History of the People's Republic of China - Wikipedia

The PRC is the most recent political entity to govern mainland China, preceded by the Republic of China (ROC; 1912–1949) and thousands of years of monarchical ... HistoryofthePeople'sRepublicofChina FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch HistoricaldevelopmentofthePeople'sRepublicofChina HistoryofthePeople'sRepublicofChina(PRC) 1949–1976 Maoera Revolution Proclamation KoreanWar LandReformMovement ZhenFan Three-antiandFive-anti Sufan HundredFlowers Anti-Rightist TwoBombs,OneSatellite GreatLeapForward(GreatChineseFamine) SevenThousandCadresConference SocialistEducationMovement CulturalRevolution 1976–1989 TransitionandDengera BoluanFanzheng ReformsandOpening-up FourModernizations Sino-VietnameseWar BeijingSpring "StrikeHard"Anti-crimeCampaign Anti-SpiritualPollutionCampaign Anti-BourgeoisLiberalizationCampaign 863Program 1986Chinesestudentdemonstrations TiananmenSquareprotests 1989–2002 Jiangandthethirdgeneration DengXiaoping'ssoutherntour Project211 Project985 Onecountry,twosystemsHongKongMacau 1998Chinafloods PersecutionofFalunGong ChinaWesternDevelopment 2002–2012 Huandthefourthgeneration 2002–2004SARSoutbreak Shenzhou5 South–NorthWaterTransferProject Sichuanearthquake BeijingOlympics Shanghai2010Expo ThreeGorgesDam 2012–present  Xiandthefifthgeneration Anti-corruptioncampaign BeltandRoadInitiative Chang'e3 Xinjianginternmentcamps Uyghurgenocide China–UnitedStatestradewar 2019–20HongKongprotests COVID-19pandemic HongKongnationalsecuritylaw 2020–2021reformspree Historyof China PRCconstitution Beijing Shanghai Generationsofleadership 1. Mao 2. Deng 3. Jiang 4. Hu 5. Xi Culture Economy Education Geography Politics  Chinaportalvte HistoryofChina ANCIENT Paleolithic Neolithicc.8500–c.1500BCE Xiac.2070–c.1600BCE Shangc.1600–c.1046BCE Zhouc.1046–256BCE  WesternZhou  EasternZhou    SpringandAutumn    WarringStates IMPERIAL Qin221–207BCE Han202BCE–220CE  WesternHan  Xin  EasternHan ThreeKingdoms220–280  Wei,ShuandWu Jin266–420  WesternJin  EasternJin SixteenKingdoms NorthernandSoutherndynasties420–589 Sui581–618 Tang618–907 FiveDynastiesandTenKingdoms907–979 Liao916–1125WesternXia1038–1227Jin1115–1234 Song960–1279  NorthernSong  SouthernSong Yuan1271–1368 Ming1368–1644 Qing1636–1912 MODERN RepublicofChinaonthemainland1912–1949 People'sRepublicofChina1949–present RepublicofChinainTaiwan1949–present Relatedarticles Dynasties Timeline Historiography Arthistory Economichistory Educationhistory Legalhistory Linguistichistory Mediahistory Musichistory Militaryhistory Navalhistory Scienceandtechnologyhistory Women'shistory viewtalkedit ThehistoryofthePeople'sRepublicofChinadetailsthehistoryofmainlandChinasince1October1949,whenCCPchairmanMaoZedongproclaimedthePeople'sRepublicofChina(PRC)fromatopTiananmen,afteranearcompletevictory(1949)bytheChineseCommunistParty(CCP)intheChineseCivilWar.ThePRCisthemostrecentpoliticalentitytogovernmainlandChina,precededbytheRepublicofChina(ROC;1912–1949)andthousandsofyearsofmonarchicaldynasties.TheparamountleadershavebeenMaoZedong(1949-1976);HuaGuofeng(1976-1978);DengXiaoping(1978-1989);JiangZemin(1989-2002);HuJintao(2002-2012);andXiJinping(2012topresent).