings”. P1:Yes. P2:“Becauseeveryoneelseis”[…]“AndIneedtogettherefirstsothatIcanhavesome,insteadofarrivingtherelastandnotgettingany”. Participantsalsoarguedthatthemediacanmotivateshoppingbehavioursthroughstoriesofhowotherpeoplearebehaving.Inadditiontomediareports,ourparticipantsemphasisedotherpeople’sbehaviours,andmorespecificallymetaperceptionsofotherpeople’swaysofnavigatingthroughthepandemic,alsofeaturedmoregenerallyasameansofexplaininginstancesofshoppingbehaviours: Extract7 I:Yes.So,doyouthinkgenerallythatpeopleboughtmoresuppliesthanusual? P8:Ofsomethings,yes,definitely,becauseotherwisetheshelveswouldn’tbeempty,yes. I:Yes.Whydoyouthinktheydothat? P8:Yes,Iknow.It’sdifficulttofigurethatoneoutbecauseIthinkbecausethey’reworriedaboutwhatotherpeoplearegoingtodo.Theymightnotdoit,buttheyjustthinkthatotherpeoplewillbuyallofitandsotheydoit.Thenitbecomestrue,kindof,butatthebeginningit’sbecauseeveryonethinks,“Oh,myGod,everyone’sgoingtobuyeggs.”Thentheybuyeggs,buttheydon’tneedtheeggsandtheywouldn’tdoitthemselvesunlessotherpeople…Unlesstheythoughtotherpeoplewoulddoit. Participantsarguedthatdespiteinitiallybeingunwillingtoshopforextraproducts,theirperceptionthatotherswillengageinincreasedpurchasesledthemtobuyadditionalproductsthattheymightnotneed. Overall,inthistheme,wehighlightedtheimportanceofmediareportsandotherpeople’sbehavioursinguidingshoppingbehavioursandpotentiallycausingproblemsinsupplychains.Whatisstrikingonceagainisthatparticipantsdidnotuserepertoiresofirrationalitytoaccountforhowotherpeoplebehave.Rather,theymainlyresortedtoidentifyingeithersourcesofinfluence(e.g.,mediareports)orpeople’sspeculationsaboutotherpeople’smotivesindrivingparticularbehaviours,bothofwhichpointtomeaningfulsocialaction.Wewillnowturntoourthirdandlastthemewhichfurtherexplorestheelementsofpreparednessandriskperception.Theseconcepts,whichfeaturedheavilyinparticipants’accounts,werelargelydevoidofirrationalistnarrativesbothintermsofpersonalaswellasotherpeople’sbehaviour. Themeaningfulmotivationsbehindincreasedpurchases:Reducingtripstosupermarkets,preparingforproductshortagesandlongerstaysathome,orguardingagainstthosewho‘panic’ Preparednessfeaturedheavilyinparticipants’accountsoftheirexperiencesattheearlystagesofthepandemic.Asthisthemehighlights,participantsreportedshoppingbehavioursthroughexplanationsoffearforpotentialproductshortages,reductionintheirtripstothesupermarketstoreducetheirexposuretothevirus,preparationforlongerstaysathome(becauseofthelockdownorduetopotentialillness),orfearofotherpeople‘panicking’. Ourparticipantsusedtheserationalisationsforunderstandingtheirownandothers’shoppingbehaviours.Oneriskthatparticipantsarguedthattheyweretryingtoprotectthemselvesagainstwasthatofpotentialproductshortages.ThisisillustratedbyaccountsfromP1andP2,aswellasinthestatementofP10below: Extract8 I:Intermsofshoppingbehaviours,whydidyoustartshoppingforlongertime,asyousaidlikea,twoweeksinadvance. P1:Ithinktherewas P2:Iwas,soitwasverymuchjustincaseweweren’tableto-beabletoaccess I:Yeah. P2:shopslikeforexamplewith,we’veonlygotsmallshopsnearbyus. I:Yeah. P2:Anditcould’vebeenclosed.Therewasalsolikethemadpanicaboutcertainthingsnotbeinginsupplyandnotcomingintothecountry. I:Okay. P2:Butitwasjustlikeacaseof,ifweactnow,itmakesourliveseasierinthefuture. P1:Yeah. P2:Whilestillbeingdoneinasensiblecontrolledmannerratherthanpanicshopping. And Extract9 