Empress Dowager Cixi: Rightly Condemned or Wrongly ...

Born in 1835 as Yehe Nara Xingzhen to one of the most influential Manchu families, the future Empress Dowager Cixi was said to be an intelligent ... ANCIENTHISTORYARTARTISTSPHILOSOPHYMoreSTORIESANSWERSCOLLECTINGNEWSWriteforusAboutUsCorrectionsContactUsAncientHistoryArtArtistsPhilosophyStoriesAnswersCollectingNewsWriteforUsMediaRelationsAdvertisewithUsCorrectionsContactUsAboutUsAuthorsStaffTerms&ConditionsPrivacyHomeStoriesEmpressDowagerCixi:RightlyCondemnedorWronglyDiscredited?EmpressDowagerCixi:RightlyCondemnedorWronglyDiscredited?Infamousforhermanipulationandruthlessness,EmpressDowagerCixi’snamehasgonedowninChinesehistoryasoneofthemosthatedfiguresever.Butisallthehatejustified?Mar19,2022•ByChingYeeLin,BA(Hons)History   Inthe19thcenturytheQingDynastywasfraughtwithpoliticalunrestandeconomicproblems.ConfrontedbywesternincursionsandthreatsfromanemergingJapan,theChinesegovernmentwashangingbyathread.PresidingoverthissinkingshipofanempirewasEmpressDowagerCixi.Misguidedandmarredbyendlessproblems,Cixi’sruleisoftencitedasthedrivingforcebehindtheempire’suntimelyfall.Forhistoriansandwesternobservers,thementionofCixiconjuresagrotesqueimageofadespotwhoclungtopowerandresistedchange.Emergingrevisionistviews,however,arguethattheregenthadbeenscapegoatedforthedynasty’sdownfall.Howdidthis“DragonLady”cometoshapeChinesehistory,andwhydoesshestilldivideopinion?   TheEarlyYears:EmpressDowagerCixi’sRoadtoPower OneoftheearliestpaintingsfeaturingayoungCixi,viaMIT   Bornin1835asYeheNaraXingzhentooneofthemostinfluentialManchufamilies,thefutureEmpressDowagerCixiwassaidtobeanintelligentandperceptivechilddespiteherlackofformaleducation.At16,thedoorsoftheForbiddenCityofficiallyopenedtoherasshewaschosentobeaconcubineforthe21-year-oldEmperorXianfeng.Despitestartingasalow-rankingconcubine,sherosetoprominenceaftergivingbirthtohiseldestson,Zaichun—thefutureEmperorTongzhi—in1856.Withthebirthofapromisingheir,theentirecourtbaskedinafestivemoodwithlavishpartiesandcelebrations.   ImperialportraitofEmperorXianfeng,viaThePalaceMuseum,Beijing   Outsidethepalace,however,thedynastywasoverwhelmedbytheongoingTaipingRebellion(1850–1864)andtheSecondOpiumWar(1856–1860).WithChina’sdefeatinthelatter,thegovernmentwasforcedtosignpeacetreatieswhichledtoalossofterritoriesandcripplingindemnity.Fearingforhissafety,EmperorXianfengfledtoChengde,theimperialsummerresidence,withhisfamilyandleftstateaffairstohishalf-brother,PrinceGong.Distraughtbytheseriesofhumiliatingevents,EmperorXianfengsoondiedadepressedmanin1861,passingonthethronetohis5-year-oldson,Zaichun.   RulingBehindtheCurtain:EmpressDowagerCixi’sRegency  InteriorsoftheEasternWarmthChamber,HallofMentalCultivation,wheretheEmpressDowagersheldtheiraudiencebehindasilkscreencurtain,viaThePalaceMuseum,Beijing   Areyouenjoyingthisarticle?SignuptoourFreeWeeklyNewsletterJoin!Loading...Join!Loading...PleasecheckyourinboxtoactivateyoursubscriptionThankyou!Beforehedied,EmperorXianfenghadarrangedforeightstateofficialstoguidetheyoungEmperorTongzhiuntilhecameofage.Cixi,thenknownasNobleConsortYi,launchedtheXinyouCoupwiththelateemperor’sprimarywife,EmpressZhen,andPrinceGongtoassumepower.Thewidowsgainedfullcontroloftheempireasco-regents,withEmpressZhenrenamedEmpressDowager“Ci’an”(meaning“benevolentpeace”),andNobleConsortYiasEmpressDowager“Cixi”(meaning“benevolentjoy”).Despitebeingthedefactorulers,theregentswerenotallowedtobeseenduringcourtsessionsandhadtogiveordersbehindacurtain.Knownas“rulingbehindthecurtain”,thissystemhadbeenadoptedbymanyfemalerulersorauthoritativefiguresinChinesehistory.   