[1] TheoriginsofthePeople'sRepubliccanbetracedtotheChineseSovietRepublicthatwasproclaimedin1931inRuijin(Jui-chin),Jiangxi(Kiangsi),withthebackingoftheAll-UnionCommunistPartyintheSovietUnion[2][3]inthemidstoftheChineseCivilWaragainsttheNationalistgovernmentonlytodissolvein1937.[4] UnderMao'srule,Chinawentthroughasocialisttransformationfromatraditionalpeasantsociety,leaningtowardsheavyindustriesunderplannedeconomy,whilecampaignssuchastheGreatLeapForwardandtheCulturalRevolutionwreakedhavocontheentirecountry.Sincelate1978,theeconomicreformsledbyDengXiaopinghadmadeChinatheworld'ssecond-largestandoneofthefastestgrowingeconomies,withaspecialtyinhighproductivityfactoriesandleadershipinsomeareasofhightechnology.Globally,afterreceivingsupportfromtheUSSRinthe1950s,ChinabecamebitterenemyofUSSRonaworldwidebasisuntilMikhailGorbachev'svisittoChinainMay1989.Inthe21stcentury,thenewwealthandtechnologyledtoacontestforprimacyinAsianaffairsversusIndia,JapanandtheUnitedStates,andsince2017agrowingtradewarwiththeUnitedStates.[5] Contents 1Maoera(1949–1976) 1.1Socialisttransformation 1.2GreatLeapForwardandaftermath 1.3CulturalRevolution 1.4Foreignrelations 1.4.1India 1.4.2SovietUnion 1.4.3Diplomaticrelationsestablished 1.5Disasters 1.6Controversies 2TransitionandtheDengera(1976–1989) 2.1Thetransitionperiod 2.2InvalidatingtheCulturalRevolution 2.3ReformsandOpening-up 2.4Politicalreforms 2.5Politicalturmoil 2.6Militarymodernisation 2.7Foreignrelations 2.8Disasters 2.9Controversies 3JiangZeminandthethirdgeneration(1989–2002) 3.1TransitionofpowerandDeng'sSouthernTour 3.2Domesticaffairs 3.3Foreignrelations 3.4Disasters 3.5Controversies 4HuJintaoandthefourthgeneration(2002–2012) 4.1Transitionofpower 4.2Domesticaffairs 4.3Foreignrelations 4.4Disasters 4.5Controversies 5XiJinpingandthefifthgeneration(2012–present) 5.1Transitionofpower 5.2Domesticaffairs 5.3Foreignrelations 5.4Disasters 5.5Controversies 6Seealso 7References 8Furtherreading 8.1Historiographyandmemory 9Externallinks Maoera(1949–1976)[edit] Seealso:HistoryofthePeople'sRepublicofChina(1949–1976) MaoZedong Socialisttransformation[edit] Mainarticles:ProclamationofthePeople'sRepublicofChina,ChineseLandReform,andAnti-RightistCampaign FollowingtheChineseCivilWarandvictoryofMaoZedong'sCommunistforcesovertheKuomintangforcesofGeneralissimoChiangKai-shek,whofledtoTaiwan,MaoZedongproclaimedthefoundingofthePeople'sRepublicofChina(PRC)on1October1949.Maolaidheavytheoreticalemphasisoncommandeconomyandclassstruggle,andruledasadictator. AftertheKoreanWarendedin1953,MaoZedonglaunchedcampaignstopersecuteformerlandlordsandmerchants,startingtheindustrialisationprogramatthesametime.Mao'sfirstgoalwasatotaloverhaulofthelandownershipsystem,andextensivelandreforms,includingtheexecutionofmorepowerfullandlords.China'soldsystemofgentrylandlordownershipoffarmlandandtenantpeasantswasreplacedwithadistributionsysteminfavorofpoor/landlesspeasantswhichsignificantlyreducedeconomicinequality.OveramillionlandlordswereexecutedintheChineselandreform.[6]InZhangzhuangcun,inthemorethoroughlyreformednorthofthecountry,most"landlords"and"richpeasants"hadlostalltheirlandandoftentheirlivesorhadfled.Allformerlylandlessworkershadreceivedland,whicheliminatedthiscategoryaltogether.Asaresult,"middlingpeasants",whonowaccountedfor90%ofthevillagepopulation,owned91%oftheland.