Counseling psychology - Wikipedia

Counseling psychology is a psychological specialty that encompasses research and applied work in several broad domains: counseling process and outcome; ... Counselingpsychology FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Counselingtheory "Counselingpsychologist"redirectshere.Fortheacademicjournal,seeTheCounselingPsychologist. PartofaseriesonPsychology Outline History Subfields Basictypes Abnormal Behavioral Behavioralgenetics Biological Cognitive/Cognitivism Comparative Cross-cultural Cultural Differential Developmental Evolutionary Experimental Mathematical Neuropsychology Personality Positive Psychodynamic Psychometrics Quantitative Social Appliedpsychology Appliedbehavioranalysis Clinical Community Consumer Counseling Critical Educational Environmental Food Ergonomics Forensic Health Humanistic Industrialandorganizational Legal Medical Military Music Occupationalhealth Political Psychometrics Religion School Sport Traffic Lists Disciplines Organizations Psychologists Psychotherapies Researchmethods Theories Timeline Topics  Psychologyportalvte CounselingpsychologyICD-10-PCSGZ6ICD-9-CM94.45-94.49MeSHD003376[editonWikidata] Counselingpsychologyisapsychologicalspecialtythatencompassesresearchandappliedworkinseveralbroaddomains:counselingprocessandoutcome;supervisionandtraining;careerdevelopmentandcounseling;andpreventionandhealth. Someunifyingthemesamongcounselingpsychologistsincludeafocusonassetsandstrengths,person–environmentinteractions,educationalandcareerdevelopment,briefinteractions,andafocusonintactpersonalities.[1] Contents 1History 2Employmentandsalary 3Processandoutcome 3.1Therapistvariables 3.2Clientvariables 3.3Counselingrelationship 3.4Culturalvariables 3.5Counselingethicsandregulation 3.6Outcomemeasurement 3.7Processandoutcomeresearchmethods 4Trainingandsupervision 4.1Professionaltrainingprocess 4.1.1Australia 4.2Trainingmodelsandresearch 4.3Supervisionmodelsandresearch 5Vocationaldevelopmentandcareercounseling 5.1Vocationaltheories 5.2Careercounseling 6EffectsofCOVIDinrelationtocounseling 7Professionaljournals 8Seealso 9References History[edit] Theterm"counselling"isofAmericanorigin,coinedbyCarlRogers,who,lackingamedicalqualificationwaspreventedfromcallinghisworkpsychotherapy.[2]IntheU.S.,counsellingpsychology,likemanymodernpsychologyspecialties,startedasaresultofWorldWarII.Duringthewar,theU.S.militaryhadastrongneedforvocationalplacementandtraining.Inthe1940sand1950s,theVeteransAdministrationcreatedaspecialtycalled"counselingpsychology",andDivision17[3](nowknownastheSocietyforCounselingPsychology)oftheAPAwasformed.TheSocietyofCounselingPsychologyunitespsychologists,studentsandprofessionalswhoarededicatedtopromoteeducationandtraining,practice,scientificinvestigation,diversityandpublicinterestinthefieldofprofessionalpsychology.[4]Thisfosteredinterestincounselortraining,andthecreationofthefirstfewcounselingpsychologyPhDprograms.ThefirstcounselingpsychologyPhDprogramswereattheUniversityofMinnesota;OhioStateUniversity;UniversityofMaryland,CollegePark;UniversityofMissouri;TeachersCollege,ColumbiaUniversity;andUniversityofTexasatAustin.[5][6] Inrecentdecades,counselingpsychologyasaprofessionhasexpandedandisnowrepresentedinnumerouscountriesaroundtheworld.BooksdescribingthepresentinternationalstateofthefieldincludetheHandbookofCounselingandPsychotherapyinanInternationalContext;[7]theInternationalHandbookofCross-CulturalCounseling;[8]andCounselingAroundtheWorld:AnInternationalHandbook.