PaintingofEmpressDowagerCi’an,viaThePalaceMuseum,Beijing   Wherehierarchywasconcerned,Ci’anprecededCixi,butbecausetheformerwasuninvestedinpolitics,Cixiwas,inreality,theonepullingthestrings.Traditionalinterpretationsofthisbalanceofpower,aswellastheXinyoucoup,havepaintedCixiinanegativelight.SomehistoriansusedthecouptohighlightCixi’scruelnature,emphasizinghowsheeitherdrovetheappointedregentstosuicideorstrippedthemofauthority.OthershavealsocriticizedCixiforside-liningthemorereservedCi’antoconsolidatepower–aclearindicationofhershrewdandmanipulativenature.   EmpressDowagerCixiintheSelf-StrengtheningMovement ImperialportraitofEmperorTongzhi,viaThePalaceMuseum,Beijing   DespitetheoverwhelminglynegativeviewsofEmpressDowagerCixi,herjointeffortswithPrinceGongtomodernizethenationinthemid-19thcenturyshouldnotgounnoticed.TheTongzhiRestoration,aspartoftheSelf-StrengtheningMovement,waslaunchedbyCixiin1861tosalvagetheempire.Markingabriefperiodofrevitalization,theQinggovernmentmanagedtoquelltheTaipingRebellionandotheruprisingsinthecountry.Severalarsenalsmodeledafterthewestwerealsoconstructed,greatlyboostingthemilitarydefenseofChina.   Concurrently,diplomacywithwesternpowerswasgraduallyimproved,inabidtoreverseChina’simageinthewestasabarbaricnation.ThissawtheopeningoftheZongliYamen(BoardofMinistersofForeignAffairs)andtheTongwenGuan(theSchoolofCombinedLearning,whichtaughtwesternlanguages).Withinthegovernmentinternally,reformsalsoreducedcorruptionandpromotedcapableofficials–withorwithoutManchuethnicity.SupportedbyCixi,thiswasapivotaldeparturefromtraditionintheimperialcourt.   OutingOpposition:EmpressDowagerCixi’sTightGripofPower PortraitofPrinceGongbyJohnThomson,1869,viaWellcomeCollection,London   WhileEmpressDowagerCixiacknowledgedtalentsintheimperialcourt,shewasalsoknowntoactonherparanoiawhenthesetalentsbecametoopowerful.ThiswasevidentfromhereffortstounderminePrinceGong–withwhomsheworkedtostabilizethenationafterEmperorXianfeng’ssuddendeath.AsPrince-Regent,PrinceGongwasinstrumentalinsuppressingtheTaipingRebellionin1864andwieldedsignificantinfluenceintheZongliYamenandtheGrandCouncil.Fearingthatherformerallymighthavebecometoopowerful,Cixipubliclyaccusedhimofbeingarrogantandstrippedhimofallauthorityin1865.AlthoughPrinceGonglaterrecoveredhispower,thesamecouldnotbesaidofhisincreasinglyacrimoniousrelationshipwithhishalf-sister-in-law,Cixi.   FromTongzhitoGuangxu:EmpressDowagerCixi’sPoliticalMachinations ImperialportraitofEmperorGuangxu,viaThePalaceMuseum   In1873,thetwoco-regents,EmpressDowagerCixiandEmpressDowagerCi’anwereforcedtoreturnpowertothe16-year-oldEmperorTongzhi.However,theyoungemperor’sillexperiencewithstatemanagementwouldprovetobeasteppingstoneforCixitoresumeregency.Hisprematuredeathin1875soonleftthethroneinperilwithnoheirs–asituationunprecedentedinChinesehistory.   AnopportunemomentforCixitointervenetosteertheempireinherdesireddirection,shepushedforhernephew,3-year-oldZaitiantotakeoverthethronebyproclaiminghimasheradoptiveson.ThisviolatedtheQingcodesincetheheirshouldnotbefromthesamegenerationastheprecedingruler.Yet,Cixi’sdecisionwentunchallengedinthecourt.ThetoddlerwasinstalledasEmperorGuangxuin1875,consequentlyreinstatingtheco-regency,withCixiwieldingfullinfluencebehindthecurtain.   