P10:ifsomebodyhasafamilyandhastokeepfeedingtheirchildren,thentheycan’ttaketheriskthattherewon’tbeenoughfoodinafewmonths.Sotheyhavelowerrisktolerance. Participantsstatedthattheirshoppingpatternschanged,andtheystartedmakinglargerandlessfrequentshops.Themainreasonprovidedwasoneofperceivedinabilitytoaccessshopsaswellaswarningsaboutpotentialitemsnotbeinginstock.However,participantswerecarefulinframingincreasedshoppingasameansofrationalfuturepreparednessratherthanasirrationalbehaviour.Similarly,whenreferringtootherpeople’sincreasedpurchases,participantsattributedincreasedshoppingtolowerrisktolerancethatsomepeoplemighthaveduetovariouslifeconditions.Forexample,havingtofeedone’sfamilycanresultinincreasedpurchasesunderconditionsofaperceivedpotentialshortageofproducts. Thesecondreasonthatwascommonlyusedinourparticipants’responsesforincreasingtheirshoppingwastheinclinationtoreducetripstothesupermarketsaswellasbecauseofactualchangesintheirroutines(suchasprolongedstaysathome)duetorestrictionsinmovementplacedbygovernments: Extract10 I:Yes.So,ingeneral,wouldyousaythatyouboughtmorethanyouwouldusuallybuy? P11:Yes.Also,inthesensethat,insteadofgoingtotheshopmaybetwoorthreetimesaweekinsmalleramounts,Iwouldjustgoonceaweek.So,obviously,Iwouldbuymorebutoverall,theamountwouldbethesame.Also,becauseIwasathomeandcookingthewholetimeratherthangoingout,sometimes.So,IboughtmorebuttheamountoffoodI’veconsumedstayedconstant. Preparednessmanifestedinparticipants’accountsconcerningtheirwishtoreducetheirtripstothesupermarkets.Insomecases,morefrequenttripstosupermarketswithsmallerpurchaseswerereplacedbylessfrequenttripsandlargerpurchases.Onotheroccasions,therewerereportsofincreasedpurchasescomparedtobeforethepandemic. Extract11 I:Butoverallwouldyousaythatyouboughtmorethanyouwouldusuallybuy? P14:Yes.Maybe5%and10%more. I:Whatdoyouthinkmightbethemainreasonforthat? P14:IthinkthestuffIwassayingbeforeaboutwantingtoextendhowlongitwasbetweenshopswasthemainfactor.IwasveryawarethatIdidnotwanttorunintothesupermarket,takeallofthetinnedtomatoes,andleavenoneforanyoneelse.IwantedtofeelthatIhadfoundabalancebetweenfeelingwehadabitofabufferandstillleavingenoughforotherpeopletohaveabuffer. Themainreason,asillustratedbyP14above,wassimilarlyassociatedwithreducingone’stripstothesupermarkets.However,thelatterwascompoundedbywantingtoprovideoneself“abuffer”throughmeansofsomeadditionalstocksathomewhileallowingotherconsumerstoalsoincreasetheirpurchasesslightly.Overall,reducingthenumberoftripstothesupermarketswasamainreasonthatparticipantsreportedbuyingmoreitems,eitherbyactuallyslightlyincreasingtheirpurchasesorbymakinglargerandlessfrequentshopswhilenotchangingtheamounts.Athirdmotivationforparticipants’preparednesswasassociatedwiththeirperceivedpotentialneedtostayathomeforprolongedperiods: Extract12 Ι:Didyouprepareinanywaytoprotectyourselfagainsttheoutbreak,orareyoupreparingnow? P10:Notreally.Iwasnothoardingstufforanythinglikethis.Ididsomeestimates,quickinmyhead,howmuchfoodwillIhavetobuyinordertonothavetoleavemyhouseforamonthortwomonths Whenaskedwhethertheypreparedinanywayagainsttheoutbreakparticipants,asillustratedbyP10above,deniedhoardingandcontestedanynotionsofirrationalityintheirbehaviour.Rather,theyarguedthattheirresponsewasbasedonameaningfulcalculationwherebytheyboughtsuppliesthatwouldlastforapproximatelyoneortwomonthsincasetheycouldnotleavethehouseforprolongedperiods.Participantsreporteddecidingtoshoplargequantitiesofproductsasameansofpreparednessforstayingathomeforextendedperiods.Participantsalsoreportedconsideringeitheractualorpotentialhealthissuesthatmightlimittheirfutureabilitytoleavetheirhousesforprolongedperiods: Extract13 