[9]Takentogetherthesevolumestracetheglobalhistoryofthefield,exploredivergentphilosophicalassumptions,counselingtheories,processes,andtrendsindifferentcountries,andreviewavarietyofglobalcounseloreducationprograms.Moreover,traditionalandindigenoustreatmentandhealingmethodsthatmaypredatemoderncounselingmethodsbyhundredsofyearsremainofsignificanceinmanynon-WesternandWesterncountries.[7][10][11] Employmentandsalary[edit] Counselingpsychologistsareemployedinavarietyofsettingsdependingontheservicestheyprovideandtheclientpopulationstheyserve.Someareemployedincollegesanduniversitiesasteachers,supervisors,researchers,andserviceproviders.Othersareemployedinindependentpracticeprovidingcounseling,psychotherapy,assessment,andconsultationservicestoindividuals,couples/families,groups,andorganizations.Additionalsettingsinwhichcounselingpsychologistspracticeincludecommunitymentalhealthcenters,VeteransAdministrationmedicalcentersandotherfacilities,familyservices,healthmaintenanceorganizations,rehabilitationagencies,businessandindustrialorganizationsandconsultingwithinfirms. Theamountoftrainingrequiredforpsychologistsdiffersbasedonthecountryinwhichtheyarepracticing.Typically,apsychologistcompletesanUndergraduateDegreefollowedby5–6yearsoffurtherstudyand/ortraining,leadingtothePh.D.Whilebothpsychologistsandpsychiatristsoffertocounsel,psychiatristsmustpossessamedicaldegreeandthuscanprescribemedicationwhilepsychologistscannot. Currentlyin2022,themediansalaryforcounselingpsychologistsintheUnitedStateswas$86,938.[12] Processandoutcome[edit] Counselingpsychologistsareinterestedinansweringavarietyofresearchquestionsaboutcounselingprocessandoutcome.Counselingprocessreferstohoworwhycounselinghappensandprogresses.Counselingoutcomeaddresseswhetherornotcounselingiseffective,underwhatconditionsitiseffective,andwhatoutcomesareconsideredeffective—suchassymptomreduction,behaviorchange,orqualityoflifeimprovement.Topicscommonlyexploredinthestudyofcounselingprocessandoutcomeincludetherapistvariables,clientvariables,thecounselingortherapeuticrelationship,culturalvariables,processandoutcomemeasurement,mechanismsofchange,andprocessandoutcomeresearchmethods.ClassicapproachesappearedearlyintheUSinthefieldofhumanisticpsychologybyCarlRogerswhoidentifiedthemissionofcounselinginterviewas"topermitdeeperexpressionthattheclientwouldordinarilyallowhimself"[13] Therapistvariables[edit] Therapistvariablesincludecharacteristicsofacounselororpsychotherapist,aswellastherapisttechnique,behavior,theoreticalorientationandtraining.Intermsoftherapistbehavior,techniqueandtheoreticalorientation,researchonadherencetotherapymodelshasfoundthatadherencetoaparticularmodeloftherapycanbehelpful,detrimental,orneutralintermsofimpactonoutcome.[14] Arecentmeta-analysisofresearchontrainingandexperiencesuggeststhatexperiencelevelisonlyslightlyrelatedtoaccuracyinclinicaljudgment.[15]Highertherapistexperiencehasbeenfoundtoberelatedtolessanxiety,butalsolessfocus.[16]Thissuggeststhatthereisstillworktobedoneintermsoftrainingcliniciansandmeasuringsuccessfultraining. Clientvariables[edit] Clientcharacteristicssuchashelp-seekingattitudesandattachmentstylehavebeenfoundtoberelatedtoclientuseofcounseling,aswellasexpectationsandoutcome.Stigmaagainstmentalillnesscankeeppeoplefromacknowledgingproblemsandseekinghelp.Publicstigmahasbeenfoundtoberelatedtoself-stigma,attitudestowardscounseling,andwillingnesstoseekhelp.