[7]Drugtraffickingandopiumusewerelargelywipedout.Foreigninvestmentswereseizedandoutsiderswereexpelled. Atthesametime,politicalmovementsandclassstruggleswerelaunchednationwide.TheAnti-RightistCampaignof1957–1958significantlydamagedthedemocracyinChina,duringwhichatleast550,000peoplewerepersecuted,mostofwhowereintellectualsandpoliticaldissidents.[8]Afterthecampaign,Chinaenteredthedefactoone-partystateoftheChineseCommunistParty.Othermajorpoliticalmovementsin1950sincludedtheSuppressionofCounter-revolutionaries,theThree-antiandFive-antiCampaignsandtheSufanMovement,eachofwhichresultedinalargenumberofdeathsnationwide. GreatLeapForwardandaftermath[edit] Mainarticles:GreatLeapForwardandGreatChineseFamine PeoplewererequiredtoproducemoresteelduringtheGreatLeapForward. MaoZedongbelievedthatsocialismwouldeventuallytriumphoverallotherideologies,andfollowingtheFirstFive-YearPlanbasedonaSoviet-stylecentrallycontrolledeconomy,MaotookontheambitiousprojectoftheGreatLeapForwardin1958,beginninganunprecedentedprocessofcollectivisationinruralareas(thePeople'scommune).Maourgedtheuseofcommunallyorganisedironsmelterstoincreasesteelproduction,pullingworkersoffofagriculturallabortothepointthatlargeamountsofcropsrottedunharvested.Maodecidedtocontinuetoadvocatethesesmeltersdespiteavisittoafactorysteelmillwhichprovedtohimthathighqualitysteelcouldonlybeproducedinafactory.Hethoughtthatendingtheprogramwoulddampenpeasantenthusiasmforhispoliticalmobilisation,theGreatLeapForward. TheimplementationofMaoismthoughtinChinamayhavebeenresponsibleforthedeadliestfamineinhumanhistory,inwhich15-55millionpeoplediedduetostarvationandepidemics.[9][10][11]Bytheendof1961,thebirthratewasnearlycutinhalfbecauseofmalnutrition.[12]In1958,theXunhuauprisingbrokeoutandin1959,amajoruprisingeruptedinTibet,resultinginthedeathsoftensofthousandsofTibetans,andtheDalaiLamawentintoexileafterwards.[13][14]Mao'sfailurewiththeLeapreducedhispoweringovernment,whoseadministrativedutiesfelltoPresidentLiuShaoqiandDengXiaoping,especiallyaftertheSevenThousandCadresConferenceinearly1962.ThepowerstrugglebetweenMaoZedongandLiuShaoqitogetherwithDengXiaopingbeganafter1962.TheSocialistEducationMovementwaslaunchedbyMaofrom1963to1965,asaresult. Muchmoresuccessfulwasthe"TwoBombs,OneSatellite"program,launchedin1958,withthehelpatfirstofMoscow.[15]ItusedleadingscientistswhoreturnedtomainlandChinafromabroad,includingQianXuesen,DengJiaxianandQianSanqiang.[16]China'sfirstatomicbomb,nuclearmissile,hydrogenbombandartificialsatellitewereallsuccessfullydevelopedby1970.However,theprogramhadbeenseriouslyaffectedbytheGreatLeapForwardandtheCulturalRevolution. CulturalRevolution[edit] Mainarticle:CulturalRevolution RedGuardsonTiananmenSquareduringtheCulturalRevolution(1967). In1963,MaoZedonglaunchedtheSocialistEducationMovement,whichisregardedastheprecursoroftheCulturalRevolution.ToimposesocialistorthodoxyandridChinaof"oldelements",andatthesametimeservingcertainpoliticalgoals,MaobegantheCulturalRevolutioninMay1966,attemptingtoreturntothecenterofpoliticalpowerinChina.ThecampaignwasfarreachingintoallaspectsofChineselife.Estimateddeathtollrangesfromhundredsofthousandsto20million.