Empress Dowager Cixi - Wikipedia

Empress Dowager Cixi ; Empress Dowager Cixi (Chinese ; Cixi supervised the Tongzhi Restoration ; Historians both in China and abroad have debated her legacy. EmpressDowagerCixi FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Chineseempress(1835-1908) "Cixi"redirectshere.Forthecity,seeCixi,Zhejiang. EmpressXiaoqinxian(Grand)EmpressDowagerCixiOilpaintingbyHubertVos(1905)[1]EmpressdowageroftheQingdynastyTenure22August1861–13November1908PredecessorEmpressDowagerKangciSuccessorEmpressDowagerLongyuGrandEmpressdowageroftheQingdynastyTenure14November1908–15November1908BornYeheNaraXingzhen(葉赫那拉·杏貞)(1835-11-29)29November1835(道光十五年十月十日)Beijing,QingEmpireDied15November1908(1908-11-15)(aged 72)(光緒三十四年十月二十二日)YiluanHall,Zhongnanhai,QingEmpireBurialDingMausoleum,EasternQingtombsSpouseXianfengEmperor ​​(m. 1852;died 1861)​IssueTongzhiEmperorNamesYeheNaraXingzhen(葉赫那拉·杏貞 叶赫那拉·杏贞)PosthumousnameEmpressXiaoqinCixiDuanyouKangyiZhaoyuZhuangchengShougongQinxianChongxiPeitianXingshengXian(孝欽慈禧端佑康頤昭豫莊誠壽恭欽獻崇熙配天興聖顯皇后孝钦慈禧端佑庄诚寿恭钦献崇煕配天兴圣显皇后)HouseYeheNara(葉赫那拉;bybirth)AisinGioro(愛新覺羅;bymarriage)FatherHuizheng(惠征)MotherLadyFucaReligionManchushamanism,TibetanBuddhism[2] EmpressDowagerCixi"EmpressDowagerCixi"inChinesecharactersChinese慈禧太后TranscriptionsStandardMandarinHanyuPinyinCíxǐtàihòuWade–GilesTz'u2-hsi1t'ai4-hou4IPA[tsʰɨ̌.ɕì tʰâɪ.xôʊ] EmpressDowagerCixi(Chinese:慈禧太后;pinyin:CíxǐTàihòu[tsʰɨ̌.ɕì tʰâɪ.xôʊ];Manchu:Tsysitaiheo;formerlyromanisedasEmpressDowagerT'zu-hsi;29November1835–15November1908),oftheManchuYeheNaraclan,wasaChinesenoblewoman,concubineandlaterregentwhoeffectivelycontrolledtheChinesegovernmentinthelateQingdynastyfor47years,from1861untilherdeathin1908.SelectedasaconcubineoftheXianfengEmperorinheradolescence,shegavebirthtoason,Zaichun,in1856.AftertheXianfengEmperor'sdeathin1861,theyoungboybecametheTongzhiEmperor,andsheassumedtheroleofco-empressdowager,alongsidetheEmperor'swidow,EmpressDowagerCi'an.CixioustedagroupofregentsappointedbythelateemperorandassumedtheregencyalongwithCi'an,wholaterdiedundermysteriouscircumstances.CixithenconsolidatedcontroloverthedynastywhensheinstalledhernephewastheGuangxuEmperoratthedeathofherson,theTongzhiEmperor,in1875.ThiswascontrarytothetraditionalrulesofsuccessionoftheQingdynastythathadruledChinasince1644. CixisupervisedtheTongzhiRestoration,aseriesofmoderatereformsthathelpedtheregimesurviveuntil1911.AlthoughCixirefusedtoadoptWesternmodelsofgovernment,shesupportedtechnologicalandmilitaryreformsandtheSelf-StrengtheningMovement.ShesupportedtheprinciplesoftheHundredDays'Reformsof1898,butfearedthatsuddenimplementation,withoutbureaucraticsupport,wouldbedisruptiveandthattheJapaneseandotherforeignpowerswouldtakeadvantageofanyweakness.SheplacedtheGuangxuEmperor,who,shethought,hadtriedtoassassinateher,undervirtualhousearrestforsupportingradicalreformers,publiclyexecutingthemainreformers.AftertheBoxerRebellionledtoinvasionbyAlliedarmies,CixiinitiallybackedtheBoxergroupsanddeclaredwarontheinvaders.Theensuingdefeatwasastunninghumiliation.WhenCixireturnedtoBeijingfromXi'an,whereshehadtakentheemperor,shebecamefriendlytoforeignersinthecapitalandbegantoimplementfiscalandinstitutionalreformsaimedtoturnChinaintoaconstitutionalmonarchy.ThedeathsofbothCixiandtheGuangxuEmperorinNovember1908leftthecourtinhandsofManchuconservatives,achild,Puyi,onthethrone,andarestless,deeplydividedsociety. HistoriansbothinChinaandabroadhavedebatedherlegacy.Conventionallydenouncedasaruthlessdespotwhosereactionarypolicies–althoughsuccessfullyself-servinginprolongingtheailingQingdynasty–ledtoitshumiliationandutterdownfallintheWuchangUprising.RevisionistssuggestedthatNationalistandCommunistrevolutionariesscapegoatedherfordeep-rootedproblemsbeyondsalvage,andlaudedhermaintenanceofpoliticalorder.Shewasresponsiblefornumerouseffective,ifbelatedreforms–includingtheabolitionofslavery,ancienttorturouspunishmentsandtheancientexaminationsysteminherailingyears.ThelatterwassupplantedbyinstitutionsincludingthenewPekingUniversity.[3] Contents 1Life 1.1Birth 1.2Xianfengera 1.3Tongzhiera 1.3.1XinyouCoup:OustingSushun 1.3.2Rulingbehindthecurtain 1.3.2.1Newera 1.3.2.2Cleaningupthebureaucracy 1.3.2.3TaipingvictoryandPrinceGong 1.3.2.4Foreigninfluence 1.3.2.5TheTongzhiEmperor'smarriage 1.3.2.6TheTongzhiEmperor'sdeficienciesinruling 1.4Guangxuera 1.4.1Newchallengesandillness 1.4.2TheGuangxuEmperor'saccession 1.4.3"Retirement" 1.4.4HundredDays'Reform 1.4.5BoxerRebellion 1.4.6ReturntoBeijingandreforms 1.5Xuantongera 2Legacy 3Titlesandhonours 3.1Titles 3.2Honours 4Family 4.1Issue 5Infictionandpopularculture 6Seealso 7Notes 7.1Sources 8Furtherreading 9Externallinks Life[edit] Birth[edit] ThefutureEmpressDowagerCixiwasbornonthetenthdayofthetenthlunarmonthinthe15thyearofthereignoftheDaoguangEmperor(29November1835).HerfatherwasHuizheng(惠征),amemberoftheBorderedBlueBannerwhoheldthetitleofathirdclassduke(三等公).PalacearchivesshowthatHuizhengwasworkinginBeijingduringtheyearofLadyYeheNara'sbirth,anindicationthatshewasborninBeijing.Thefilerecordsthelocationofherchildhoodhome:PichaiHutong,Xisipailou,Beijing(西四牌樓劈柴胡同).[4]ShehadasisternamedWanzhenandabrothernamedGuixiang. Xianfengera[edit] AnearlyportraitoftheConsortDowagerKangci,fostermotheroftheXianfengEmperor.ShehostedtheselectionoftheXianfengEmperor'sconsortsin1851,inwhichCixiparticipatedasapotentialcandidate. In1851,CixiparticipatedintheselectionforwivestotheXianfengEmperoralongside60othercandidates.Cixiwasoneofthefewcandidateschosentostay.AmongtheotherchosencandidateswereNobleLadyLioftheTataraclan(laterConsortLi)andConcubineZhenoftheNiohuruclan(latertheXianfengEmperor'sempressconsort).On26June1852,sheleftherwidowedmother'sresidenceatXilahutongandenteredtheForbiddenCityandwasplacedinthesixthrankofconsorts,styled"NobleLadyLan". ThePavilionofBeautifulScenery,whereCixigavebirthtotheTongzhiEmperor On28February1854,Cixiwaselevatedtothefifthrankofconsortsandgrantedthetitle"ConcubineYi".In1855,Cixibecamepregnant,andon27April1856,shegavebirthtoZaichun,theXianfengEmperor'sfirstandonlysurvivingson.Onthesameday,shewaselevatedtothefourthrankofconsortsas"ConsortYi".[5]In1857,whenhersonreachedhisfirstbirthday,Cixiwaselevatedtothethirdrankofconsortsas"NobleConsortYi".ThisrankplacedhersecondonlytotheEmpressNiohuruamongthewomenwithintheXianfengEmperor'sharem. UnlikemanyoftheotherManchuwomenintheimperialhousehold,CixiwasknownforherabilitytoreadandwriteChinese.ThisskillgrantedhernumerousopportunitiestohelptheailingemperorinthegoverningoftheChinesestateonadailybasis.Onvariousoccasions,theXianfengEmperorhadCixireadpalacememorialsforhimandleaveinstructionsonthememorialsaccordingtohiswill.Asaresult,Cixibecamewell-informedaboutstateaffairsandtheartofgoverningfromtheailingemperor.[6] Tongzhiera[edit] InSeptember1860,duringtheclosingstagesoftheSecondOpiumWar,theBritishdiplomaticenvoyHarryParkeswasarrestedalongwithotherhostages,whoweretorturedandexecuted.Inretaliation,BritishandFrenchtroopsunderthecommandofLordElginattackedBeijing,andbythefollowingmonththeyhadburnedtheOldSummerPalacetotheground.TheXianfengEmperorandhisentourage,includingCixi,fledBeijingtoReheProvince(aroundpresent-dayChengde,Hebei).[7]OnhearingthenewsofthedestructionoftheOldSummerPalace,theXianfengEmperor,whowasalreadyshowingsignsofdementia,fellintoadepression.Heturnedheavilytoalcoholanddrugsandbecameseriouslyill.[8]Hesummonedeightofhismostprestigiousministers,headedbySushun,ZaiyuanandDuanhua,andnamedthemthe"EightRegentMinisters"todirectandsupportthefutureemperor.TheXianfengEmperordiedon22August1861attheChengdeMountainResortinReheProvince. TheXianfengEmperor'sheir,thesonofNobleConsortYi(EmpressDowagerCixi),wasonlyfiveyearsold.Itiscommonlyassumedthatonhisdeathbed,theXianfengEmperorsummonedhisEmpressandNobleConsortYiandgaveeachofthemastamp.Hehopedthatwhenhissonascendedthethrone,theEmpressandNobleConsortYiwouldcooperateinharmonyandhelptheyoungemperortogrowandmaturetogether.Thismayalsohavebeendoneasacheckonthepoweroftheeightregents.Thereisnoevidenceforthisincident,however,anditisunlikelythattheemperoreverwouldhaveintendedNobleConsortYitowieldpoliticalpower.Itispossiblethattheseal,allegedlygivenasasymbolforthechild,wasreallyjustapresentforNobleConsortYiherself.Informalsealsnumberedinthethousandsandwerenotconsideredpoliticalaccoutrements,ratherobjectsofartcommissionedforpleasurebyemperorstostamponitemssuchaspaintings,orgivenaspresentstotheconcubines.