[17] Intermsofattachmentstyle,clientswithavoidancestyleshavebeenfoundtoperceivegreaterrisksandfewerbenefitstocounseling,andarelesslikelytoseekprofessionalhelp,thansecurelyattachedclients.Thosewithanxiousattachmentstylesperceivegreaterbenefitsaswellasriskstocounseling.[18]Educatingclientsaboutexpectationsofcounselingcanimproveclientsatisfaction,treatmentdurationandoutcomes,andisanefficientandcost-effectiveintervention.[19] Counselingrelationship[edit] Mainarticle:Therapeuticrelationship Therelationshipbetweenacounselorandclientisthefeelingsandattitudesthataclientandtherapisthavetowardsoneanother,andthemannerinwhichthosefeelingsandattitudesareexpressed.[20]Sometheoristshavesuggestedthattherelationshipmaybethoughtofinthreeparts:transferenceandcountertransference,workingalliance,andthereal—orpersonal—relationship.[21]Othertheoristsarguethattheconceptsoftransferenceandcountertransferenceareoutdatedandinadequate.[22][23][24] Transferencecanbedescribedastheclient'sdistortedperceptionsofthetherapist.Thiscanhaveagreateffectonthetherapeuticrelationship.Forinstance,thetherapistmayhaveafacialfeaturethatremindstheclientoftheirparent.Becauseofthisassociation,iftheclienthassignificantnegativeorpositivefeelingstowardtheirparent,theymayprojectthesefeelingsontothetherapist.Thiscanaffectthetherapeuticrelationshipinafewways.Forexample,iftheclienthasaverystrongbondwiththeirparent,theymayseethetherapistasafatherormotherfigureandhaveastrongconnectionwiththetherapist.Thiscanbeproblematicbecauseasatherapist,itisnotethicaltohaveamorethan"professional"relationshipwithaclient.Itcanalsobeagoodthing,becausetheclientmayopenupgreatlytothetherapist.Inanotherway,iftheclienthasaverynegativerelationshipwiththeirparent,theclientmayfeelnegativefeelingstowardthetherapist.Thiscanthenaffectthetherapeuticrelationshipaswell.Forexample,theclientmayhavetroubleopeninguptothetherapistbecauseheorshelackstrustintheirparent(projectingthesefeelingsofdistrustontothetherapist).[25] Anothertheoryaboutthefunctionofthecounselingrelationshipisknownasthesecure-basehypothesis,whichisrelatedtoattachmenttheory.Thishypothesisproposesthatthecounseloractsasasecurebasefromwhichclientscanexploreandthencheckinwith.Secureattachmenttoone'scounselorandsecureattachmentingeneralhavebeenfoundtoberelatedtoclientexploration.Insecureattachmentstyleshavebeenfoundtoberelatedtolesssessiondepththansecurelyattachedclients.[26] Culturalvariables[edit] Counselingpsychologistsareinterestedinhowculturerelatestohelp-seekingandcounselingprocessandoutcome.StandardsurveysexploringthenatureofcounsellingacrossculturesandvariousethnicgroupsincludeCounselingAcrossCulturesbyPaulB.Pedersen,JurisG.Draguns,WalterJ.LonnerandJosephE.Trimble,[27]HandbookofMulticulturalCounselingbyJosephG.Ponterotto,J.ManuealCasas,LisaA.SuzukiandCharleneM.Alexander[28]andHandbookofCulture,Therapy,andHealingbyUweP.Gielen,JeffersonM.FishandJurisG.Draguns.[29]JanetE.Helms'racialidentitymodelcanbeusefulforunderstandinghowtherelationshipandcounselingprocessmightbeaffectedbytheclient'sandcounselor'sracialidentity.[30]RecentresearchsuggeststhatclientswhoareBlackareatriskforexperiencingracialmicro-aggressionfromcounselorswhoareWhite.[31] Efficacyforworkingwithclientswhoarelesbians,gaymen,orbisexualmightberelatedtotherapistdemographics,gender,sexualidentitydevelopment,sexualorientation,andprofessionalexperience.