WithCixi’smasterfulmanipulation,thesuccessioncrisiswasdiffusedandallowedthesecondphaseoftheSelf-StrengtheningMovementtocontinuesmoothly.Duringthisperiod,Chinaboosteditssectorsofcommerce,agriculture,andindustryundertheleadershipofCixi’strustedaide,LiHongzhang.Askilledgeneralanddiplomat,LiwasinstrumentalinstrengtheningChina’smilitaryandmodernizingthenavytocountertherapidlyexpandingJapaneseempire.   FromReformisttoArchconservative:EmpressDowagerCixi’sDisastrousPolicyU-Turn NankingArsenalbuiltundertheauspicesofLiHongzhangbyJohnThomson,viaMIT   WhileChinaappearedtobewellontracktowardsmodernizationintheSelf-StrengtheningMovement,EmpressDowagerCixigrewincreasinglysuspiciousoftheacceleratedwesternization.Herco-regentCi’an’sunexpecteddeathin1881pushedCixitotightenhergrip,asshesetouttounderminethepro-westreformistsinthecourt.Oneofthemwasherarch-nemesis,PrinceGong.In1884,CixiaccusedPrinceGongofbeingincompetentafterhehadfailedtostopFrenchincursionsinTonkin,Vietnam–aregionunderChina’ssuzerainty.ShethentookthechancetoremovehimfrompowerintheGrandCouncilandZongliYamen,installingsubjectsloyaltoherinhisplace.   AFrenchpoliticalcartoondepictingthewesternpowers’scrambleforconcessionsinChinabyHenriMeyer,1898,viaBibliothèqueNationaledeFrance,Paris   In1889,CixiendedhersecondregencyandcededpowertoEmperorGuangxuwhohadcomeofage.Though“retired”,sheremainedakeyfigureintheimperialcourtasofficialsoftensoughtheradviceonstateaffairs,sometimesevenbypassingtheemperor.AfterChina’scrushingdefeatintheFirstSino-JapaneseWar(1894–1895),itstechnologicalandmilitarybackwardnesswasfurtherexposed.WesternimperialpowersalsojumpedatthechancetodemandconcessionsfromtheQinggovernment.   EmperorGuangxu,realizingtheneedforchange,kickstartedtheHundredDays’Reformin1898withthesupportofreformistslikeKangYouweiandLiangQichao.Inthespiritofreform,EmperorGuangxuhatchedaplantooustthepoliticallyconservativeCixi.Infuriated,CixilaunchedacouptooverthrowEmperorGuangxuandendedHundredDays’Reform.Manyhistoriansbelievedthatbyreversingtheplannedreforms,Cixi’sconservatismhadeffectivelyeliminatedChina’slastchancetoeffectpeacefulchange,hasteningthedynasty’sdownfall.   TheStartoftheEnd:TheBoxerRebellion ThefallofthePekincastle,thehostilearmybeingbeatenawayfromtheimperialcastlebythealliedarmiesbyTorajirōKasai,1900,viaLibraryofCongress,Washington   Amidpowerstrugglesintheimperialcourt,theChinesesocietygrewincreasinglydivided.Frustratedbythepoliticalinstabilityandwidespreadsocio-economicunrest,manypeasantsblamedtheonslaughtofwesternincursionsforChina’sdecline.In1899,rebelscalled“Boxers”bythewest,leduprisingsagainstforeignersinnorthernChina,destroyingpropertyandattackingwesternmissionariesandChineseChristians.ByJune1900,astheviolencehadspreadtoBeijingwhereforeignlegationsweredestroyed,theQingcourtcouldnolongerturnablindeye.Issuingadecreeorderingallarmiestoattacktheforeigners,EmpressDowagerCixi’ssupportfortheBoxerswouldunleashthefullwrathoftheforeignpowersfarbeyondherimagination.   InAugust,anEight-NationAlliance,consistingoftroopsfromGermany,Japan,Russia,Britain,France,theUnitedStates,Italy,andAustria-HungarystormedBeijing.WhilerelievingtheforeignersandChineseChristians,theforceslootedthecapital,forcingCixitofleesoutheasttoXi’an.ThedecisivealliedvictoryledtothesigningofthecontroversialBoxerProtocolinSeptember1901,whereharsh,punitivetermsfurthercrippledChina.Cixiandtheempirepaidaheavyprice,havingincurredover$330millioninreparationsdebt,plusatwo-yearprohibitionofarmsimport.   