I:Okay.But[inaudible]beginningofit,didyoustartbuyingmorethingsandusuallyinthebeginning?Atleastforsomegoodsasyousaid? P3:Itriedtomakesurethatwewouldhaveenoughnottoleavethehouseforabit.Ididn’tknowhowlongwewouldbestuckinside.Also,Ihaveasthma,sotheNHSwasoriginallyadvisinganybodywhohadalistofhealthconditionsto,requireyoutohaveaflujab.Theysaidifyou’reonthislistofconditions,whichincludeasthma,thenyoushouldtreatthisasveryseriousandprotectyourself.So,I’vebeen[inaudible]cautiousanyway. And Extract14 P15:WellI,Ididn’tkindofseeitaspanickingandIdon’tthinkpeoplewere.SoIknowmyneighbours,otherpeopleIseearoundmybuilding,theywerealsotryingtostockupandIdidn’tseethataspanicking,theywerejustthinking,“Ifwe’renotallowedtogooutandwe’reallbeingquarantinedifIfeelsickthenthisiswhatwehavetodo.” Illustratedbytheextractsabove,participantsexpressedconcernswithprolongedisolationathomeduetoillness.Forexample,theyboughtmoreitemsduetohermedicalconditionwhichcouldpotentiallyputthematriskoffurthercomplicationsiftheycaughtCOVID.Thus,participantsdecidedtobuymoreitemsandreducetheirtripstothesupermarketstoreducetheriskofcontractingthevirus.Participantsalsoreportedhowtheirdecision-makingandbehaviourwasalsoareactiontotheNHSguidelinesforreducingriskandstayingprotected.Finally,preparednesswasusedbyparticipantsasareasonforbeingadequatelystocked.However,theyrefrainedfromframingtheiractionsaspanic.Rather,theyperceivedboththemselvesaswellasothersstockingupincasetheycouldnotleavetheirhousesduetoquarantinemeasures. Fromtheexamplespresentedhere,itbecomesclearthatparticipantslargelyperceivedthemselvesaswellasotherpeopleasrationalsocialactorswhotookpreparednessmeasuresinthefaceofuncertainty.However,thereweresomecasesinwhichpreparedness(andbyextentsomeinstancesofshoppingbehaviours)wasdrivenbypeople’sperceptionsofhowotherpeoplewouldact: Extract15 I:Okay.Didyoubelieveanystatementsthatyouheardabouttherebeingenoughfoodornotenoughfoodandthattherewasnoneedtopanic? P19:Yes.Ibelievedthattherewasnoneedtopanic.Myconcernsweren’twhethertherewasenoughfoodandstock.Itwaswhetherwewouldbeabletoaccessitoncepeoplehadstartedstockpiling. And Extract16 P6:Ididn’t,soatsomepointIdidbutthethingiswhen-soIrememberstillgoingtothesupermarketonaSaturday,aweekortwobeforethelockdown,andeverythingseemedprettynormalalthoughInoticedthatthetoiletpaperaislewasempty,soIjustdidmyshopthatIusuallydoandthenataroundlunchtimeIsawamessagefromourFacebookfromthesamesupermarketthatI’vejustbeeninandeverythingshelfwasempty,everything,andthatwas,andthatchangedmymentalityabitinthatwaythatIjustgotworriedthatjustbecauseeveryoneelseisbuyingstuffImaynotgetaholdofit,sothenIreachedthepointwhereIdidmybuytwoinsteadofone,yeah,Idon’tknow,tomatoesorpastaorwhatever,justsoIamonthesafeside,butitwasmore-Iwouldsaythisismorethesecondwaveresponsebecausethiswasaresponsetootherpeoplepanicbuying. Asillustratedabove,participantsreportedbuyingadditionalproductsasameansofpreparednessagainstpotentialshortages.However,fromtheiraccounts,theirreactionswerelargelydrivenbyotherpeople’sbehaviour.Participants’concernswereguidednotbypotentialproductshortagesbutduetootherpeoplebuyingextraproducts,whichcouldpotentiallyrenderthemunabletopurchasetheproductsthattheyneeded.Similarly,participantsreportedthattheydoubledhowmanyproductstheyboughtnotasaresponsetothepandemicitselfbutduetopeople’sactualbehaviours.Theincreasewasdrivenbycomparisonsofthepre-andpost-lockdownobservationsofshortagesofsomeproductswhichwereamplifiedbymessagesinsocialmedia.Thus,someparticipantsdidincreasetheirpurchasesastheywereconcernedabouthowotherpeoplewouldreacttothepandemic. DiscussionTheconceptof“panicbuying