[32]Clientswhohavemultipleoppressedidentitiesmightbeespeciallyat-riskforexperiencingunhelpfulsituationswithcounselors,socounselorsmightneedhelpwithgainingexpertiseforworkingwithclientswhoaretransgender,lesbian,gay,bisexual,ortransgenderpeopleofcolor,andotheroppressedpopulations.[33] Genderrolesocializationcanalsopresentissuesforclientsandcounselors.Implicationsforpracticeincludebeingawareofstereotypesandbiasesaboutmaleandfemaleidentity,rolesandbehaviorsuchasemotionalexpression.[34]TheAPAguidelinesformulticulturalcompetenceoutlineexpectationsfortakingcultureintoaccountinpracticeandresearch.[35] Counselingethicsandregulation[edit] Thissectionneedsadditionalcitationsforverification.Pleasehelpimprovethisarticlebyaddingcitationstoreliablesources.Unsourcedmaterialmaybechallengedandremoved.Findsources: "counselingethics" – news ·newspapers ·books ·scholar ·JSTOR(January2022)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) Furtherinformation:Clinicalpsychology§ Professionalethics,Psychotherapy§ Regulation,andPsychologist§ Licensingandregulations Perceptionsonethicalbehaviorsvarydependingupongeographicallocation,butethicalmandatesaresimilarthroughouttheglobalcommunity.Ethicalstandardsarecreatedtohelppractitioners,clientsandthecommunityavoidanypossibleharmorpotentialforharm.Thestandardethicalbehaviorsarecenteredon"doingnoharm"andpreventingharm.AnexcellentguidelinetofollowistheEthicsPrinciplesofPsychologistsandCodeofConduct.[36]Thiscodelistsouttheexpectationspsychologistsmustmeetandthoroughlyclarifiesportionsofthecode.Someexamplesfromthecodewouldberespectingclients'rights,ensuringproperprofessionalcompetence,ensuringtheclient'swelfare,andgivinginformedconsenttonameafewitemsfromthecode.SeveralstatesrequirecounselorstofollowaspecificCodeofEthicswhichwasrevisedandupdatedin2014.Failuretofollowthiscodecanleadtolicenserevocationormoresevereconsequences.[37]OneofthemajorreasonfortheCodeofConductistobetterprotectandservetheclientandthecounselor. Counselorsmustreviewwiththeirclientsverballyandinwritingtheresponsibilitiesandrightsthatthecounselorandclienthave.[38]Ontopofthis,counselorsmustexplainthepurpose,goals,techniques,procedures,limitations,potentialrisks,benefitsofservice:thecounselor'squalifications,credentials,relevantexperience,approachtocounseling;continuationofserviceuponthedeathofcounselor;theroleoftechnology;andotherpertinentinformation. Counselorscannotshareanyconfidentialinformationthatisobtainedthroughthecounselingprocesswithoutspecificwrittenconsentbytheclientorlegalguardianexcepttopreventclear,imminentdangertotheclientorothers,orwhenrequiredtodosobyacourtorder.[39]Insurancecompaniesorgovernmentprogramswillalsobenotifiedofcertaininformationaboutyourdiagnosisandtreatmenttodetermineifyourcareiscovered.ThosecompaniesandgovernmentprogramsareboundbyHIPAAtokeepthatinformationstrictlyconfidential.[40] Counselorsareheldtoahigherstandardthanmostprofessionalsbecauseoftheintimacyoftheirtherapeuticdelivery.Counselorsarenotonlytoavoidfraternizingwiththeirclients.Theyshouldavoiddualrelationships,andneverengageinsexualrelationships.Whileexplicit/detrimentalrelationshipsmustbeavoided,thecounselorshouldunderstandwhatiscurrentlygoingonandhowtheirpatientisreacting.[41]Whileexplicit/detrimentalrelationshipsmustbeavoided,thecounselorshouldunderstandwhatiscurrentlygoingonandhowtheirpatientreactstothecounselingsessions.