[9]UponthedeathoftheXianfengEmperor,hisEmpresswaselevatedtothestatusofempressdowager.Althoughherofficialtitlewas"EmpressDowagerCi'an",shewaspopularlyknownasthe"EastEmpressDowager"becauseshelivedintheeasternZhongcuiPalace.NobleConsortYiwasalsoelevatedto"EmpressDowagerCixi".Shewaspopularlyknownasthe"WestEmpressDowager"(西太后)becauseshelivedinsidethewesternChuxiuPalace. XinyouCoup:OustingSushun[edit] PortraitofEmpressDowagerCi'an(co-regentwithCixi),withwhomCixistagedtheXinyouCoup. BythetimeofthedeathoftheXianfengEmperor,EmpressDowagerCixihadbecomeashrewdpoliticalstrategist.InReheProvince,whilewaitingforanastrologicallyfavourabletimetotransporttheemperor'scoffinbacktoBeijing,Cixiconspiredwithcourtofficialsandimperialrelativestoseizepower.Cixi'spositionasthelower-rankedempressdowagerhadnointrinsicpoliticalpowerattachedtoit.Inaddition,herson,theyoungemperor,wasnotapoliticalforcehimself.Asaresult,itbecamenecessaryforhertoallyherselfwithotherpowerfulfigures,includingthelateemperor'sprincipalwife,EmpressDowagerCi'an.Cixisuggestedthattheybecomeco-reigningempressdowagers,withpowersexceedingtheeightregents;thetwohadlongbeenclosefriendssinceCixifirstcametotheimperialhousehold.[10] TensionsgrewbetweenthetwoEmpressesDowagerandtheeightregents,whowereledbySushun.TheregentsdidnotappreciateCixi'sinterferenceinpoliticalaffairs,andtheirfrequentconfrontationswiththeEmpressesDowagerleftEmpressDowagerCi'anfrustrated.Ci'anoftenrefusedtocometocourtaudiences,leavingCixitodealwiththeministersalone.Secretly,Cixihadbegungatheringthesupportoftalentedministers,soldiers,andotherswhowereostracizedbytheeightregentsforpersonalorpoliticalreasons.AmongthemwasPrinceGong,whohadbeenexcludedfrompower,yetharbouredgreatambitions,andPrinceChun,thesixthandseventhbrothersoftheXianfengEmperor,respectively.WhileCixialignedherselfwiththetwoprinces,amemorialcamefromShandongaskingforherto"rulefrombehindthecurtains"or"listentopoliticsbehindthecurtains"(垂簾聽政),i.e.,toassumepowerasdefactoruler.ThesamememorialalsoaskedPrinceGongtoenterthepoliticalarenaasaprincipal"aidetotheEmperor". WhentheXianfengEmperor'sfuneralprocessionleftforBeijing,CixitookadvantageofherallianceswithPrincesGongandChun.Sheandtheboyemperorreturnedtothecapitalbeforetherestoftheparty,alongwithZaiyuanandDuanhua,twooftheeightregents,whileSushunwaslefttoaccompanythedeceasedemperor'sprocession.Cixi'searlyreturntoBeijingmeantthatshehadmoretimetoplanwithPrinceGongandensurethatthepowerbaseoftheeightregentswasdividedbetweenSushunandhisallies,ZaiyuanandDuanhua.Inordertoremovethemfrompower,historywasrewritten:theregentsweredismissedforhavingcarriedoutincompetentnegotiationswiththe"barbarians"thathadcausedtheXianfengEmperortofleetoReheProvince"greatlyagainsthiswill",amongothercharges.[10] Todisplayherhighmoralstandards,Cixiexecutedonlythreeoftheeightregents.PrinceGonghadsuggestedthatSushunandothersbeexecutedbythemostpainfulmethod,knownasslowslicing("deathbyathousandcuts"),butCixideclinedthesuggestionandorderedthatSushunbebeheaded,whiletheothertwoalsomarkedforexecution,ZaiyuanandDuanhua,weregivenpiecesofwhitesilkforthemtohangthemselveswith.Inaddition,Cixirefusedoutrighttheideaofexecutingthefamilymembersoftheregents,aswouldbedoneinaccordancewithimperialtraditionofanallegedusurper.Ironically,Qingimperialtraditionalsodictatedthatwomenandprinceswerenevertoengageinpolitics.Inbreakingwithtradition,CixibecametheonlyempressdowagerintheQingdynastytoassumetheroleofregent,rulingfrombehindthecurtains. ThiscoupishistoricallyknownastheXinyouCoupbecauseittookplaceinthexinyouyear,thenameoftheyear1861intheChinesesexagenarycycle. Rulingbehindthecurtain[edit] Newera[edit] InNovember1861,afewdaysfollowingtheXinyouCoup,CixiwasquicktorewardPrinceGongforhishelp.HewasappointedPrince-Regentandhiseldestdaughterwasmadeafirstrankprincess,atitleusuallybestowedonlyontheEmpress'sfirst-borndaughter.However,CixiavoidedgivingPrinceGongtheabsolutepoliticalpowerthatprincessuchasDorgonexercisedduringtheShunzhiEmperor'sreign.Asoneofthefirstactsof"rulingbehindthecurtain"fromwithintheHallofMentalCultivation,thepoliticalandgovernmentalhubduringthisera,Cixi,nominallyalongwithCi'an,issuedtwoimperialedictsonbehalfoftheboyemperor.[11]ThefirststatedthatthetwoEmpressesDowagerweretobethesoledecision-makers"withoutinterference,"andthesecondchangedtheemperor'sregnaltitlefromQixiang(祺祥;"auspicious")toTongzhi(同治;"collectivestability"). Despitebeingdesignatedasthesoledecision-makers,bothCi'anandCixiwereforcedtorelyontheGrandCouncilandacomplexseriesofproceduresinordertodealwithaffairsofstate.Whenstatedocumentscamein,theyweretobefirstforwardedtotheEmpressesDowager,thenreferredbacktoPrinceGongandtheGrandCouncil.Havingdiscussedthematters,PrinceGongandhiscolleagueswouldseektheinstructionoftheEmpressesDowagerataudiencesandimperialorderswouldbedrawnupaccordingly,withdraftshavingtobeapprovedbytheEmpressesDowagerbeforeedictswereissued.ThemostimportantroleoftheEmpressesDowagerduringtheregencywastoapplytheirsealstoedicts,amerelymechanicalroleinacomplexbureaucracy.[12] Cleaningupthebureaucracy[edit] Furtherinformation:TongzhiRestoration Cixi'sascendancycameatatimeofinternalchaosandforeignchallenges.TheeffectsoftheSecondOpiumWarwerestillhoveringoverthecountry,andtheTaipingRebellioncontinueditsseeminglyunstoppableadvancethroughChina'ssouth,eatinguptheQingEmpirebitbybit.Internally,boththenationalbureaucracyandregionalauthoritieswereinfestedwithcorruption.1861happenedtobetheyearofofficialexaminations,wherebyofficialsofalllevelspresentedtheirpoliticalreportsfromthepreviousthreeyears.Cixidecidedthatthetimewasripeforabureaucraticoverhaul,andshepersonallysoughtaudiencewithallofficialsabovethelevelofprovincialgovernor,whohadtoreporttoherpersonally.CixithustookonpartoftheroleusuallygiventotheBureaucraticAffairsDepartment(吏部).Cixihadtwoprominentofficialsexecutedtoserveasexamplesforothers:Qingying,amilitaryshilangwhohadtriedtobribehiswayoutofdemotion,andHeGuiqing,thenViceroyofLiangjiang,whofledChangzhouinthewakeofanincomingTaipingarmyinsteadoftryingtodefendthecity.Anumberofreformswereimplemented,suchasthedevelopmentoftheZongliYamen,anofficialforeignministrytodealwithinternationalaffairs,therestorationofregionalarmiesandregionalstrongmen,modernizationofrailroads,factories,andarsenals,anincreaseofindustrialandcommercialproductivity,andtheinstitutionofaperiodofpeacethatallowedChinatimetomodernizeanddevelop. AnothersignificantchallengeCixifacedwastheincreasinglydecrepitstateoftheManchuelites.SincethebeginningofQingruleoverChinain1644,mostmajorpositionsatcourthadbeenheldbyManchus.Cixi,againinareversalofimperialtradition,entrustedthecountry'smostpowerfulmilitaryunitagainsttheTaipingrebelsintothehandsofaHanChinese,ZengGuofan.Additionally,inthenextthreeyears,CixiappointedHanChineseofficialsasgovernorsinallsouthernChineseprovinces,raisingalarmbellsinthecourt,traditionallyprotectiveofManchudominance. RegardingthereformsoftheTongzhiRestoration,MaryC.Wrightsuggestedthat"Notonlyadynastybutalsoacivilizationwhichappearedtohavecollapsedwasrevivedtolastforanothersixtyyearsbytheextraordinaryeffortsofextraordinarymeninthe1860s."[13]JohnK.Fairbankwrote,"ThattheQingmanagedtosurvivebothdomesticandinternationalattacksisduelargelytothepolicyandleadershipchangesknownastheQingRestoration."[14] TaipingvictoryandPrinceGong[edit] PhotographofPrinceGong,Cixi'scrucialallyduringtheXinyouCoup.HewasrewardedbyCixiforhishelpduringhermostdifficulttimes,butwaseventuallyeliminatedfromofficebyCixiforhisambition. UnderthecommandofZengGuofan,thevictoriousXiangArmydefeatedtheTaipingrebelarmyinahard-foughtbattleatTianjing(present-dayNanjing)inJuly1864.Zengwasrewardedwiththetitleof"MarquessYiyong,FirstClass",whilehisbrotherZengGuoquan,alongwithLiHongzhang,ZuoZongtangandotherHanChineseofficerswhofoughtagainsttheTaipingrebels,wererewardedwithauspiciousdecorationsandtitles.WiththeTaipingrebelthreatreceding,Cixifocusedherattentiononnewinternalthreatstoherpower.OfspecialconcernwasthepositionofPrinceGong,whowasPrince-Regentintheimperialcourt.PrinceGonggatheredunderhiscommandthesupportofalloutstandingHanChinesearmies.Inaddition,PrinceGongcontrolleddailycourtaffairsastheheadoftheGrandCouncilandtheZongliYamen(thedefactoforeignaffairsministry).Withhisincreasingstature,PrinceGongwasconsideredathreattoCixiandherpower. AlthoughPrinceGongwasrewardedforhisconductandrecommendationofZengGuofanbeforetheTaipingrebels'defeat,CixiwasquicktomoveafterCaiShouqi,aminorscribe-official,filedamemorialaccusingPrinceGongofcorruptionandshowingdisrespecttotheemperor.Havingbuiltupapowerfulbaseandanetworkofalliesatcourt,PrinceGongconsideredtheaccusationsinsignificant.Cixi,however,tookthememorialasasteppingstonetoPrinceGong'sremoval.InApril1865,underthepretextthatPrinceGonghad"impropercourtconductbeforethetwoempresses,"amongaseriesofothercharges,theprincewasdismissedfromallhisofficesandappointments,butwasallowedtoretainhisstatusasanoble.[15]Thedismissalsurprisedthenobilityandcourtofficialsandbroughtaboutnumerouspetitionsforhisreturn.PrinceGong'sbrothers,PrinceDunandPrinceChun,bothsoughttheirbrother'sreinstatement.PrinceGonghimself,inanaudiencewiththetwoempresses,burstintotears.