[17][18][19][20]Massacrestookplaceacrossthecountrywhilemassivecannibalismalsooccurred;RedGuardsterrorizedthestreetsasmanyordinarycitizensweredeemedcounter-revolutionaries;educationandpublictransportationcametoanearlycompletehalt;dailylifeinvolvedshoutingslogansandrecitingMaoquotations;manyprominentpoliticalleaders,includingLiuShaoqiandDengXiaoping,werepurgedanddeemed"capitalistroaders".ThecampaignwouldnotcometoacompleteenduntiltheDeathandstatefuneralofMaoZedongandarrestoftheGangofFourin1976.ThesecondconstitutionofChina,knownasthe"1975Constitution",waspassedin1975duringtheCulturalRevolution. Ontheotherhand,bythetimeofMao'sdeath,China'sunityandsovereigntywereassuredforthefirsttimeinacentury,andtherewasdevelopmentofinfrastructure,industry,healthcare,education(only20%ofthepopulationcouldreadin1949,comparedto65.5%thirtyyearslater),[21]whichraisedstandardoflivingfortheaverageChinese.ThereisalsoanargumentthatcampaignssuchastheGreatLeapForward–anexampleoftheconceptNewDemocracy–andtheCulturalRevolutionwereessentialinjumpstartingChina'sdevelopmentand"purifying"itsculture:eventhoughtheconsequencesofboththesecampaignswereeconomicallyandhumanlydisastrous,theyleftbehinda"cleanslate"onwhichlatereconomicprogresscouldbebuilt.[22] Foreignrelations[edit] TheprimaryforeignpolicywastoobtaindiplomaticrecognitioninthefaceofstrongAmericanopposition.[23]Thusin1964,tensionsbetweenWashingtonandParisallowedFrancetoopenrelations.[24] India[edit] Mainarticle:China–Indiarelations In1950,IndiabecameoneofthefirstcountriestorecognizePeople'sRepublicofChinaandestablishformaldiplomaticrelation.However,IndiahadclosetiestotheUSSRandin1962,aone-monthSino-Indianwarandalsoaone-monthSecondSino-Indianwarin1967brokeoutalongtheirremoteborder.Bordertensionsflaredfromtimetotimeeversince.[25] SovietUnion[edit] Mainarticles:Sino-SovietrelationsandSino-Sovietsplit NikitaKhrushchev,MaoZedong,HoChiMinhandSoongChing-ling. BeijingwasverypleasedthatthesuccessoftheSovietUnioninthespacerace–theoriginalSputniks–demonstratedthattheinternationalcommunistmovementhadcaughtupinhightechnologywiththeAmericans.MaoassumedthattheSovietsnowhadamilitaryadvantageandshouldstepuptheColdWar;KhrushchevknewthattheAmericanswerewellaheadinmilitaryusesofspace.[26]Thestrainsmultiplied,quicklymakingadeadletterofthe1950alliance,destroyingthesocialistcampunity,andaffectedtheworldbalanceofpower.ThesplitstartedwithNikitaKhrushchevDe-Stalinizationprogram.ItangeredMao,whoadmiredStalin.[27]MoscowandBeijingbecameworldwiderivals,forcingcommunistpartiesaroundtheworldtotakesides;manyofthemsplit,sothatthepro-Sovietcommunistswerebattlingthepro-Chinesecommunistsforlocalcontroloftheleft-wingforcesinmuchoftheworld.[28] Internally,theSino-SovietsplitencouragedMaotoplungeChinaintotheCulturalRevolution,toexpungetracesofRussianwaysofthinking.Maoarguedthatasfarasall-outnuclearwarwasconcerned,thehumanracewouldnotbedestroyed,andinsteadabravenewcommunistworldwouldarisefromtheashesofimperialism.ThisattitudetroubledMoscow,whichhadamorerealisticviewoftheutterdisastersthatwouldaccompanyanuclearwar.Threemajorissuessuddenlybecamecriticalindividingthetwonations:Taiwan,India,andChina'sGreatLeapForward.AlthoughMoscowsupportedBeijing'spositionthatTaiwanentirelybelongtoChina,itdemandedthatitbeforewarnedofanyinvasionorseriousthreatthatwouldbringAmericanintervention.Beijingrefused,andtheChinesebombardmentoftheislandofQuemoyinAugust1958escalatedthetensions.MoscowwascultivatingIndia,bothasamajorpurchaserofRussianmunitions,andastrategicallycriticalally.HoweverChinawasescalatingitsthreatstothenorthernfringesofIndia,especiallyfromTibet.Itwasbuildingamilitarilysignificantroadsystemthatwouldreachdisputedareasalongtheborder.TheRussiansclearlyfavoredIndia,andBeijingreactedasabetrayal.ByfarthemajorideologicalissuewastheGreatLeapForward,whichrepresentedaChineserejectionoftheSovietformofeconomicdevelopment.Moscowwasdeeplyresentful,especiallysinceithadspentheavilytosupplyChinawithhigh-technology—includingsomenuclearskills.Moscowwithdrewitsvitallyneededtechniciansandeconomicandmilitaryaid.KhrushchevwasincreasinglycrudeandintemperateridiculingChinaandMaoZedongtobothcommunistandinternationalaudiences.BeijingrespondedthroughitsofficialpropagandanetworkofrejectingMoscow'sclaimtoLenin'sheritage.BeijinginsisteditwasthetrueinheritorofthegreatLeninisttradition.Atonemajormeetingofcommunistparties,KhrushchevpersonallyattackedMaoasanultraleftist—aleftrevisionist—andcomparedhimtoStalinfordangerousegotism.Theconflictwasnowoutofcontrol,andwasincreasinglyfoughtoutin81communistpartiesaroundtheworld.ThefinalsplitcameinJuly1963,after50,000refugeesescapedfromXinjianginwesternChinatoSovietterritorytoescapepersecution.ChinaridiculedtheRussianincompetenceintheCubanMissileCrisisof1962asadventurismtostartwithandcapitulationismtowinduponthelosingside.MoscownowwasincreasinglygivingprioritytofriendlyrelationshipsandtestbantreatieswiththeUnitedStatesandUnitedKingdom.[29][30][31][32] Increasingly,BeijingbegantoconsidertheSovietUnion,whichitviewedasSocialimperialism,asthegreatestthreatitfaced,moresothaneventheleadingcapitalistpower,theUnitedStates.Inturn,overturesweremadebetweenthePRCandtheUnitedStates,suchasinthePingPongDiplomacy,PandaDiplomacyandthe1972NixonvisittoChina.[33] Diplomaticrelationsestablished[edit] ChinaestablishedformalrelationshipswithseveralmajorwesterncountriesandJapan.TypicallytheotherpartybrokerelationsithadwiththegovernmentonTaiwan. InJanuary1964,PRCestablishedformaldiplomaticrelationswithFrance.[34] InOctober1970,PRCestablishedformaldiplomaticrelationswithCanada.[35] InNovember1970,PRCestablishedformaldiplomaticrelationswithItaly.[35] In1971,Albania'smotionintheUnitedNationstorecognizethePeople'sRepublicofChinaasthesolelegalChina(replacingtheRepublicofChina)waspassedasGeneralAssemblyResolution2758. InMarch1972,ChinaestablishedformaldiplomaticrelationswiththeUnitedKingdom.[36]TheUKwasthefirstmajorWesterncountrytorecognizethePRCin1950. InSeptember1972,PRCestablishedformaldiplomaticrelationswithJapan.[35] InOctober1972,PRCestablishedformaldiplomaticrelationswithWestGermany.[37] InDecember1972,PRCestablishedformaldiplomaticrelationswithAustralia.[35] InMarch1973,PRCestablishedformaldiplomaticrelationswithSpain.[35] Disasters[edit] Onlymajordisastersarepresentedbelow(clicktoshow). Time Disaster Location Deaths Descriptions 1950 Assam–Tibetearthquake Tibet 4,000 Around4000peoplediedinTibet,whileover1000diedinIndia. 1954 Yangtzefloods YangtzeRiver 33,000 MostlyinHubeiprovince. 1957-1958 Asianflu Worldwide ThepandemicstartedinGuizhouinsouthernChina,andkilled1–4millionworldwide.[38] 1959-1961 GreatChineseFamine Nationwide 15-55million MainlycausedbytheGreatLeapForward.