[42]Counselorsarealsoprohibitedfromcounselingtheirfriendsandfamilymemberstoensuretheyremainobjective.Theyarealsoprohibitedfromengaginginanonlinerelationship,suchasarelationshipoversocialmediawithaclient. TheNationalBoardforCertifiedCounselorsstatesthatcounselors"shalldiscussimportantconsiderationstoavoidexploitationbeforeenteringintoanon-counselingrelationshipwithaformerclient.Importantconsiderationstobediscussedincludeamountoftimesincecounselingservicetermination,durationofcounseling,natureandcircumstancesofclient'scounseling,thelikelihoodthattheclientwillwanttoresumecounselingatsometimeinthefuture;circumstancesofserviceterminationandpossiblenegativeeffectsoroutcomes."[43] Counselorswalkafinelineinregardstogifts.Counselorsaregenerallydiscouragedfromacceptinggifts,favors,ortradefortherapy.Whiletheideaofagiftseemsinnocenttoothers,itcanhavelong-lastingconsequencesforacounselor.Insomecommunities,itmaybeavoidablegiventheeconomicstandingofthatcommunity.However,individualsmayfeelpersonallyrejected.Insomecasesifanofferingissomethingsuchasa"cookie"orsomeformofsmalltokengesturelikeadrawingfromachild,itmaybeacceptabletoreceivethegesture.Ascounselors,ajudgmentcallmustbemade,butinmostcases,avoidinggifts,favors,andtradecanbemaintained.[44] Therearespecificexaminationsallcounselorsmustpasstopracticetheircraftsuccessfully.TheseexaminationsaretheNationalCounselorExamination(NCE),NationalClinicalMentalHealthCounselorExamination(NCMHCE),CertifiedRehabilitationCounselorExamination(CRCE),ExaminationofClinicalCounselorPractice(ECCP).Oftheexamslisted,certainonesmustbepassedincertainspecialties;however,themostcommonexamutilizedistheNCE.[37] Outcomemeasurement[edit] Counselingoutcomemeasuresmightlookatageneraloverviewofsymptoms,symptomsofspecificdisorders,orpositiveoutcomes,suchassubjectivewell-beingorqualityoflife.TheOutcomeQuestionnaire-45isa45-itemself-reportmeasureofpsychologicaldistress.[45]Anexampleofdisorder-specificmeasureistheBeckDepressionInventory.TheQualityofLifeInventoryisa17-itemself-reportlifesatisfactionmeasure.[46] Processandoutcomeresearchmethods[edit] Researchaboutthecounselingprocessandoutcomeusesavarietyofresearchmethodologiestoanswerquestionsaboutif,how,andwhycounselingworks.Quantitativemethodsincluderandomlycontrolledclinicaltrials,correlationstudiesoverthecourseofcounseling,orlaboratorystudiesaboutspecificcounselingprocessandoutcomevariables.Qualitativeresearchmethodscaninvolveconducting,transcribingandcodinginterviews;transcribingand/orcodingtherapysessions;orfine-grainanalysisofsinglecounselingsessionsorcounselingcases. Trainingandsupervision[edit] Professionaltrainingprocess[edit] Counselingpsychologistsaretrainedingraduateprograms.AlmostallprogramsgrantaPhD,butafewgrantaPsy.D.orEd.D.Mostdoctoralprogramstake5–6yearstocomplete.Graduateworkincounselingpsychologyincludescourseworkingeneralpsychologyandstatistics,counselingpractice,andresearch.[47]Studentsmustcompleteanoriginaldissertationattheendoftheirgraduatetraining.Studentsmustalsocompleteaone-yearfull-timeinternshipatanaccreditedsitebeforeearningtheirdoctorate.Inordertobelicensedtopractice,counselingpsychologistsmustgainclinicalexperienceundersupervision,andpassastandardizedexam. Australia[edit] InAustralia,therearecounselingpsychologyprogramsareaccreditedbytheAustralianPsychologyAccreditationCouncil(APAC).Tobecomeregisteredasacounselingpsychologist,onemustmeetthecriteriafortheareaofpracticeendorsement.Thisincludesanundergraduatedegreeinthescienceofpsychology,anHonoursdegreeorPostgraduateDiplomainPsychology,andaMaster'sorDoctoratedegreeincounselingpsychology.Graduatesmustthencompletearegistrarprogramtoobtainanareaofpracticeendorsementandusethetitlecounselingpsychologist.[48]Asubstantialcomponentofthismaster'sdegreeisdedicatedtoindividualpsychotherapy,familyandcouplestherapy,grouptherapy,developmentaltheoryandpsychopathology.[49] Trainingmodelsandresearch[edit] Counselingpsychologyincludesthestudyandpracticeofcounselortrainingandcounselorsupervision.Asresearchers,counselingpsychologistsmayinvestigatewhatmakestrainingandsupervisioneffective.Aspractitioners,counselingpsychologistsmaysuperviseandtrainavarietyofclinicians.Counselortrainingtendstooccurinformalclassesandtrainingprograms.Partofcounselortrainingmayinvolvecounselingclientsunderthesupervisionofalicensedclinician.Supervisioncanalsooccurbetweenlicensedclinicians,asawaytoimproveclinicians'qualityofworkandcompetencewithvarioustypesofcounselingclients. Asthefieldofcounselingpsychologyformedinthemid-20thcentury,initialtrainingmodelsincludedRobertCarkuff'shumanrelationstrainingmodel,[50]NormanKagan'sInterpersonalProcessRecall,[51]andAllenIvey'smicrocounselingskills.[52]ModerntrainingmodelsincludeGerardEgan'sskilledhelpermodel,[53]andClaraE.Hill'sthree-stagemodel(exploration,insight,andaction).[54]Arecentanalysisofstudiesoncounselortrainingfoundthatmodeling,instruction,andfeedbackarecommontomosttrainingmodels,andseemtohavemediumtolargeeffectsontrainees.[55] Supervisionmodelsandresearch[edit] Likethemodelsofhowclientsandtherapistsinteract,therearealsomodelsoftheinteractionsbetweentherapistsandtheirsupervisors.EdwardS.Bordinproposedamodelofsupervisionworkingalliancesimilartohismodeloftherapeuticworkingalliance.TheIntegratedDevelopmentModelconsidersthelevelofaclient'smotivation/anxiety,autonomy,andselfandotherawareness.TheSystemsApproachtoSupervisionviewstherelationshipbetweensupervisorandsupervisedasmostimportant,inadditiontocharacteristicsofthesupervisor'spersonalcharacteristics,counselingclients,trainingsetting,aswellasthetasksandfunctionsofsupervision.TheCriticalEventsinSupervisionmodelfocusesonimportantmomentsthatoccurbetweenthesupervisorandsupervised.[56] Problemscanariseinsupervisionandtraining.Questionshavearisenasfarasasupervisor'sneedforformaltrainingtobeacompetentsupervisor.[57]Recentresearchsuggeststhatconflicting,multiplerelationshipscanoccurbetweensupervisorsandclients,suchasthatoftheclient,instructor,andclinicalsupervisor.[57]Theoccurrenceofracialmicro-aggressionagainstBlackclients[58]suggestspotentialproblemswithracialbiasinsupervision.Ingeneral,conflictsbetweenacounselorandhisorherownsupervisorcanarisewhensupervisorsdemonstratedisrespect,lackofsupport,andblaming.[56] Vocationaldevelopmentandcareercounseling[edit] Vocationaltheories[edit] Thissectionneedsadditionalcitationsforverification.Pleasehelpimprovethisarticlebyaddingcitationstoreliablesources.Unsourcedmaterialmaybechallengedandremoved.Findsources: "Counselingpsychology" – news ·newspapers ·books ·scholar ·JSTOR(January2022)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) Thereareseveraltypesoftheoriesofvocationalchoiceanddevelopment.Thesetypesincludetraitandfactortheories,socialcognitivetheories,anddevelopmentaltheories.Twoexamplesoftraitandfactortheories,alsoknownasperson–environmentfit,areHolland'stheoryandtheTheoryofWorkAdjustment. JohnHollandhypothesizedsixvocationalpersonality/interesttypesandsixworkenvironmenttypes:realistic,investigative,artistic,social,enterprising,andconventional.Whenaperson'svocationalinterestsmatchhisorherworkenvironmenttypes,thisisconsideredcongruence.Congruencehasbeenfoundtopredictoccupationandcollegemajor.