TooLittleTooLate:EmpressDowagerCixi’sLastStruggle TheEmpressDowagerCixiwithforeignenvoys’wivesinLeshoutang,SummerPalace,BeijingbyXunling,1903–1905,viaSmithsonianInstitution,Washington   TheBoxerRebellionwaswidelyregardedasthepointofnoreturnwheretheQingempirestoodpowerlessagainstforeignincursionsandexplosivepublicdiscontent.Afteropenlyblamingherselfforcausingtheempiretofaceinsufferableconsequences,EmpressDowagerCixiembarkedonadecade-longcampaigntorebuildChina’sreputationandregainforeignfavor.   Fromtheearly1900s,shebegandevelopingtheNewPoliciesreformstoimproveeducation,publicadministration,themilitary,andconstitutionalgovernment.Cixisoughttolearnfromtheempire’spainfulmilitarydefeats,settingreformdirectionsandpavingthewaytowardsaconstitutionalmonarchy.Theancientimperialexaminationssystemwasabolishedinfavorofwestern-styleeducation,andmilitaryacademiessproutedacrossthenation.Socially,CixialsofoughtformanyreformsunprecedentedinChinesehistory,likepermittingHan-Manchumarriagesandabolishingfoot-binding.   H.I.M,theEmpressDowagerofChina,Cixi(1835–1908)byHubertVos,1905–1906,viaHarvardArtMuseums,Cambridge   Despitethegoodintentions,Cixi’sreformswerenotsignificantenoughtoreversetheempire’sdeclineandinsteadsparkedmorepublicdiscontent.Amidtheriseofanti-imperialradicalsandrevolutionarieslikeSunYatSen,theempirewasplungedintochaosonceagain.In1908,EmperorGuangxudiedattheageof37–aneventwidelybelievedtobeengineeredbyCixitokeephimoutofpower.BeforethemightyEmpressDowagerCixi’sdeathadaylater,sheinstalledanheirtothethrone–herinfantgreat-nephewPuYi,thelastQingemperor.Afterthedeathofthe“DragonLady”,anew,troublingchapterofChina’stransitionintoamodernrepublicwouldsoonbeginasthedynastyinchedtowardsitsinevitableendfollowingthe1911XinhaiRevolution.   TheDivisiveFigureofChineseHistory:EmpressDowagerCixi’sLegacy TheEmpressDowagerCixiinsedanchairsurroundedbyeunuchsinfrontofRenshoudian,SummerPalace,BeijingbyXunling,1903–1905,viaSmithsonianInstitution,Washington   Asthehighestauthority,itwasultimatelyEmpressDowagerCixi’smisguideddecisionsthatwreakedhavocintheempire.Mostnotably,hersuspicionsofthewestandthemismanagementofdiplomaticrelationsculminatedinherregrettablesupportfortheBoxers.Herunbridledspendinghabits—evidentfromheropulentInnerCourt—alsoearnedheracorruptedname.Cixi’svanity,herloveforthecamera,andelaboratedetailsaboutherluxuriouslifestylecontinuetocapturepopularimaginationtoday.Withherpoliticalshrewdnessclearasday,CixihasundoubtedlyearnedherplaceinChinesehistoryasamanipulativerulerintolerantofanyopposition.   EmpressDowagerCixiposesforaphotographinherInnerCourtbyXunling,1903–1905,viaSmithsonianInstitution,Washington   Revisionists,however,havearguedthatCixihadbecomeascapegoatforconservatism,muchlikeMarieAntoinetteintheFrenchRevolution.Giventheextentofwesternincursionsandinternalstrife,Cixiwasalsoavictimofcircumstance.WithCi’anandPrinceGong,hercontributionstotheSelf-StrengtheningMovementdidmodernizetheempireaftertheSecondOpiumWar.Moresignificantly,herreformsduringtheNewPoliciesperiodlaidthefoundationsforprofoundsocialandinstitutionalchangeafter1911.   Weallloveadramaticstoryofahistoricalfigure’srisetopowerandfallfromgrace.ButtosaythatCixihadsingle-handedlyendedtheQingdynastywouldbeagrossexaggerationatbest.MorethanacenturyhaspassedsinceCixi’sdeathin1908,yetherimpactonChinesehistoryremainstobedebated.Perhaps,withmorenuancedinterpretations,itwouldnottakeanothercenturyforhistorytoviewthisenigmaticempressdowagerinanewerandmoreforgivinglens. 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