[39][40] 1966 Xingtaiearthquake Hebei 8,064 Magnitude6.8Mw. 1968-1969 HongKongflu Worldwide ThepandemicstartedinBritishHongKong,andkilled1–4millionworldwide.[38] 1970 Tonghaiearthquake Yunnan Over10,000 Magnitude7.1Mw.[41]TheearthquakeoccurredduringtheheightoftheCulturalRevolution,anditwasnotwidelypublicizedbytheChinesegovernmentforoveradecade. 1975 Haichengearthquake Liaoning 1,328 Magnitude7.5Ms.[42]Someclaimedthedeathtollwas2,041. 1975 TheBanqiaoDamfailure Henan 85,600-240,000 62damsincludingthelargestBanqiaoDaminHenanprovincecollapsedduetoTyphoonNinaof1975,creatingthethird-largestfloodinhistory(accordingtotheChinesegovernment,thedeathtollwas26,000).[43][44][45][46][47]ItwasratedNo.1in"TheUltimate10TechnologicalDisasters"oftheworldbyDiscoveryChannelinMay2005(theUltimate10show),beatingtheChernobylnucleardisaster.[44][46][48]MostofthedamsthatcollapsedinthisdisasterwerebuiltwiththehelpofexpertsfromSovietUnionorduringtheGreatLeapForward.[46][49][50][51] 1976 Tangshanearthquake Hebei Atleast242,769 Magnitude7.6Mw.[52][53] Controversies[edit] Seealso:ListofmassacresinChina DuringtheMaoera,tensofmillionsofpeoplediedduringvariouspoliticalmovementsaswellasduringtheGreatChineseFamine,whiletensofmillionsofotherpeoplewerepersecutedandpermanentlycrippled.[10][11][54]Chinaturnedintoadefactoone-partystateaftertheAnti-RightistCampaignstartingin1957,duringwhichdemocracyandtheruleoflawweredamagedwhileatleast550,000intellectualsandpoliticaldissidentswerepersecuted.[55]Moreover,theCulturalRevolutionseverelydamagedtheruleoflawaswellastraditionalChinesecultureandmoralvalues;massacreswerecommittedacrossthecountryandactsofcannibalismwerealsocommittedonamassivescale(e.g.,GuangxiMassacre).[54]HighereducationwashaltedduringtheCulturalRevolutionandscientificresearchwasalsoseriouslyaffectedbecausemanyscientistswerepersecuted,killedorcommittedsuicide.SomedoubtstatisticsoraccountsgivenfordeathtollsorotherdamagesincurredbyMao'scampaigns,attributingthehighdeathtolltonaturaldisasters,famine,orotherconsequencesofpoliticalchaosduringtheruleofChiangKai-shek.[56] MaoZedongandtheChineseCommunistParty(CCP)alsoexportedtheideologyofsocialismandsocialistrevolutiontootherpartsoftheworld,especiallytoSoutheastAsia.[57]InfluencedandsupportedbyMaoandtheCCP,PolPotandtheKhmerRougeconductedtheCambodiangenocideduringwhich1.5-2millionpeoplewerekilledinjustthreeyears.[58] TransitionandtheDengera(1976–1989)[edit] Seealso:HistoryofthePeople'sRepublicofChina(1976–1989) DengXiaopingandJimmyCarteratthearrivalceremonyfortheVicePremierofChina. Thetransitionperiod[edit] Mainarticle:3rdPlenarySessionofthe11thCentralCommitteeoftheChineseCommunistParty MaoZedong'sdeathwasfollowedbyapowerstrugglebetweentheGangofFour,HuaGuofeng,andeventuallyDengXiaoping.ThethirdconstitutionofChina,knownasthe"1978Constitution",waspassedin1978underHua's"TwoWhatevers". InDecember1978,withthesupportofYeJianyingandotherhigh-rankingofficials,DengeventuallyreplacedHuaandbecametheparamountleaderofChinaduringthe3rdPlenarySessionofthe11thCentralCommitteeofCCP.Deng'salliessuchasHuYaobangandZhaoZiyangalsoreceivedpromotions. InvalidatingtheCulturalRevolution[edit] Mainarticle:BoluanFanzheng InSeptember1977,Dengfirstproposedtheideaof"BoluanFanzheng",attemptingtodismantlethefar-leftMaoistpoliciesassociatedwiththeCulturalRevolution.Inthesameyear,heresumedtheNationalCollegeEntranceExaminationwhichwascancelledfortenyearsduetotheCulturalRevolution.Moreover,withinseveralyears,victimsofmorethan3million"unjust,false,wrongfulcases"wererehabilitatedbyDengandhisalliessuchasHuYaobang,thenGeneralSecretaryoftheChineseCommunistParty.