[59] TheTheoryofWorkAdjustment(TWA),asdevelopedbyRenéDawisandLloydLofquist,[60]hypothesizesthatthecorrespondencebetweenaworker'sneedsandthereinforcedsystemspredictsjobsatisfaction,andthatthecorrespondencebetweenaworker'sskillsandajob'sskillrequirementspredictsjobsatisfaction.Jobsatisfactionandpersonalsatisfactiontogethershoulddeterminehowlongoneremainsatajob.Whenthereisadiscrepancybetweenaworker'sneedsorskillsandthejob'sneedsorskills,thenchangeneedstooccureitherintheworkerorthejobenvironment. SocialCognitiveCareerTheory(SCCT)hasbeenproposedbyRobertD.Lent,StevenD.BrownandGailHackett.ThetheorytakesAlbertBandura'sworkonself-efficacyandexpandsittointerestdevelopment,choicemaking,andperformance.PersonvariablesinSCCTincludeself-efficacybeliefs,outcomeexpectationsandpersonalgoals.Themodelalsoincludesdemographics,ability,values,andenvironment.Efficacyandoutcomeexpectationsaretheorizedtointerrelateandinfluenceinterestdevelopment,whichinturninfluenceschoiceofgoals,andthenactions.Environmentalsupportsandbarriersalsoaffectgoalsandactions.Actionsleadtoperformanceandchoicestabilityovertime.[59] Careerdevelopmenttheoriesproposevocationalmodelsthatincludechangesthroughoutthelifespan.DonaldSuper'smodelproposesalifelongfive-stagecareerdevelopmentprocess.Thestagesaregrowth,exploration,establishment,maintenance,anddisengagement.[61]Throughoutlife,peoplehavemanyrolesthatmaydifferintermsofimportanceandmeaning.Superalsotheorizedthatcareerdevelopmentisanimplementationofself-concept.LindaGottfredsonalsoproposedacognitivecareerdecision-makingprocessthatdevelopsthroughthelifespan.[62]Theinitialstageofcareerdevelopmentishypothesizedtobethedevelopmentofself-imageinchildhood,astherangeofpossiblerolesnarrowsusingcriteriasuchassex-type,socialclass,andprestige.Duringandafteradolescence,peopletakeabstractconceptsintoconsideration,suchasinterests. Careercounseling[edit] ThegoalofCareerCounselingistohelpprovideguidanceduringallstagesofaperson'scareertrajectory.CareerCounselinglookstohelpanindividualunderstandthemselvesandtheongoingworldaroundthemsotheymaymakeaninformeddecisionregardingtheirlifeandcareer.[63]Careercounselorsprovideawidearrayofservices,suchasattemptingtohelpindividualsdiscoverthemselves.Counselorsalsoattempttohelpothersdiscovertheiractualgoalsorachievementstheymaywanttocompleteinliferegardingeducation,career,ortheirlifeingeneral.Whilealsohelpingindividualsfigureoutwhattheymaywanttobecome,careercounselorsalsohelpfindresourcesandinformationthatmaybeofusetopeopleinachievingtheirfuturegoals.Careercounselorswillcreatearoadmapofsortstohelpindividualsvisualizewheretheyarealongintheirjourneyofachievingtheirdreams.[63]Onefactorthatcounselorsdealwithispeopletendtothinkunemploymentcanbepermanent;however,counselorsmustmakesurethatunemploymentisonlytemporaryandtheirstatuswilleventuallychange.[64]Socounselorsmustdotheirbesttogivepositivereinforcementtofocusmoreonfindingtheirpathinlife.Careercounselingmayincludeprovisionofoccupationalinformation,modelingskills,writtenexercises,andexplorationofcareergoalsandplans.