[16]Bowingtopopularpressure,CixiallowedPrinceGongtoreturntohispositionastheheadoftheZongliYamen,butridhimofhistitleofPrince-Regent.PrinceGongwouldneverreturntopoliticalprominenceagain,andneitherwouldtheliberalandpro-reformpoliciesofhistime.PrinceGong'sdemotionrevealedCixi'sirongriponpolitics,andherlackofwillingnesstogiveupabsolutepowertoanyone–notevenPrinceGong,hermostimportantallyintheXinyouCoup. Foreigninfluence[edit] PhotographofPrincessRongshou(centerseated),PrinceGong'sdaughter.Asawaytoshowgratitudetotheprince,Cixiadoptedhisdaughterandelevatedhertoafirstrankprincess(thehighestrankforimperialprincesses). China'sdefeatintheSecondOpiumWarof1856–60wasawake-upcall.Militarystrategieswereoutdated,bothonlandandseaandintermsofweaponry.SensinganimmediatethreatfromforeignersandrealisingthatChina'sagricultural-basedeconomycouldnothopetocompetewiththeindustrialprowessoftheWest,CixidecidedthatforthefirsttimeinChinesehistory,ChinawouldlearnfromtheWesternpowersandimporttheirknowledgeandtechnology.Atthetime,threeprominentHanChineseofficials,ZengGuofan,LiHongzhangandZuoZongtang,hadallbegunindustrialprogramsinthecountry'ssouthernregions.Insupportingtheseprogrammes,CixialsodecreedtheopeningoftheTongwenGuanin1862,aschoolforforeignlanguagesinBeijing.TheTongwenGuanspecialisedinnew-agetopicssuchasastronomyandmathematics,aswellastheEnglish,FrenchandRussianlanguages.GroupsofyoungboyswerealsosentabroadtotheUnitedStatesforstudies. China's"learnfromforeigners"programmequicklymetwithimpediments.TheChinesemilitaryinstitutionswereindesperateneedofreform.Cixi'ssolution,undertheadviceofofficialsatcourt,wastopurchasesevenBritishwarships.WhenthewarshipsarrivedinChina,however,theywerestaffedwithBritishsailors,allunderBritishcommand.TheChinesewereenragedatthis"internationaljoke",negotiationsbrokedownbetweenthetwoparties,andChinareturnedthewarshipstoBritain,wheretheyweretobeauctionedoff.ScholarssometimesattributethefailureofChina'sforeignprogrammestoCixi'sconservativeattitudeandoldmethodsofthinking,andcontendthatCixiwouldlearnonlysomuchfromtheforeigners,provideditdidnotinfringeuponherownpower.Underthepretextthatarailwaywastooloudandwould"disturbtheemperors'tombs",Cixiforbadeitsconstruction.Whenconstructionwentaheadanywayin1877onLiHongzhang'srecommendation,Cixiaskedthattheybepulledbyhorse-drawncarts.[17]Cixiwasespeciallyalarmedattheliberalthinkingofpeoplewhohadstudiedabroad,andsawthatitposedanewthreattoherpower.In1881,Cixiputahalttothepolicyofsendingchildrenabroadtostudyandwithdrewherformerlyopenattitudetowardsforeigners. TheTongzhiEmperor'smarriage[edit] CeremonialheaddresslikelywornbyCixi.Thesmallphoenixesemergingfromthesurfacerepresenttheempress.[18]TheWaltersArtMuseum In1872,theTongzhiEmperorturned17.UndertheguidanceoftheEmpressDowagerCi'an,hewasmarriedtotheJiashunEmpress.Theempress'sgrandfather,PrinceZheng,wasoneoftheeightregentsoustedfrompowerintheXinyouCoupof1861.HehadbeenCixi'srivalduringthecoupandwasorderedtocommitsuicideafterCixi'svictory.Asaconsequence,thereweretensionsbetweenCixiandtheempress,andthiswasoftenasourceofirritationforCixi.Moreover,theempress'szodiacsymboloftigerwasperceivedaslife-threateningbythesuperstitiousCixi,whoseownzodiacsymbolwasagoat.AccordingtoCixi'sbelief,itwasawarningfromthegodsthatshewouldeventuallyfallpreytotheempress. PortraitofEmpressXiaozheyi,alsoknownastheJiashunEmpressand"LadyArute",whohadtheapprovalofEmpressDowagerCi'anbutneverCixi's.ItiswidelyspeculatedthattheEmpresswaspregnantwiththeTongzhiEmperor'schildandthatCixiorchestratedtheempress'sdemise. AstheprincipalconsortoftheTongzhiEmperor,theJiashunEmpresswaswellreceivedbyboththeemperorandEmpressDowagerCi'an.HerpersonalconsultantsoncewarnedhertobemoreagreeableanddociletoCixi,asCixiwastrulytheoneinpower.Theempressreplied,"Iamaprincipalconsort,havingbeencarriedthroughthefrontgatewithpompandcircumstance,asmandatedbyourancestors.EmpressDowagerCixiwasaconcubine,andenteredourhouseholdthroughasidegate." Sincetheverybeginningofhismarriage,theTongzhiEmperorproceededtospendmostofhistimewithhisempressattheexpenseofhisfourconcubines,includingtheImperialNobleConsortShushen,whowasCixi'spreferredcandidatefortheTongzhiEmperor'sempressconsort.AshostilitygrewbetweenCixiandtheJiashunEmpress,CixisuggestedthecouplespendmoretimeonstudiesandspiedontheTongzhiEmperorusingpalaceeunuchs.Afterherwarningwasignored,Cixiorderedthecoupletoseparate,andtheTongzhiEmperorpurportedlyspentseveralmonthsfollowingCixi'sorderinisolationatQianqingPalace. Theyoungemperor,whocouldnolongercopewithhisgriefandloneliness,grewmoreandmoreill-tempered.Hebegantotreathisservantswithcrueltyandpunishedthemphysicallyforminoroffences.UnderthejoinedinfluenceofcourteunuchsandZaicheng,PrinceGong'seldestsonandtheTongzhiEmperor'sbestfriend,theemperormanagedtoescapethepalaceinsearchofpleasureintheunrestrictedpartsofBeijing.ForseveraleveningstheemperordisguisedhimselfasacommonerandsecretlyspentthenightsinthebrothelsofBeijing.Theemperor'ssexualhabitsbecamecommontalkamongcourtofficialsandcommoners,andtherearemanyrecordsoftheemperor'sescapades.[citationneeded] TheTongzhiEmperor'sdeficienciesinruling[edit] TheTongzhiEmperorreceivedarigorouseducationfromfourfamousteachersofCixi'sownchoosing:LiHongzao,QiJunzao,WengXincun,andWoren.ThisgroupwaslaterjoinedbyWengXincun'sson,WengTonghe;theemperor'sgovernor,alsoselectedbyCixi,wasMianyu.Theimperialteachersinstructedtheemperorintheclassicsandvariousoldtextsforwhichtheemperordisplayedlittleornointerest. Despite,orperhapsbecauseof,thepressureandstressputupontheyoungemperor,hedespisedlearningforthemajorityofhislife.AccordingtoWengTonghe'sdiary,theemperorcouldnotreadamemoranduminfullsentencesbytheageof16.Worriedaboutherson'sinabilitytolearn,Cixionlypressuredhimmore.WhenhewasgivenpersonalruleinNovember1873attheageof18(fouryearsbehindtheusualcustom),theTongzhiEmperorprovedtobeanincompetentruler. PortraitoftheTongzhiEmperordoinghiscoursework.Cixi'shighexpectationsofhimmayhavecontributedtohisstrongdistasteforlearning. TheTongzhiEmperormadetwoimportantpolicydecisionsduringhisshortstintofrule,whichlastedfrom1873to1875.First,hedecreedthattheSummerPalace,destroyedbytheEnglishandFrenchintheSecondOpiumWar,wouldbecompletelyrebuiltunderthepretextthatitwasagifttoCixiandCi'an.HistoriansalsosuggestthatitwasanattempttodriveCixifromtheForbiddenCitysothathecouldrulewithoutinterferenceinpolicyorhisprivateaffairs. Theimperialtreasurywasalmostdepletedatthetimefrominternalstrifeandforeignwars,andasaresult,theTongzhiEmperoraskedtheBoardofFinancetoforageforthenecessaryfunds.Inaddition,heencouragedmembersofthenobilityandhighofficialstodonatefundsfromtheirpersonalresources.Onceconstructionbegan,theemperorcheckeditsprogressonamonthlybasis,andwouldoftenspenddaysawayfromcourt,indulginghimselfinpleasuresoutsideoftheForbiddenCity. UneasyabouttheTongzhiEmperor'sneglectofnationalaffairs,theemperor'sunclesPrinceGongandPrinceChun,alongwithotherseniorcourtofficials,submittedajointmemorandumaskingtheemperortoceasetheconstructionoftheSummerPalace,amongotherrecommendations.TheTongzhiEmperor,unwillingtosubmittocriticism,issuedanimperialedictinAugust1874tostripPrinceGongofhisprincelytitleanddemotehimtothestatusofacommoner.Twodayslater,PrinceDun,PrinceChun,PrinceFu,Jingshou,PrinceQing,Wenxiang,Baojun,andGrandCouncillorsShenGuifenandLiHongzaowerealltobestrippedoftheirrespectivetitlesandjobs. Seeingthemayhemunfoldfrombehindthescenes,CixiandCi'anmadeanunprecedentedappearanceatcourtdirectlycriticisingtheemperorforhiswrongfulactionsandaskedhimtowithdrawtheedict;Cixisaidthat"withoutPrinceGong,thesituationtodaywouldnotexistforyouandme."[19] Feelingagrandsenseoflossatcourtandunabletoasserthisauthority,theTongzhiEmperorreturnedtohisformerhabits.Itwasrumouredthathecaughtsyphilisandbecamevisiblyill.Thephysiciansspreadarumourthattheemperorhadsmallpox,andproceededtogivemedicaltreatmentaccordingly.Withinafewweeks,on13January1875,theemperordied.TheJiashunEmpressfollowedsuitinMarch.Judgingfromamodernmedicalperspective,theonsetofsyphiliscomesinstages,thustheemperor'squickdeathdoesnotseemtoreflectitssymptoms.Therefore,mosthistoriansmaintainthattheTongzhiEmperordid,infact,diefromsmallpox.Regardless,by1875,Cixiwasbackontothehelmofimperialpower. Guangxuera[edit] Newchallengesandillness[edit] EmpressDowagerCixi(frontmiddle)poseswithhercourtattendantsandtheGuangxuEmperor'sempress(secondfromleft),whowasalsoherniece EmpressDowagerCixiholdshandswiththefourthdaughterofPrinceQing(toherleft)andchiefpalaceeunuchLiLianying(toherright).TheladystandinginthebackgroundisConsortJin(laterDowagerConsortDuankang). TheTongzhiEmperordiedwithoutamaleheir,acircumstancethatcreatedanunprecedentedsuccessioncrisisinthedynasticline.Membersofthegenerationabovewereconsideredunfit,astheycouldnot,bydefinition,bethesuccessoroftheirnephew.Therefore,thenewemperorhadtobefromagenerationbeloworthesamegenerationastheTongzhiEmperor.AfterconsiderabledisagreementbetweenthetwoEmpressesDowager,Zaitian,thefour-year-oldfirstbornsonofPrinceChunandCixi'ssister,wastobecomethenewemperor.1875wasdeclaredthefirstyearoftheGuangxuera;Guangxuwasthenewemperor'sregnalnameanditmeans"glorioussuccession".Zaitianwastakenfromhomeandfortheremainderofhislifewouldbecutcompletelyofffromhisfamily.WhileaddressingCi'anconventionallyashuange'niang("EmpressMother"),ZaitianwasforcedtoaddressCixiasqinbaba("DearFather"),inordertoenforceanimagethatshewasthefatherlyfigureinthehousehold.