[59][60]However,onthesubjectofMao'slegacy,Dengcoinedthefamousphrase"7partsgood,3partsbad"andavoideddenouncingMaoaltogether.AmajordocumentpresentedattheSeptember1979FourthPlenum,gavea"preliminaryassessment"oftheentire30-yearperiodofCommunistrule.Attheplenum,partyViceChairmanYeJianyingdeclaredtheCulturalRevolution"anappallingcatastrophe"and"themostseveresetbackto[the]socialistcausesince[1949]".[61] InJune1981,theChinesegovernment'scondemnationoftheCulturalRevolutionculminatedintheResolutiononCertainQuestionsintheHistoryofOurPartySincetheFoundingofthePeople'sRepublicofChina,adoptedbytheSixthPlenarySessionoftheEleventhCentralCommitteeoftheChineseCommunistParty.[62][63]ThisresolutioninvalidatedtheCulturalRevolutionasa"domestichavoc",butitstatedthat"ComradeMaoZedongwasagreatMarxistandagreatproletarianrevolutionary,strategistandtheorist.Itistruethathemadegrossmistakesduringthe"CulturalRevolution",but,ifwejudgehisactivitiesasawhole,hiscontributionstotheChineserevolutionfaroutweighhismistakes.Hismeritsareprimaryandhiserrorssecondary".[64]Today,thepublicperceptionofMaohasimprovedatleastsuperficially;imagesofMaoandMaorelatedobjectshavebecomefashionable,commonlyusedonnoveltyitemsandevenastalismans. AsanaftermathoftheCulturalRevolution,nationwidepublicsafetyworsenedinthelate1970sandearly1980s,andasaresultDenglaunchedthe"StrikeHard"Anti-crimeCampaignin1983whichlasteduntilearly1987.Morethan1.7millionpeoplewerearrestedandreceivedlegalpunishmentduringthecampaign.[65] ReformsandOpening-up[edit] Mainarticle:ReformsandOpeningUp TheimageofDengXiaopinginShenzhen. Shenzhen,oneofthefirstspecialeconomiczonesofChinaandthe"SiliconValleyofChina".[66][67]Notablehigh-techcompaniessuchasHuawei,ZTEandKonkawereallfoundedinShenzheninthe1980s. Xiamen,oneofthefirstspecialeconomiczonesofChina. Zhuhai,oneofthefirstspecialeconomiczonesofChina. AttheThirdPlenumoftheEleventhNationalPartyCongressCentralCommittee,DengembarkedChinaontheroadtoReformandOpening-up(改革开放GaigeKaifang),policiesthatbeganwiththede-collectivisationofthecountryside,followedwithindustrialreformsaimedatdecentralizinggovernmentcontrolsintheindustrialsector.In1979,Dengemphasizedthegoalof"FourModernizations"andfurtherproposedtheideaof"xiaokang",or"moderatelyprosperoussociety".[68][69]Denglaidemphasisonlightindustryasasteppingstonetothedevelopmentofheavyindustries.TheachievementsofLeeKuanYewtocreateaneconomicsuperpowerinSingaporehadaprofoundeffectontheCommunistleadershipinChina.LeadersinChinamadeamajoreffort,especiallyunderDengXiaoping,toemulatehispoliciesofeconomicgrowth,entrepreneurship,andsubtlesuppressionofdissent.Overtheyears,morethan22,000ChineseofficialsweresenttoSingaporetostudyitsmethods.[70] DengchampionedtheideaofSpecialEconomicZones(SEZ),includingShenzhen,ZhuhaiandXiamen,areaswhereforeigninvestmentwouldbeallowedtopourinwithoutstrictgovernmentrestraintandregulations,runningonabasicallycapitalistsystem.