”hasdiffusedintobothscientificandlaydiscoursesasameansofexplainingshoppingbehavioursinextremeeventsandwasusedforexamplewhenemptyshelveswereobservedattheonsetoftheCOVID-19pandemic(e.g.,[3]).Somesocialscientistsusedasimilarirrationalistdiscourseandattributedshoppingbehaviourstoanemergingherdmentality[15]oruncriticalcontagion[16]orequatedpsychologicalresponseswhichareexpectedinextremeeventssuchasfearandworryingtoirrationalityand“panic”[19].However,inthewidersocialscientificliteraturerelatedtodisasters,thenotionof“panic”hasbeendiscreditedasitisoftenusedinanadhocmannerandisnotabletopredictorexplainobservedbehavioursofinterest[7,39–41].Similarly,reportsattheonsetoftheCOVID-19pandemicshowedthatonlyaverysmallpercentageofshoppersboughtverylargeamountsofproducts(e.g.,3%boughtexcessiveamountsofpasta)whereasmostpeopleslightlyincreasedtheirshoppingwhichcausedproblemsinsupplychains[4]. Inthispaper,wewereinterestedinpeople’sexperiencesandunderstandingsofshoppingbehavioursinextremeevents.Wewantedtoexplorebothparticipants’experiencesandperceptionsoftheirownandotherpeople’sbehaviourintheearlystagesoftheCOVID-19pandemic,aswellashowtheconceptof“panicbuying”mightbeemployedbyparticipantsthemselvesasanexplanatoryconceptforobservedbehaviours.Thethematicanalysisbasedonsemi-structuredinterviewsprovideduswithin-depthinsightsonhowpeopledefine“panicbuying”aswellasonthefactorsthataffectedtheirbehaviourorwerethoughttohaveshapedotherpeople’sbehaviour.Ourfirstthemeshowedthat“panicbuying”wasoftenutilizedbyparticipantsasanexplanatoryconceptforbuyingadditionalproducts.However,uponcloserinspection,wenoticedthattheconceptwaseitherusedtoprovideanadhocdescriptionofobservedemptyshelvesorwasemployedtodescribepreparednessactivitiesoremotionsthatnormallyemergeinemergenciessuchasfearandworrying,addingnofurtherusefulinformation.Inoursecondtheme,weshowedthatourparticipantsperceivedstockpilingasbeingaffectedbymediareportswhichcanshapeexpectationsabouthowotherpeoplewillbehave,orduetotheperceivedorobservedbehaviourofotherpeople.Mediareportsthatdepictedalackofproductsrepresentedotherpeople’sbehaviourasessentiallyoneofcompetitionforaccesstoalimitednumberofproducts,creatingasenseofurgencytopreventonefrombeingleftoutofessentialproductsintimesofcrisis.Whenusedtoguideone’sbehaviour,thisformofreasoningwherebyoneobservesorspeculatesabouthowotherswillthinkandbehavecaneventuallyleadtoaviciouscircle,subsequentlyleadingtosupplychainissues.Ourthirdthemedemonstratedthattheelementofpreparednesswascrucialinshapingparticipants’responsesortheirperceptionsofhowandwhyotherpeoplewerepotentiallystockpiling.Reducingone’stripstosupermarkets,preparingforproductshortagesorforprolongedstaysathome,orguardingagainst“thosewhopanic”wereperceivedasthemotivatorsforincreasingone’spurchases.Itisworthnotingthatanyincreasesreportedbyourparticipantsweresmallandunlikethehoardingbehavioursoftenreportedinthemedia. Consideringourfindingsaswellasreportsthatonlyatinyminorityofshoppersboughtverylargeamountsofproducts[4],wearguethatwhatmightcountas“excessive”canalsolieintheeyeofthebeholderandcanbeaffectedbypersonalcircumstancesandperceptionsshapedbythesurroundingsocialcontext;forexample,theamountofproductsthataparentofafamilyoffivemightpurchasewhenpreparingforatwo-week-longlockdowncanbeperceivedasanecessaryactofpreparednessbytheparentbutas“excessive”orirrationalbyanoutsidersuchasajournalistreportingconsumerbehaviourattheonsetofanextremeevent.Ourfindingsareinlinewithpreviousresearchonpurchasingbehavioursinextremeevents.Wehighlightedtheroleofperceptionsofscarcityandotherpeople’sbehaviours[23,28],distressandmistrustofothers[34],andthemedia[26]indrivingpurchasingbehaviours.Also,asexpected,wefoundthatparticipantsoftenused“panicbuying”toaccountforvariousobservationsandbehaviours,buttheconceptwasoflimiteduse.Moreover,“panicbuying”anditsirrationalistconnotationswerepotentiallymoredangerouswhentheywereuncriticallyadoptedinscientificreports[15,16]astheydistortedmeaningfulsocialactionbypathologizingit. Inlinewithotherresearchers[7,39–41],wearguethatthenotionof“panic”and“panicbuying”shouldnotbeusedtodescribepurchasingbehavioursinextremeeventsforfourreasons:First,itpathologisesmeaningful,adaptivesocialactionbyportrayingitasirrational.Second,itdoesnotofferanymeaningfulinsightsasitcanonlyprovideinaccurate,adhocexplanationsofobservedbehaviours.Third,itreproducesthemythof“panic”inbothlayandscientificdiscoursesandcansetupproblematicgeneralizedrepresentationsofhumanbehaviour,becomingdangerouswhenusedtoinformbothmediareportingaswellaspublicpolicy.Fourth,attributingproductshortagestohumanbehaviourandmorespecificallyto“panic”isproblematic,sinceobservedshortagesareshort-livedandaremostlycausedbyproblemsinthesupplychains,bybulkshopping,orbysmallincreasesinthepurchasesofasmallproportionofshoppers[4,5]. Limitationsandfutureresearch Ourfindingsshouldbeinterpretedinlightofthelimitationsofourstudy.Themainissueconcernsparticipants’reflectionsontheirbehaviour.Buyingextraproductsisusuallyseenasantisocialandanti-normativebehaviour,soevenifparticipantsdidengageinhoarding,itispossiblethattheywouldnotreportittous.However,manyparticipantsadmittedsometimesbuyingmoreproductsthanusual,sodistortionofinformationisquiteunlikely.Second,theinterviewswerecollectedinJuneandJuly2020,atleastthreemonthssincethefirstlockdownwasimposedintheUK.Thepassingoftimeandthereturnof‘normality’mighthavechangedparticipants’perceptionscomparedtotheveryearlydaysofthelockdown,subsequentlyaffectingtheirresponsestothesurvey.Third,oursamplewasrelativelysmall(butneverthelesstypicalforsemi-structured,qualitativeinterviewstudies),young,andnotrepresentativeintermsofage,socioeconomicstatus,orgeographicallocation.Thesefactorsmighthaveaffectedparticipants’riskperceptionsandrisktolerance,affectingthefindings.Basedontheaforementionedlimitations,futureresearchshouldcollectdataatthetimethatstockpilingbehavioursareobservedandfromlargerandrepresentativesamples.Also,thereisscopeforresearchthatwillusebothqualitativeandquantitativesurveyfindingstoaddresstheissueofstockpilinginexperimentalsettings. ConclusionDespiteoftenusingtheterm“panicbuying”,whatourparticipantsoftenmeantwerefeelingsoffearanduncertainty,theelementofpreparedness,orobservedproductshortages.Apotentialreasonwhythediscourseof“panic”wasoftenusedwasnotduetoitsinsightsbutratherbecauseofitsimmediateavailabilitythroughitsdiffusioninpopularculture[7,38].Moreover,themainreasonswhyparticipantsreportedincreasingtheirpurchaseswerenotalossofrationalitybutrathertheinfluenceofthemediaandofotherpeople’sbehaviourswhichledthemtotakeuppreparednessaction.Thelatterinvolvedreducingtripstosupermarkets,preparingforproductshortagesandlongerstaysathome,aswellasprotectingthemselvesfrompeoplewhowereperceivedorrepresentedas“panicbuying”.Whatbecomesobviousisthathumanbehaviourisnotirrationalbutiscontrolled,adaptive,andimbuedwith(social)meaning.Thus,aculturalchangeisneededwherebysocialactors(e.g.,themedia,scientists,politicians)abstainfromusinglanguagethatpathologizeshumanbehaviourandfacilitatesunnecessarycompetition. 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