[20]TheGuangxuEmperorbeganhiseducationwhenhewasagedfive,taughtbytheimperialtutorWengTonghe,withwhomhewoulddevelopalastingbond. ShortlyaftertheaccessionoftheGuangxuEmperor,Cixifellseverelyill.[21]ThisrenderedherlargelyinaccessibletoheryoungnephewandhadtheresultofleavingCi'antoattendtomostoftheaffairsofstate.[22] ThesuddendeathofCi'aninApril1881broughtCixianewchallenge.Ci'anhadtakenlittleinterestinrunningstateaffairs,butwasthedecision-makerinmostfamilyaffairs.AstheconsortoftheXianfengEmperor,shetookseniorityoverCixi,despitebeingtwoyearsherjunior.SomebelievethatrumoursbegancirculatingatcourttotheeffectthatCixihadpoisonedCi'an,perhapsasaresultofapossibleconflictbetweenCixiandCi'anovertheexecutionoftheeunuchAnDehaiin1869orapossiblewillfromthelateXianfengEmperorthatwasissuedexclusivelytoCi'an.[23]Becauseofalackofevidence,however,historiansarereluctanttobelievethatCi'anwaspoisonedbyCixi,butinsteadchoosetobelievethatthecauseofdeathwasasuddenstroke,asvalidatedbytraditionalChinesemedicine.[citationneeded] Intheyearsbetween1881and1883,Cixiresortedtowrittencommunicationonlywithherministers.[24]TheyoungGuangxuEmperorreportedlywasforcedtoconductsomeaudiencesalone,withoutCixitoassisthim.[25] TheoncefierceanddeterminedPrinceGong,frustratedbyCixi'sirongriponpower,didlittletoquestionCixionstateaffairs,andsupportedManchuinvolvementintheSino-FrenchWarof1884–1885.CixiusedChina'slossinthewarasapretextforgettingridofPrinceGongandotherimportantdecision-makersintheGrandCouncilin1885.ShedowngradedPrinceGongto"advisor"andelevatedthemoreeasilyinfluencedPrinceChun. WhenitwasfirstdevelopedbyEmpressDowagerCixi,theBeiyangFleetwassaidtobethestrongestnavyinEastAsia.Beforeheradoptedson,EmperorGuangxu,tookoverthethronein1889,Cixiwroteoutexplicitordersthatthenavyshouldcontinuetodevelopandexpandgradually.[26]However,afterCixiwentintoretirement,allnavalandmilitarydevelopmentcametoadrastichalt.Japan'svictoriesoverChinahasoftenbeenfalselyrumoredtobethefaultofCixi.[27]ManybelievedthatCixiwasthecauseofthenavy'sdefeatbyembezzlingfundsfromthenavyinordertobuildtheSummerPalaceinBeijing.However,extensiveresearchbyChinesehistoriansrevealedthatCixiwasnotthecauseoftheChinesenavy'sdecline.Inactuality,China'sdefeatwascausedbyEmperorGuangxu'slackofinterestindevelopingandmaintainingthemilitary.[26]Hiscloseadviser,GrandTutorWengTonghe,advisedGuangxutocutallfundingtothenavyandarmy,becausehedidnotseeJapanasatruethreat,andtherewereseveralnaturaldisastersduringtheearly1890swhichtheemperorthoughttobemorepressingtoexpendfundson.[26] TheGuangxuEmperor'saccession[edit] ConsortZhen,theGuangxuEmperor'smostbelovedconsort,wasinitiallyliked,buteventuallyhatedbyCixi. TheGuangxuEmperortechnicallygainedtherighttoruleattheageof16in1887afterCixiissuedanedicttoarrangeaceremonytomarkhisaccession.Becauseofherprestigeandpower,however,courtofficialsvoicedtheiroppositiontotheGuangxuEmperor'spersonalrule,citingtheemperor'syouthasthemainreason.PrinceChunandWengTonghe,eachwithadifferentmotive,requestedthattheGuangxuEmperor'saccessionbepostponeduntilalaterdate.Cixi,withherreputedreluctance,acceptedthe"advice"andlegitimisedhercontinuedrulethroughanewlegaldocumentthatallowedherto"aid"theGuangxuEmperorinhisruleindefinitely. TheGuangxuEmperorslowlybegantotakeonmoreresponsibilitiesinspiteofCixi'sprolongedregency.In1886,heattendedhisfirstfieldplowingceremonyandbegancommentingonimperialstatedocuments.By1887,hebegantoruleunderCixi'ssupervision.[25] TheGuangxuEmperormarriedandtookupthereinsofpowerin1889.Bythatyear,theemperorwasalready18,olderthantheconventionalmarriageageforemperors.Priortohiswedding,alargefireengulfedtheGateofSupremeHarmonyattheForbiddenCity.Thiseventfollowedatrendofrecentnaturaldisastersthatwereconsideredalarmingbymanyobservers.AccordingtotraditionalChinesepoliticaltheory,suchincidentsweretakenasawarningoftheimminentlossofthe"MandateofHeaven"bycurrentrulers. Forhisempress,EmpressDowagerCixichosetheGuangxuEmperor'scousinJingfen,whowouldbecomeEmpressLongyu.Besideshercloserelationtotheemperorhimself,shewasalsoCixi'sniece.CixiinadditionselectedtwoconcubinesfortheGuangxuEmperorwhoweresisters,ConsortsJinandZhen.TheGuangxuEmperoreventuallywouldprefertospendmoretimewithConsortZhen,neglectinghisEmpress,muchtoCixi'sdismay.In1894,CixidegradedConsortZhen,citinginterventioninpoliticalaffairsasthemainreason.Accordingtosomereports,sheevenhadherflogged.[28]ConsortJinhadalsobeenimplicatedinConsortZhen'sreportedinfluencepeddlingandalsoapparentlysufferedasimilarpunishment.[28]Acousinoftheirs,Zhirui,wasbanishedfromthecapitaltoamilitaryoutpost.[29] "Retirement"[edit] On5March1889,Cixiretiredfromhersecondregency,butnonethelessservedastheeffectiveheadoftheimperialfamily.[30]Manyofficialsfeltandshowedmoreloyaltytotheempressdowagerthantheydidtotheemperor,[31]owinginparttoherseniorityandinparttoherpersonalisedapproachtocultivatingcourtfavourites,manyofwhomwouldbegivengiftsofherartworkandinvitationstojoinheratthetheaterforoperaandacrobatics.[32] InspiteofherresidenceforaperiodoftimeattheSummerPalace,whichhadbeenconstructedwiththeofficialintentionofprovidingherasuitableplacetoliveafterretiringfrompoliticalaffairs,CixicontinuedtoinfluencethedecisionsandactionsoftheGuangxuEmperorevenafterhebeganhisformalruleatage19.Alongwithanentourageofcourtofficials,theGuangxuEmperorwouldpayvisitstohereverysecondorthirddayatwhichmajorpoliticaldecisionswouldbemade.WengTongheobservedthatwhiletheemperordealtwithday-to-dayadministration,theGrandCouncillorsgavetheiradviceinmorecomplexcases,andinthemostcomplexcasesofall,theadviceofCixiwassought.[33] In1894,theFirstSino-JapaneseWarbrokeoutoverKoreawhoseage-oldallegiancetoBeijingwaswavering.AfterthedecisivevictoryandensuingTreatyofShimonoseki,JapanannexedTaiwanfromQingChina.Duringthisperiod,Cixiwascontinuouslycalledupontoarbitratepolicy-making,andtheemperorwassometimesevenbypassedindecision-makingprocesses.[34]Cixieventuallywasgivencopiesofthesecretpalacememorialsaswell,apracticethatwascarriedonuntil1898,whenitbecameunnecessary.[35] InNovember1894,Cixicelebratedher60thbirthday.Borrowingfromtheplansusedforthecelebrationsofthe70thand80thbirthdaysofEmpressXiaoshengxian(theQianlongEmperor'smother),plansincludedatriumphalprogressalongthedecoratedroadbetweentheForbiddenCityandtheSummerPalace,decorationsfortheBeijingcitygatesandmonumentalarchways,freetheatricalperformances,remissionofpunishmentsandtherestorationofdegradedofficials.[36]However,thewarbetweenChinaandJapanforcedtheempressdowagertocancelthelavishcelebrationsshehadplannedandsettleforamuchsmallercommemorationthatwasheldintheForbiddenCity. HundredDays'Reform[edit] EmpressDowagerCixiandtheGuangxuEmperorholdingcourt,drawingbyKatharineCarl Aftercomingtothethrone,theGuangxuEmperorbecamemorereform-minded.AfterahumiliatingdefeatintheFirstSino-JapaneseWarof1894,duringwhichtheChineseBeiyangFleetwasvirtuallydestroyedbytheImperialJapaneseNavy,theQinggovernmentfacedunprecedentedchallengesinternallyandabroad,withitsveryexistenceatstake.Undertheinfluenceofreformist-officialsKangYouweiandLiangQichao,theGuangxuEmperorbelievedthatbylearningfromconstitutionalmonarchiessuchasJapanandGermany,Chinawouldbecomepoliticallyandeconomicallypowerful.InJune1898,theGuangxuEmperorlaunchedtheHundredDays'Reformaimedatsweepingpolitical,legalandsocialchangesandissuededictsforfar-reachingmodernisingreforms. Theseabruptreforms,however,camewithoutbuildingsupporteitheratcourtorinthebureaucracy.Cixi,whetherconcernedthattheywouldcheckherpowerorfearfulthattheywouldleadtodisorder,steppedintopreventthemfromgoingfurther.SomegovernmentandmilitaryofficialswarnedCixithattheming-shi(reformationbureau)hadbeengearedtowardconspiracy.Allegationsoftreasonagainsttheemperor,aswellassuspectedJapaneseinfluencewithinthereformmovement,ledCixitoresumetheroleofregentandresumecontrolatthecourt.TheManchugeneralRongluon21September1898,tooktheEmperortoOceanTerrace,asmallpalaceonanislandinthemiddleofZhongnanhailinkedtotherestoftheForbiddenCityonlybyacontrolledcauseway.CixifollowedthisactionwithanedictthatproclaimedtheGuangxuEmperor'stotaldisgraceandunfitnesstobeemperor.TheGuangxuEmperor'sreigneffectivelycametoanend. AccordingtoresearchbyProfessorLeiChia-sheng(雷家聖),[37]duringtheHundredDays'Reform,formerJapanesePrimeMinisterItōHirobumiarrivedinChinaon11September1898.Almostatthesametime,BritishmissionaryTimothyRichardwasinvitedtoBeijingbythereformistKangYouwei.RichardsuggestedthatChinashouldhandoversomepoliticalpowertoItōinordertohelppushthereformsfurther.