[65]Careercounselingcanalsoinvolvetheuseofpersonalityorcareerinterestassessments,suchastheMyers-BriggsTypeIndicator,whichisbasedonCarlJung'stheoryofpsychologicaltype,ortheStrongInterestInventory,whichmakesuseofHolland'stheory.Assessmentsofskills,abilities,andvaluesarealsocommonlyassessedincareercounseling.Careercounselorshavetheflexibilitytodecidewhethertoconductsessionsusingagroupsettingorsingleface-to-faceinpersonoronlinesetting.Currently,thereisnointernationallyacceptedstandardtobecomeaqualifiedcareercounselor;qualificationsandcertificationwillvarydependingonlocal,state,andinternalregulations.[citationneeded] EffectsofCOVIDinrelationtocounseling[edit] Theongoingpandemichascausedcareercounselorstoadjustmanyoftheircurrentplanswiththeirclients.Whilealsohelpingtoimprovetheirabilitiesbyfacingnewanddifferentsituations.Thepandemic,inthebeginning,causedasignificantjoblayoff,whichmessedupalotofpeople'scareerplans.Towardsthebeginningof2020,employmentlostaround22.4millionindividuals,adownturnofaround15%.[66]Anothercriticalfactorregardingthepandemicisthatmanyschoolsshutdownforawhile,negativelyimpactingstudents.Onesuchscenarioisstudentslookingforspecificprogramstostarttheirmastersmaynothavebeenabletowiththeeducationalshutdown,whichcouldhavenegativelyimpactedtheirfuturecareerpath.Aftereducationstartedtocomebackonline,counselorssoonranintoanissue.Theyhadtobecomemoretech-savvyandunderstandhowtoworkdigitallysignificantlyfastertohelpclientssincetheshifttoanonlineplatform.[67]Whilemovingtoamoreonlinecounselingpresencecanbetricky,itwillleadtomorepositivesoverall.Onemajorpositivebeingtheflexibilitywithobtainingthecounselinghasbecomesignificantlybetter.[68]However,whilemovingaportiontoonlinetelehealth,therearestillcasesthatarebettersuitedtoin-personlikeaddictions.Therewasanalmostdoublingofreferralsregardingseeingapsychologistaround2020,62%.Whenlookingatpsychologists,7outof10hadtheirwaitlistgrowmoreextended,about68%.[69]AnotherfactortoconsideristheeffectCovidhasplayedonthecounselor'shealth.Seeinghowthepandemichasaffectedtheirpatientswhycoulditnotaffectthecounselorsifnotbemoresever,sincetheyarededicatingmoretimetohelpingothersinsteadofthemselves.[70]IthasbeennotedthatCounselorscouldbefeelingoverwhelmed,whichcanleadtomanynegativeconsequences.Hopefully,throughresearchandinformationbaseduponpriorcrises,theycanstayinformedtotakebettercareofthemselveswhilehelpingothers. Professionaljournals[edit] IntheUnitedStates,thescholarlyjournalsoftheprofessionaretheJournalofCounselingPsychology[71]andTheCounselingPsychologist.[72] InAustralia,counselingpsychologyarticlesarepublishedinthecounselingpsychologysectionoftheAustralianPsychologist. InEurope,thescholarlyjournalsoftheprofessionincludetheEuropeanJournalofCounsellingPsychology(undertheauspicesoftheEuropeanAssociationofCounsellingPsychology)[73]andtheCounsellingPsychologyReview(undertheauspicesoftheBritishPsychologicalSociety).[74]CounsellingPsychologyQuarterlyisaninternationalinterdisciplinarypublicationofRoutledge(partoftheTaylor&FrancisGroup).[75] Seealso[edit] Clinicalpsychology Coachingpsychology Listofcounselingtopics Outlineofpsychology Professionalpracticeofbehavioranalysis References[edit] ^Gelso,CharlesJ.,Williams,ElizabethN.&Fretz,B.(2021).CounselingPsychology(4thed.).Washington,D.C.:AmericanPsychologicalAssociation. ^Woolfe,Ray,etal.“CounsellingPsychologyinContext.”HandbookofCounsellingPsychology,2nded.,SagePublications,2003,p.4. ^http://www.div17.org/ ^Heppner,P.,Leong,F.T.L.,&Chiao,H.(2008).Agrowinginternationalizationofcounselingpsychology.In:Brown,S.D.&Lent,R.W.HandbookofCounselingPsychology(4thed).NewYork:Wiley. 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