[38]On18September,RichardconvincedKangtoadoptaplanbywhichChinawouldjoinafederationcomposedofChina,Japan,theUnitedStates,andEngland.Thissuggestiondidnotreflectthepoliciesofthecountriesconcerned.ItwasRichard's(andperhapsItō's)tricktoconvinceChinatohandovernationalrights.KangnonethelessaskedfellowreformersYangShenxiu(楊深秀)andSongBolu(宋伯魯)toreportthisplantotheGuangxuEmperor.[39]On20September,Yangsentamemorialtothiseffecttotheemperor.[40]Inanothermemorialwrittenthenextday,SongBolualsoadvocatedtheformationofafederationandthesharingofthediplomatic,fiscal,andmilitarypowersofthefourcountriesunderahundred-mancommittee.[41] StillaccordingtoLei'sfindings,on13October,BritishambassadorClaudeMacDonaldreportedtohisgovernmentabouttheChinesesituation,sayingthatChinesereformshadbeendamagedbyKangYouweiandhisfriends'actions.[42]BritishdiplomatFrederickBourneclaimedinhisownreportthatKangwasadreamerwhohadbeenseducedbyTimothyRichard'ssweetwords.BournethoughtRichardwasaplotter.[43]TheBritishandU.S.governmentswereunawareofthe"federation"plot,whichseemstohavebeenRichard'spersonalidea.BecauseRichard'spartnerItōHirobumihadbeenPrimeMinisterofJapan,theJapanesegovernmentmighthaveknownaboutRichard'splan,butthereisnoevidencetothiseffect. Acrisisovertheissueofabdicationemerged.BowingtoincreasingpressurefromtheWestandgeneralcivildiscontent,CixididnotforciblyremovetheGuangxuEmperorfromthethrone,althoughsheattemptedtohavePujun,aboyof14whowasfromaclosebranchoftheimperialfamily,installedascrownprince.TheGuangxueranominallycontinueduntilhisdeathin1908,buttheemperorlostallrespect,power,andprivileges,includinghisfreedomofmovement.Mostofhissupporters,includinghispoliticalmentorKangYouwei,fledintoexile,andthesixprominentreformersincludingTanSitongandKang'syoungerbrother,werepubliclybeheaded.Kangcontinuedtoworkforaconstitutionalmonarchywhileinexile,remainingloyaltotheGuangxuEmperorandhopingeventuallytorestorehimtopower.Hiseffortswouldprovetobeinvain. BoxerRebellion[edit] EmpressDowagerCixiandwomenoftheAmericanlegation.HoldingherhandisSarahConger,thewifeofU.S.AmbassadorEdwinH.Conger. In1900,theBoxerRebellionbrokeoutinnorthernChina.Perhapsfearingfurtherforeignintervention,Cixithrewhersupporttotheseanti-foreignbandsbymakinganofficialannouncementofhersupportforthemovementandaformaldeclarationofwarontheWesternpowers.ThegeneralRongludeliberatelysabotagedtheperformanceoftheimperialarmyduringtherebellion.DongFuxiang'sMuslimtroops(the"KansuBraves")wereableandeagertodestroytheforeignmilitaryforcesinthelegations,butRonglustoppedthemfromdoingso.[44]TheManchuprinceZaiyiwasxenophobicandfriendlywithDongFuxiang.ZaiyiwantedartilleryforDong'stroopstodestroythelegations.RonglublockedthetransferofartillerytoZaiyiandDong,preventingthemfromdestroyingthelegations.[45]WhenartillerywasfinallysuppliedtotheimperialarmyandBoxers,itwasonlydonesoinlimitedamounts;Rongludeliberatelyheldbacktherestofthem.[46]TheChineseforcesdefeatedthesmall2,000-manWesternreliefforceattheBattleofLangfang,butlostseveraldecisivebattles,includingtheBattleofBeicang,andtheentireimperialcourtwasforcedtoretreatastheforcesoftheEight-NationAllianceinvadedBeijing.DuetothefactthatmoderatesattheQingimperialcourttriedtoappeasetheforeignersbymovingtheMuslimKansuBravesoutoftheirway,thealliedarmywasabletomarchintoBeijingandseizethecapital.[47] Duringthewar,CixidisplayedconcernaboutChina'ssituationandforeignaggression,saying,"Perhapstheirmagicisnottobereliedupon;butcanwenotrelyontheheartsandmindsofthepeople?TodayChinaisextremelyweak.Wehaveonlythepeople'sheartsandmindstodependupon.Ifwecastthemasideandlosethepeople'shearts,whatcanweusetosustainthecountry?"TheChinesepeoplewerealmostunanimousintheirsupportfortheBoxersduetotheWesternAlliedinvasion.[48][49] WhenCixireceivedanultimatumdemandingthatChinasurrendertotalcontroloverallitsmilitaryandfinancialaffairstoforeigners,[49]shedefiantlystatedbeforetheGrandCouncil,"Nowthey[thePowers]havestartedtheaggression,andtheextinctionofournationisimminent.Ifwejustfoldourarmsandyieldtothem,Iwouldhavenofacetoseeourancestorsafterdeath.Ifwemustperish,whynotfighttothedeath?"[50][51]ItwasatthispointthatCixibegantoblockadethelegationswiththearmiesoftheBeijingFieldForce,whichbeganthesiege.[52] Cixistatedthat"Ihavealwaysbeenoftheopinion,thatthealliedarmieshadbeenpermittedtoescapetooeasilyin1860.OnlyaunitedeffortwasthennecessarytohavegivenChinathevictory.Today,atlast,theopportunityforrevengehascome",andsaidthatmillionsofChinesewouldjointhecauseoffightingtheforeignerssincetheManchushadprovided"greatbenefits"toChina.[53] DuringtheBattleofBeijing,theentireimperialcourt,includingEmpressDowagerCixiandtheGuangxuEmperor,fledBeijingandevacuatedtoXi'anasthealliedforcesinvadedthecity.AfterthefallofBeijing,theEight-NationAlliancenegotiatedatreatywiththeQinggovernment,sendingmessengerstotheempressdowagerinXi'an.IncludedinthetermsoftheagreementwasaguaranteethatChinawouldnothavetogiveupanyfurtherterritoriestoforeignpowers.ManyofCixi'sadvisersintheimperialcourtinsistedthatthewaragainsttheforeignersbecontinued.TheyrecommendedthatDongFuxiangbegivenresponsibilitytocontinuethewareffort.Cixiwaspractical,however,anddecidedthatthetermsweregenerousenoughforhertoacquiesceandstopthewar,atleastaftershewasassuredofhercontinuedreignwhenthewarwasconcluded.[54]TheWesternpowersneededagovernmentstrongenoughtosuppressfurtheranti-foreignmovements,buttooweaktoactonitsown;theysupportedthecontinuationoftheQingdynasty,ratherthanallowingittobeoverthrown.CixiturnedoncemoretoLiHongzhangtonegotiate.LiagreedtosigntheBoxerProtocol,whichstipulatedthepresenceofaninternationalmilitaryforceinBeijingandthepaymentof£67 million(almost$333 million)inwarreparations.TheUnitedStatesuseditsshareofthewarindemnitytofundthecreationofChina'sprestigiousTsinghuaUniversity.TheGuangxuEmperorandCixididnotreturntoBeijingfromXi'anuntilroughly18monthsaftertheirflight.[55] ReturntoBeijingandreforms[edit] EmpressDowagerCixi,byKatharineCarl,1904,commissionedbytheEmpressDowagerCixifortheLouisianaPurchaseExposition(St.LouisWorld'sFair)andlatergiventoU.S.PresidentTheodoreRoosevelt,transferredtotheSmithsonianMuseumofAmericanArtcollectionsandlatertheArthurM.SacklerGalleryoftheSmithsonianInstitution.[56] InJanuary1902,Cixi,theGuangxuEmperor,theempressandtherestofthecourtmadeaceremoniousreturntoBeijing.AttherailheadatChengtingfu,Cixiandthecourtboardeda21-cartraintoconveythemtherestofthewaytothecapital.InBeijing,manyofthelegationwomenturnedouttowatchtheprocessionfromtheBeijingrailwaystationtotheForbiddenCity,andforthefirsttime,commonerswerepermittedtowatchaswell.[57] Oncebackinthepalace,Cixiimplementedsweepingpoliticalreforms.HighofficialsweredispatchedtoJapanandEuropetogatherfactsanddrawupplansforsweepingadministrativereformsinlaw,education,governmentstructure,andsocialpolicy,manyofwhichweremodeledonthereformsoftheMeijiRestoration.Theabolitionoftheexaminationsystemin1905wasonlythemostvisibleofthesesweepingreforms.Ironically,CixisponsoredtheimplementationoftheNewPolicies,areformprogrammoreradicalthantheoneproposedbythereformersshehadbeheadedin1898.[58] Inanattempttowooforeigners,CixialsoinvitedthewivesofthediplomaticcorpstoateaintheForbiddenCitysoonafterherreturn,andintime,wouldholdsummergardenpartiesfortheforeigncommunityattheSummerPalace.In1903,sheacquiescedtotherequestofSarahConger,wifeofEdwinH.Conger,theU.S.AmbassadortoChina,tohaveherportraitpaintedbyAmericanartistKatharineCarlfortheSt.LouisWorld'sFair.Between1903and1905,CixihadaWestern-educatedlady-in-waitingbythenameofYuDeling,alongwithhersisterandmother,serveathercourt.YuDeling,fluentinEnglishandFrench,aswellasChinese,oftenservedastranslatoratmeetingswiththewivesofthediplomaticcorps. In1903,CixiallowedayoungaristocraticphotographernamedYuXunling,abrotherofYuDeling,totakeelaboratelystagedshotsofherandhercourt.Theyweredesignedtoconveyimperialauthority,aestheticrefinement,andreligiouspiety.AstheonlyphotographicseriestakenofCixi–thesupremeleaderofChinaformorethan45years–itrepresentsauniqueconvergenceofQingcourtpictorialtraditions,modernphotographictechniques,andWesternstandardsofartisticportraiture.Therareglassplateshavebeenblownupintofull-sizeimages,includedintheexhibition"TheEmpressDowager"attheArthurM.SacklerGallery,SmithsonianInstitution,Washington,D.C.[59] Xuantongera[edit] EntrancetotheburialchamberinCixi'stomb EmpressDowagerCixidiedintheHallofGracefulBirdattheMiddleSea(中海儀鸞殿)ofZhongnanhai,Beijing,on15November1908,afterhavinginstalledPuyiasthenewemperoron14November1908.HerdeathcameonlyadayafterthedeathoftheGuangxuEmperor.Radicalsgreetedthenewswithscorn.TheanarchistWuZhihui,whohadleveledsomeofthemostvitriolatCixiinlife,wrotefromexileinParisofthe"vixenempressandverminemperor"that"theirlingeringstenchmakesmevomit."[60] On4November2008,forensictestsconcludedthattheGuangxuEmperordiedfromacutearsenicpoisoning.ChinaDailyquotedanhistorian,DaiYi,whospeculatedthatCiximayhaveknownofherimminentdeathandmayhaveworriedthattheGuangxuEmperorwouldcontinuehisreformsafterherdeath.ItwasreportedinNovember2008thatthelevelofarsenicinhisremainswas2,000timeshigherthanthatofordinarypeople.[61] MemorialtowerofthetombofEmpressDowagerCixi EmpressDowagerCixiwasinterredamidsttheEasternQingtombs,125 km(78 mi)eastofBeijing,intheEasternDingMausoleum(東定陵),alongwithEmpressDowagerCi'an.EmpressDowagerCi'anliesinthePuxiangyuEasternDingMausoleum(普祥峪定東陵;lit."TombEastoftheDingMausoleumintheBroadValleyofGoodOmen"),whileEmpressDowagerCixibuiltherselfthemuchlargerPutuoyuEasternDingMausoleum(菩陀峪定東陵;lit."TombEastoftheDingMausoleuminthePutuoValley").TheDingMausoleum(lit."TombofQuietude"),wheretheXianfengEmperorisburied,islocatedwestoftheDingdongling.ThePutuoValleyowesitsnametoMountPutuo,oneoftheFourSacredBuddhistMountainsofChina. EmpressDowagerCixi,unsatisfiedwithhertomb,ordereditsdestructionandreconstructionin1895.Thenewtombwasacomplexoftemples,gates,andpavilions,coveredwithgoldleaf,andwithgoldandgilded-bronzeornamentshangingfromthebeamsandtheeaves.InJuly1928,Cixi'stombwasplunderedbythewarlordSunDianyingandhisarmyaspartofthelootingoftheEasternMausoleum.Theymethodicallystrippedthecomplexofitspreciousornaments,thendynamitedtheentrancetotheburialchamber,openedCixi'scoffin,threwhercorpse(saidtohavebeenfoundintact)ontheground,andstolethejewelscontainedinthecoffin.Theyalsotookthemassivepearlthathadbeenplacedintheempressdowager'smouthtoprotecthercorpsefromdecomposing(inaccordancewithChinesetradition).SunDianyingclaimedthedesecrationwasrevengeforthedeathofhisancestorSunChengzongin1638.Puyihadhisgrandmother'sremainsreburied.After1949,thecomplexofEmpressDowagerCixi'stombwasrestoredbytheChinesegovernment.[citationneeded] Legacy[edit] PhotographofCixi Formanyyears,themainstreamviewofEmpressDowagerCixiwasthatshewasadeviousdespotwhocontributedinnosmallparttoChina'sslideintocorruption,anarchy,andrevolution.Cixiusedherpowertoaccumulatevastquantitiesofmoney,bullion,antiquesandjewelry,usingtherevenuesofthestateasherown.[62]Thelong-timeChinajournalistJasperBeckerrecalledthat"everyvisitortotheSummerPalaceisshownthebeautifullakesidepavilionintheshapeofanelegantmarblepleasureboatandtoldhowCixispentfundsdestinedfortheimperialnavyonsuchextravagantfripperies—whichultimatelyledtoJapan'svictoryoverChinain1895andthelossofTaiwan".[63] Yetevenaftertheviolentanti-foreignBoxermovementandequallyviolentforeignreprisal,theinitialforeignaccountsofCixiemphasizedherwarmthandfriendliness. KatharineCarloilportraitpaintedforexhibitatSt.LouisWorld'sFairof1904[1] ThiswasperhapsbecauseCixitooktheinitiativeandinvitedseveralwomentospendtimewithherintheForbiddenCity.KatharineCarl,anAmericanpainter,wascalledtoChinain1903topaintCixi'sportraitfortheSt.LouisExposition.InherWiththeEmpressDowager,CarlportraysCixiasakindandconsideratewomanforherstation.Cixi,thoughshrewd,hadgreatpresence,charm,andgracefulmovementsresultingin"anunusuallyattractivepersonality".Carlwroteoftheempressdowager'sloveofdogsandofflowers,aswellasboating,ChineseoperaandherChinesewaterpipesandEuropeancigarettes.[64]Cixialsocommissionedthewell-knownportraitist,HubertVostoproduceaseriesofoilportraits.[65] ThepublicationofChinaUnderTheEmpressDowager(1910)byJ.O.P.BlandandEdmundBackhousecontributedtoCixi'sreputationwithitsback-doorgossip,muchofwhichcamefrompalaceeunuchs.[66]Theirportraitincludedcontradictoryelements,writesonerecentstudy,"ontheonehand...imperious,manipulative,andlascivious"andontheother"ingenuous,politicallyshrewd,andconscientious..."[67]BackhouseandBlandtoldtheirreadersthat"tosummarizeheressencesimply,sheawomanandanOriental".[68]Backhousewaslaterfoundtohaveforgedsomeofthesourcematerialsusedinthiswork.[69]Thevividwritingandlasciviousdetailsoftheiraccountprovidedmaterialformanyofthebooksoverthefollowingdecades,includingChinesefictionandhistoriesthatdrewona1914translation.[67] InthePeople'sRepublicafter1949,theimageoftheManchuEmpresswasdebatedandchangedseveraltimes.Shewassometimespraisedforheranti-imperialistroleintheBoxerUprisingandsometimesshewasreviledasamemberofthe"feudalistregime".WhenMaoZedong'swife,JiangQingwasarrestedin1976forabuseofpower,anexhibitatthePalaceMuseumputCixi'sluxuriousgoodsondisplaytoshowthatafemalerulerweakenedthenation.[70] Bythemid-1970s,viewsamongscholarsbegantochange.SueFawnChung'sdoctoraldissertationatUniversityofCalifornia,BerkeleywasthefirststudyinEnglishtousecourtdocumentsratherthanpopularhistoriesandhearsay.[71]Herinfluential1979articletitled"TheMuchMalignedEmpressDowager"openedwiththesentence"Clio,theMuseofHistory,hasnotbeenkind"toCixi.TraditionalhistoriansinChina,Chungcontinued,"alwayshavebeenprejudicedagainstfeminineinfluenceincourt",andhistorianshavelongtakenthewordofKangYouwei,LiangQichao,andotherChinese,whoopposedtheEmpressDowager.[72]LukeKwong,inhisanalysisoftheHundredDays'Reform,arguedthatmanyoftheallegationsofEmpressDowagerCixibeingpower-hungryandimmoralcouldnotbeverified.[30]Heportraysherasarelativelyinsecurewoman,concernedaboutherlegitimacyandhauntedbyherrelativelyhumbleoriginsinthepalace.[73]TheEmpressDowagerwasalsoamoreconservativeleader,whichwasnotcommonforafemaleleaderofthosetimes.[74]ThishasresultedinEmpressDowagerCixibeingportrayedinaone-sided,negativeandnarrowviewwhereshewascallednamessuchas"shedragon"orthe"usurperofathrone"andviewedaseitheratyrantorincompetent.Despitethis,writerssuchasJungChanghavecriticizedthisnarrativeandhavewrittenworkssuchasChang'sEmpressDowagerCixi:TheConcubineWhoLaunchedModernChinainordertoofferanopposingview.[75] Inrecentdecades,saysPamelaKyleCrossley,ahistorianofthedynasty,historiansintheWestdevelopedwhathadbecome"truisms"intherepresentationofCixi:"thatshehasbeenobscuredbymisogynyandorientaliststereotyping,aswellastheanti-ManchusentimentrunningthroughChinesenationalistnarratives".CrossleyfeltthatCixiappealedtofeministsasapowerfulleaderandtoChinesepatriotsasadefenderofChina.Inthe1960sand1970s,Cixiwasoneof"asmallcollectionof'powerful'womennewlydiscovered"andnow"sheappearsinthevanguardofstubbornChineseoppositiontoforeignarroganceandencroachment".[76] Severalwidelyreadpopularbiographiesappeared.SterlingSeagrave'sDragonLady:TheLifeandLegendoftheLastEmpressofChinaportraysCixiasawomanstuckbetweenthexenophobicfactionofManchunobilityandmoremoderateinfluences.Theempressdowager,Seagraveargues,didnotcravepowerbutsimplyactedtobalancetheseinfluencesandprotecttheQingdynastyasbestshecould. In2013,JungChang'sbiography,EmpressDowagerCixi:TheConcubineWhoLaunchedModernChina,portraysCixiasthemostcapablerulerandadministratorthatChinacouldhavehadatthetime.PamelaKyleCrossleysaidintheLondonReviewofBooksthatChang'sclaims"seemtobemintedfromherownmusings,andhavelittletodowithwhatweknowwasactuallygoinginChina".AlthoughCrossleywassympathetictorestoringwomen'splaceinChinesehistory,shefound"rewritingCixiasCatherinetheGreatorMargaretThatcherisapoorbargain:thegainofanillusoryiconattheexpenseofhistoricalsense".[77] Titlesandhonours[edit] StylesofEmpressDowagerCixiReferencestyleHerImperialMajestySpokenstyleYourImperialMajestyAlternativestyleEmpressDowager TheplaquehangingaboveCixiisinscribedwithhertitleinfull TheEmpressDowagerwasadevotedBuddhistandseizedeveryopportunitytodressupasAvalokiteśvara(Guanyin),thegoddessofmercy.ThisphotographshowshersittingonabargeonZhonghai.Thewhitesmokeformsthecharacterforlongevity,andontopofthesmokewasherBuddhistname"Guangrenzi"(literallyUniversalBenevolence). Titles[edit] DuringthereignoftheDaoguangEmperor(r.1820–1850): LadyYeheNara(from29November1835) DuringthereignoftheXianfengEmperor(r.1850–1861): NobleLadyLan(蘭貴人;from26June1852[78]),sixthrankconsort ImperialConcubineYi(懿嬪;from28February1854[79]),fifthrankconsort ConsortYi(懿妃;from27April1856[80]),fourthrankconsort NobleConsortYi(懿貴妃;fromJanuary/February1857[81]),thirdrankconsort DuringthereignoftheTongzhiEmperor(r.1861–1875): EmpressDowagerCixi(慈禧皇太后;from22August1861[82]) DuringthereignoftheXuantongEmperor(r.1908–1912): GrandEmpressDowagerCixi(慈禧太皇太后;from14November1908[83]) EmpressXiaoqinxian(孝欽顯皇后;from16November1909[84]) Honours[edit] DameGrandCordonoftheOrderofthePreciousCrown(EmpireofJapan).[citationneeded] DameGrandCrossoftheOrderofSaintCatherine(RussianEmpire,28May1897) Family[edit] Father:YehenaraHuizheng(惠徵;1805–1853) Paternalgrandfather:Jingrui(景瑞) Paternalgrandmother:LadyGūwalgiya Mother:LadyFuca Maternalgrandfather:Huixian(惠顯) Threeyoungerbrothers Secondyoungerbrother:Guixiang(桂祥;1849–1913),servedasfirstrankmilitaryofficial(都統),andheldthetitleofathirdclassduke(三等公),thefatherofEmpressXiaoDingJing(1868–1913) Oneyoungersister Secondyoungersister:Wanzhen(1841–1896),themotheroftheGuangxuEmperor(1871–1908) Issue[edit] AsConcubineYi: Zaichun(載淳;27April1856–12January1875),theXianfengEmperor'sfirstson,enthronedon11November1861astheTongzhiEmperor Infictionandpopularculture[edit] FloraRobsonportraystheempress'TzuHsi'inthe1963NicholasRay'sAmericanepichistoricalfilm55DaysatPeking;thisfilm(basedonabookbyNoelGerson)dramatizesthesiegeoftheforeignlegations'compoundsinPekingduringtheBoxerRebellion. DerLing'sstoryTheTrueStoryoftheEmpressDowager(originallypublishedasOldBuddha)givesaportrayalofthehistorybehindthecharacteroftheEmpress-DowagerCixi—notasthemonsterofdepravitydepictedinthepopularpress,butanagingwomanwholovedbeautifulthingsandhadmanyregretsaboutthepast.(SoulCarePublishing,2015) PearlS.Buck'snovelImperialWomanchroniclesthelifeoftheEmpressDowagerfromthetimeofherselectionasaconcubineuntilneartoherdeath. BetteBaoLord'snovelSpringMoonstartsinthedaysofCixi,andincludestheinvolvementoftheImperialCourtintheBoxerRebellion. ThenovelsEmpressOrchid(2004)andTheLastEmpress(2007),byAncheeMinportraythelifeofEmpressDowagerCixifromafirst-personperspective. TheNobleConsortYiisfeaturedinGeorgeMcDonaldFraser'snovel,FlashmanandtheDragon(1985). The1968novelWijTz'eHsiKeizerinVanChina("We,Tz'eHsi,EmpressofChina")byDutchauthorJohanFabriciusisafictionaldiaryoftheEmpress. Inthe1970s,shewasportrayedbyLisaLuintwoHongKong-madefilms,TheEmpressDowager(setduringtheSino-JapaneseWar),anditssequel,TheLastTempest(setduringthe"HundredDaysofReform"). LureprisedherroleasCixiinthe1987filmTheLastEmperor,depictingthedowageronherdeathbed. Inthe1980s,shewasportrayedbyLiuXiaoqing,inBurningofImperialPalace(depictingherrisetopowerinthe1850s,andtheburningoftheOldSummerPalacebyFrenchandBritishtroopsin1860),inReignBehindaCurtain(depictingtheXinyouCoupof1861),inTheEmpressDowager(setduringthelatterpartofthereignofTongzhi),andinLiLianying,theImperialEunuch. IntheLoveroftheLastEmpress,shewasportrayedbyChingmyYau. TheChinaCentralTelevisionproductionTowardstheRepublicportrayedEmpressDowagerCixiasacapableruler,thefirsttimethatMainlandChinesetelevisionhadshownherinthislight.Theportrayalwasnotentirelypositive,asitalsoclearlydepictedherpoliticalviewsasveryconservative. SheisportrayedinthenovelTheGingerTree,byOswaldWynd(1977). ThenovelThePleiades,byJapaneseauthorJirōAsada,focusesonEmpressCixi'srelationshipwithacourteunuchnamedChun'er,anddepictedCixiasaruthlessandcalculatingleader.Itwasadaptedintoa2010JapanesetelevisionseriesthatwasalsobroadcastinChina,andstarredJapaneseactressYūkoTanakaasEmpressCixi. CixiisamajorcharacterinthenovelMandarin,byAmericanauthorRobertElegant.Thenovelissetinthe1850sthroughthe1870s. EarthQueenHou-TinginTheLegendofKorraisclearlybaseduponCixiandthestateoftheEarthKingdomduringherreignmirrorsthedeclineofImperialChinainthelate19thcentury. PortrayedbyMichelleYiminTheRiseandFallofQingDynasty(1990)andTheConfidant(2012) PortrayedbySusannaAu-yeunginTheRiseandFallofQingDynasty(1992) PortrayedbyLüZhonginPrincessDerLing(2006) PortrayedbyLawLaninTheLastHealerinForbiddenCity(2016) PortrayedbyXiMeijuaninNothingGoldCanStay(2017) EmpressCixiistheprimaryantagonistandrecurringcharacter,thoughonlyevernamedas"theEmpressDowager"inthe1991animatedshowTheTwinsofDestinybyFrenchwriter/producerJeanChalopin. PortrayedastheprimaryantagonistoftheWEBTOONPhantomParadise. Seealso[edit] Chinaportal Historyportal Biographyportal RanksofImperialConsortsinChina#Qing QingDynastynobility ImperialDecreeofdeclarationofwaragainstforeignpowers ImperialDecreeoneventsleadingtothesigningofBoxerProtocol WuZetian KösemSultan Notes[edit] ^abWang(2012),pp. 161–162. ^Chang(2013),p. 68. ^Chung(1979),pp. 177–196. ^Informationlistedonaredsheet(FileNo.1247)inthe"MiscellaneousPiecesofthePalace"(aQingdynastydocumentationpackageretrievedfromtheFirstHistoricalArchivesofChina) ^Laidler(2003),p. 58. ^"您访问的页面不存在".www.56.com.Archivedfromtheoriginalon15December2013. ^ImmanualHsu(1985),TheRiseofModernChina(pg.215). ^EdwardBehr,TheLastEmperor,1987,p.44 ^[SuiLijuan:CarryingouttheCoup.CCTV-10SeriesonCixi,Ep.4] ^abEdwardBehr,TheLastEmperor,1987,p.45 ^Yang,Hong;Xie,Jiawei;Ji,Lifang(2018)."TheHistoricalInformationoftheDecorativePolychromePaintingintheHallofMentalCultivationComplex,ForbiddenCity".BuiltHeritage.2(1):19–38.doi:10.1186/BF03545700.ISSN 2096-3041. ^Kwong(1984),pp. 21–22. ^MaryClabaughWright(1969).ThelaststandofChineseconservatism:theTʻung-Chihrestoration,1862-1874(2nd ed.).Atheneum.p. vii. ^JohnKingFairbank;MerleGoldman(2006).China:ANewHistory,2ndedition.HarvardUnP.p. 212.ISBN 9780674018280. ^"清史稿".8April2001.Archivedfromtheoriginalon8April2001. ^清史稿：恭忠親王奕訢傳記載："王入謝，痛哭引咎"。

^[ProfessorSuiLijuang:LectureRoomSeriesonCixi,Episode9] ^"CeremonialHeaddress".TheWaltersArtMuseum. ^《清德宗實錄》 ^"光绪皇帝为什么叫慈禧太后亲爸爸？WhydoestheGuangxuEmperorcalltheEmpressDowagerCixi"QinBaba"?".LishiQiannian.Archivedfromtheoriginalon15December2013.Retrieved15March2010. ^"‎ExecutivedocumentsprintedbyorderoftheHouseofRepresentatives.1874-'751874/1875-UWDC-UW-MadisonLibraries".search.library.wisc.edu. ^Seagrave(1992),p. 163-164. ^EdwardBehr,TheLastEmperor,1987,p.49 ^Kwong(1984),p. 25. ^abKwong(1984),p. 54. ^abcChang(2013),pp. 182–184. ^Chang(2013),pp. 160–161. ^abKwong(1984),p. 60. ^Kwong(1984),p. 61. ^abKwong(1984),p. 29. ^Kwong(1984),p. 38. ^Kwong(1984),p. 32. ^Kwong(1984),pp. 26–27. ^Kwong(1984),p. 27. ^Kwong(1984),pp. 27–28. ^PapersRelatingtotheForeignRelationsoftheUnitedStates(1893)DenbytoGresham,pg.240-241;retrieved13August2013http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1711.dl/FRUS.FRUS189394v01 ^LeiChia-sheng雷家聖,Liwankuanglan:Wuxuzhengbianxintan力挽狂瀾：戊戌政變新探[Containingthefuriouswaves:anewviewofthe1898coup],Taipei:Wanjuanlou萬卷樓,2004. ^TimothyRichard,Forty-fiveyearsinChina,Ch.12. ^KangYouwei康有為,KangNanhaizidingnianpu康南海自訂年譜[ChronicleofKangYouwei'sLife,byKangYouwei],Taipei:Wenhaichubanshe文海出版社,p.67. ^YangShenxiu,"ShandongdaojianchayushiYangShenxiuzhe"山東道監察御史楊深秀摺[PalacememorialbyYangShenxiu,InvestigatingCensorofShandongCircuit],inWuxubianfadang'anshiliao戊戌變法檔案史料[Archivalsourcesonthehistoryofthe1898reforms],Beijing:Zhonghuashuju,1959,p.15.「臣尤伏願我皇上早定大計，固結英、美、日本三國，勿嫌『合邦』之名之不美。

」 ^SongBolu,"ZhangShandongdaojianchayushiSongBoluzhe"掌山東道監察御史宋伯魯摺[PalacememorialbySongBolu,InvestigatingCensorinchargeoftheShandongCircuit],inWuxubianfadang'anshiliao,p.170.「渠(李提摩太)之來也，擬聯合中國、日本、美國及英國為合邦，共選通達時務、曉暢各國掌故者百人，專理四國兵政稅則及一切外交等事。

」 ^CorrespondenceRespectingtheAffairsofChina,PresentedtoBothHousesofParliamentbyCommandofHerMajesty(London,1899.3),No.401.,p.303. ^BritishForeignOfficefiles(F.O.)17/1718,26September1898. ^PaulA.Cohen(1997).StoryinThreeKeys:TheBoxersasEvent,Experience,andMyth.ColumbiaUniversityPress.p. 54.ISBN 0-231-10650-5. ^X.L.Woo(2002).EmpressDowagerCixi:China'sLastDynastyandtheLongReignofaFormidableConcubine:LegendsandLivesDuringtheDecliningDaysoftheQingDynasty.AlgoraPublishing.p. 216.ISBN 1-892941-88-0. ^StephenG.Haw(2007).Beijing:AConciseHistory.Taylor&Francis.p. 94.ISBN 978-0-415-39906-7. ^Seagrave(1992),p. 311. ^JosephEsherick(1988).TheOriginsoftheBoxerUprising.UniversityofCaliforniaPress.p. 289.ISBN 0-520-06459-3. ^abLaidler(2003),p. 221. ^ChesterC.Tan(1967).TheBoxerCatastrophe(reprint ed.).OctagonBooks.p. 73.ISBN 0-374-97752-6. ^MarilynBlattYoung(1969).Therhetoricofempire:AmericanChinapolicy,1895–1901.HarvardUniversityPress.p. 147. ^NatBrandt(1994).MassacreinShansi.SyracuseUniversityPress.p. 181.ISBN 0-8156-0282-0. ^RichardO'Connor(1973).Thespiritsoldiers:ahistoricalnarrativeoftheBoxerRebellion(illustrated ed.).Putnam.p. 85.ISBN 9780399112164. ^DianaPreston(2000).Theboxerrebellion:thedramaticstoryofChina'swaronforeignersthatshooktheworldinthesummerof1900.BloomsburyPublishingUSA.p. 312.ISBN 0-8027-1361-0. ^JaquesGernet,AHistoryofChineseCivilization(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,secondedition1982):604. ^"TheEmpressDowager,TzeHsi,ofChina".Freer|Sackler.Retrieved22April2019. ^Seagrave(1992),p. 404-405. ^DouglasReynolds,China,1898–1912:TheXinzhengRevolutionandJapan(Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,1993).ISBN 0-674-11660-7passim. ^"Power|Play:China'sEmpressDowager".ArthurM.SacklerGallery.SmithsonianInstitution.Retrieved20January2015. ^ChristopherRea,TheAgeofIrreverence:ANewHistoryofLaughterinChina(Oakland,CA:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2015),p.99. ^"ArsenickilledChineseemperor,reportssay-CNN.com".CNN.4November2008.Retrieved2May2010. ^EdwardBehr,TheLastEmperor,1987,p.51 ^JasperBecker,"TheEmpressDowagerwasaModerniser,NotaMinx.ButDoesChinaCare?,TheSpectator,12October2013 ^LiZurndorfer(2012),p. 6-7. ^Wang(2012),p. 164-165. ^Chung(1979),p. 178,181. ^abLiZurndorfer(2012),p. 8-9. ^BlandBackhouse(1910),p. 476. ^H.R.Trevor-Roper,HermitofPeking:TheHiddenLifeofSirEdmundBackhouse(NewYork:Knopf,1977) ^LiZurndorfer(2012),p. 9-10. ^LiZurndorfer(2012),p. 11. ^Chung(1979),p. 177. ^Kwong(1984),pp. 31–32. ^Chung(1979). ^Schell,Orville(25October2013)."HerDynasty".TheNewYorkTimes.Retrieved11March2020.{{citenews}}:CS1maint:url-status(link) ^Crossley(2014),p. 1. ^Crossley(2014),p. 7-8. ^咸豐二年五月九日 ^咸豐四年二月二日 ^咸豐六年三月二十三日 ^咸豐七年正月 ^咸豐十一年七月十七日 ^光緒三十四年十月二十一日 ^宣統元年十月四日 Sources[edit] Bland,J.O.P.;Backhouse,Edmund(1910).ChinaundertheEmpressDowager:BeingtheHistoryoftheLifeandTimesofTz*UHsi,CompiledfromStatePapersandthePrivateDiaryoftheComptrollerofHerHousehold.London:W.Heinemann..Longthestandardsourceuntiltheso-called"DiaryofChingShan"wasexposedasaforgeryandBackhouseasawell-informedfraud.Still,muchcolorfuldetailandatmosphere.FreeonlineGooglebookhere. Chang,Jung(2013).EmpressDowagerCixi:theconcubinewholaunchedmodernChina(FirstAmerican ed.).NewYork.ISBN 9780307456700. Chung,SueFawn(1979)."TheMuchMalignedEmpressDowager:ARevisionistStudyoftheEmpressDowagerTz'u-Hsi(1835–1908)".ModernAsianStudies.13(2):177–196.doi:10.1017/s0026749x00008283.S2CID 144621086.Drawsfromtheauthor'sneverpublisheddoctoraldissertationatUniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley. Crossley,Pamela(2014)."IntheHornet'sNest".LondonReviewofBooks.36(8).Freeaccesscopyhere. Kwong,LukeS.K.(1984).AMosaicoftheHundredDays:Personalities,Politics,andIdeasof1898.Cambridge,MA:CouncilonEastAsianStudiesDistributedbyHarvardUniversityPress.ISBN 0674587421. Laidler,Keith(2003).Thelastempress:theShe-DragonofChina.Chichester:Wiley.ISBN 0-470-84881-2. Li,Yuhang;Zurndorfer,HarrietT.(2012)."RethinkingEmpressDowagerCixithroughtheProductionofArt".NANNÜ.Brill.14(1):1–20.doi:10.1163/156853212X651960. Seagrave,Sterling(1992).DragonLady:TheLifeandLegendoftheLastEmpressofChina.VintageBooks.ISBN 0-679-73369-8.PopularbiographyusingEnglishlanguagesources. Wang,Cheng-hua(2012).""GoingPublic":PortraitsoftheEmpressDowagerCixi,Circa1904".NANNÜ.14(1):119–176.doi:10.1163/156853212x652004. Furtherreading[edit] LibraryresourcesaboutEmpressDowagerCixi Resourcesinyourlibrary Resourcesinotherlibraries Aldridge,A.Owen(2001)."TheEmpressDowagerCi-XiinWesternFiction:AStereotypeforTheFarEast?".Revuedelittératurecomparée.No. 1.pp. 113–122. LeiChia-sheng雷家聖(2004).Liwankuanglan:Wuxuzhengbianxintan力挽狂瀾：戊戌政變新探[Containingthefuriouswaves:anewviewofthe1898coup].Taipei:Wanjuanlou萬卷樓.ISBN 957-739-507-4. Chung,SueFawn(1976),"TheImageoftheEmpressDowagerTz'u-hsi",inCohen,PaulA.;Schrecker,JohnE.(eds.),ReforminNineteenth-CenturyChina,HarvardUniversityPress,pp. 101–10Drawsfromtheauthor'sneverpublisheddoctoraldissertationatUniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley. Hayter-Menzies,Grant(2008).ImperialMasquerade:TheLegendofPrincessDerLing.HongKongUniversityPress. Hogge,David(2011),TheEmpressDowagerandtheCamera:PhotographingCixi,1903-1904,MITVisualizingCultureOnlineresource. Warner,Marina(1972).TheDragonEmpress:LifeandTimesofTz'u-hsi1835–1908.Weidenfeld&Nicolson. Zhang,Zhan."CixiandModernizationofChina."AsianSocialScience6.4(2010):154+.online Hummel,ArthurW.Sr.,ed.(1943)."Hsiao-ch'inHsienHuang-hou" .EminentChineseoftheCh'ingPeriod.UnitedStatesGovernmentPrintingOffice. Externallinks[edit] Wikisourcehasoriginaltextrelatedtothisarticle: ImperialDecreeonDayNineteenofMay(lunarcalendar) WikimediaCommonshasmediarelatedtoEmpressDowagerCixi. WikiquotehasquotationsrelatedtoEmpressDowagerCixi. Cixi,EmpressDowagerofChina,1835-1908,Photographs,FreerGalleryofArtandArthurM.SacklerGalleryArchives,SmithsonianInstitution,WashingtonDC. Cixi(Character)IMDbListoffilmsinwhichsheisacharacter. JoneJohnsonLewis,EmpressCixiAbout.comWomen'sHistory. Cixi–BiographyofDowagerEmpressofChinaCixiorTz'u-hsiatwomenshistory.about.com IsaacTaylorHeadland,CourtLifeinChina:TheCapital,ItsOfficialsandPeople,(NewYork,F.H.Revell,c1909). AmandaBensen,"Cixi:TheWomanBehindtheThrone",Smithsonian.com(1March2008).DescribestherethinkingofCixi,withfurtherlinks. Chineseroyalty Preceded byEmpressXiaojingcheng EmpressDowagerofChina1861–1908concurrentlywithEmpressDowagerCi'an:1861–1881 Succeeded byEmpressDowagerLongyu vteImperialregentsduringtheQingdynasty(1636–1912)ListofemperorsoftheQingdynastyEmpressesDowager Xiaozhuang Ci'an Cixi Longyu Appointedregents Dorgon Sonin* Oboi* Ebilun* Suksaha* Sushun* Duanhua* Zaiyuan* Yixin(PrinceGong) Zaifeng Asterisk(*)denotesthatregentwaspartofaregencycouncil. vteTaipingRebellionBattlesandcampaigns Jintian Changsha Wuchang 1stNanjing WesternExpedition NorthernExpedition EasternExpedition 1stJiangnan Tianjingincident Sanhe 2ndJiangnan Ningbo Anqing Shanghai Guanzhong Cixi Changzhou 3rdNanking Hubei Fujian TaipingHeavenlyKingdomleaders HongXiuquan HongTianguifu  HongXuanjiao YangXiuqing † FengYunshan † XiaoChaogui † WeiChanghui † HongRengan  ShiDakai  LiXiucheng  ChenYucheng  LiShixian † QinRigang  Co-Commanders: ZhangLexing †(NianRebels) SuSanniang QiuErsao †(RedTurbanrebels) Qingdynastyleadersandpersonnel XianfengEmperor EmpressDowagerCixi ZengGuofan SenggeRinchen Guanwen LiHongzhang LuoBingzhang Jirhangga † ZuoZongtang ZhangGuoliang † HeChun † XiangRong † FrederickTownsendWard † AugusteProtet † Othernotablefigures FuShanxiang HuJiumei YangFuqing † Miscellaneoustopics Nobleranks Seealso: AuthoritycontrolGeneral ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat Nationallibraries Norway France(data) Catalonia Germany Israel UnitedStates Japan CzechRepublic Australia Korea Netherlands Poland Sweden Artresearchinstitutes KulturNav(Norway) Other FacetedApplicationofSubjectTerminology NationalArchives(US) RERO(Switzerland) 1 SocialNetworksandArchivalContext SUDOC(France) 1 Trove(Australia) 1 Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Empress_Dowager_Cixi&oldid=1094724453" Categories:1835births1908deathsChinesegrandempressesdowagerQingdynastyempressesdowagerWomenleadersofChinaConsortsoftheXianfengEmperorQingdynastyregentsChinesepeopleoftheBoxerRebellionManchupeopleQingdynastypoliticiansfromBeijingGrandCordonsoftheOrderofthePreciousCrown19th-centuryChinesepeople20th-centuryChinesepeople19th-centuryviceregalrulers19th-centurywomenrulers20th-centuryChineseheadsofgovernment20th-centurywomenrulers19th-centuryrulersinAsia20th-centuryrulersinAsiaHiddencategories:CS1maint:url-statusArticleswithshortdescriptionShortdescriptionmatchesWikidataUsedmydatesfromJune2022ArticlescontainingChinese-languagetextArticlescontainingManchu-languagetextAllarticleswithunsourcedstatementsArticleswithunsourcedstatementsfromSeptember2013ArticleswithunsourcedstatementsfromJanuary2015ArticleswithunsourcedstatementsfromFebruary2022ArticleswithunsourcedstatementsfromJune2020CommonscategorylinkisonWikidataArticleswithISNIidentifiersArticleswithVIAFidentifiersArticleswithWORLDCATIDidentifiersArticleswithBIBSYSidentifiersArticleswithBNFidentifiersArticleswithCANTICNidentifiersArticleswithGNDidentifiersArticleswithJ9UidentifiersArticleswithLCCNidentifiersArticleswithNDLidentifiersArticleswithNKCidentifiersArticleswithNLAidentifiersArticleswithNLKidentifiersArticleswithNTAidentifiersArticleswithPLWABNidentifiersArticleswithSELIBRidentifiersArticleswithKULTURNAVidentifiersArticleswithFASTidentifiersArticleswithNARAidentifiersArticleswithREROidentifiersArticleswithSNAC-IDidentifiersArticleswithSUDOCidentifiersArticleswithTroveidentifiers Navigationmenu Personaltools NotloggedinTalkContributionsCreateaccountLogin Namespaces ArticleTalk English Views ReadEditViewhistory More Search Navigation MainpageContentsCurrenteventsRandomarticleAboutWikipediaContactusDonate Contribute HelpLearntoeditCommunityportalRecentchangesUploadfile Tools WhatlinkshereRelatedchangesUploadfileSpecialpagesPermanentlinkPageinformationCitethispageWikidataitem Print/export DownloadasPDFPrintableversion Inotherprojects WikimediaCommonsWikiquoteWikisource Languages AfrikaansالعربيةAsturianuAzərbaycancaتۆرکجهBân-lâm-gúБашҡортсаБеларускаяБеларуская(тарашкевіца)Българскиབོད་ཡིགBosanskiBrezhonegCatalàЧӑвашлаČeštinaCymraegDanskDeutschEestiΕλληνικάEspañolEsperantoEuskaraفارسیFrançaisGalego客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî한국어ՀայերենHrvatskiBahasaIndonesiaÍslenskaItalianoעבריתJawaქართულიKernowekKiswahiliLadinoLatinaLatviešuLietuviųMagyarМакедонскиMalagasyമലയാളംमराठीمصرىBahasaMelayuMìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄Монголမြန်မာဘာသာNederlandsनेपालभाषा日本語NorskbokmålNorsknynorskOccitanپنجابیPlattdüütschPolskiPortuguêsRomânăРусскийScotsSimpleEnglishSlovenščinaŚlůnskiСрпски/srpskiSrpskohrvatski/српскохрватскиSuomiSvenskaTagalogதமிழ்ไทยTürkçeУкраїнськаاردوTiếngViệt文言Winaray吴语粵語Žemaitėška中文 Editlinks