[71]On31January1979,theShekouIndustrialZoneofShenzhenwasfounded,becomingthefirstexperimentalareainChinato"openup".[72][73]UndertheleadershipofYuanGeng,the"Shekoumodel"ofdevelopmentwasgraduallyformed,embodiedinitsfamousslogan"TimeisMoney,EfficiencyisLife",whichthenwidelyspreadtootherpartsofChina.[72][74]InJanuary1984,DengXiaopingmadehisfirstinspectiontourtoShenzhenandZhuhai,recognizingthe"ShenzhenSpeed"ofdevelopmentaswellasthesuccessofthespecialeconomicszones.[75][76]WiththehelpofYuanGeng,thefirstjoint-stockcommercialbankinChina—theChinaMerchantsBank—andthefirstjoint-stockinsurancecompanyinChina—thePingAnInsurance—werebothestablishedinShekou.[77]InMay1984,fourteencoastalcitiesinChinaincludingShanghai,GuangzhouandTianjinwerenamed"OpenCoastalCities(沿海开放城市)".[78] Dengrecognizedtheimportanceofscienceandtechnologyinthe"FourModernizations",pointingoutthat"scienceandtechnologyaretheprimaryproductiveforce".[79]InDecember1981,heapprovedtheconstructionof"BeijingElectron–PositronCollider",thefirsthigh-energyparticlecolliderinChina,andhadseveralmeetingswithNobellaureateTsung-DaoLeewhosupportedtheproject.[80]In1985,theGreatWallStation,thefirstChineseresearchstationinAntarctica,wasestablished.In1986,DengapprovedtheproposalfromfourleadingChinesescientistsandlaunchedthe"863Program";inthesameyear,thenine-yearcompulsoryeducationsystemwasestablishedunderlaw(LawonNine-YearCompulsoryEducation).[81][82]Inthe1980s,QinshanNuclearPowerPlantinZhejiangandDayaBayNuclearPowerPlantinShenzhenwerebuilt,becomingthefirsttwonuclearpowerplantsinChina.[83]DengalsoapprovedtheappointmentsofforeignnationalstoworkinChina,includingtherenownedChinese-AmericanmathematicianShiing-ShenChern.[84] Supportersoftheeconomicreformspointtotherapiddevelopmentoftheconsumerandexportsectorsoftheeconomy,thecreationofanurbanmiddleclassthatnowconstitutes15%ofthepopulation,higherlivingstandards(whichisshownviadramaticincreasesinGDPpercapita,consumerspending,lifeexpectancy,literacyrate,andtotalgrainoutput)andamuchwiderrangeofpersonalrightsandfreedomsforaverageChineseasevidenceofthesuccessofthereforms.Criticsoftheeconomicreforms,bothinChinaandabroad,claimthatthereformshavecausedwealthdisparity,environmentalpollution,rampantcorruption,widespreadunemploymentassociatedwithlayoffsatinefficientstate-ownedenterprises,andhasintroducedoftenunwelcomeculturalinfluences.Consequently,theybelievethatChina'sculturehasbeencorrupted,thepoorhavebeenreducedtoahopelessabjectunderclass,andthatthesocialstabilityisthreatened.Theyarealsooftheopinionthatvariouspoliticalreforms,suchasmovestowardspopularelections,havebeenunfairlynippedinthebud. Afterall,thepathofmodernisationandmarket-orientedeconomicreformsthatChinastartedsincetheearly1980sappearstobefundamentallyunchallenged.EvencriticsofChina'smarketreformsdonotwishtoseeabacktrackofthesetwodecadesofreforms,butratherproposecorrectivemeasurestooffsetsomeofthesocialissuescausedbyexistingreforms.Ontheotherhand,in1979,theChinesegovernmentinstitutedaonechildpolicytotrytocontrolitsrapidlyincreasingpopulation.Thecontroversialpolicyresultedinadramaticdecreaseinchildpoverty.Thelawwaseliminatedin2015.[85][86] Politicalreforms[edit] Seealso:1982ConstitutionofthePeople'sRepublicofChina,SocialismwithChinesecharacteristics,andPrimarystageofsocialism ZhaoZiyang,aleadingreformist,wasassignedbyDengtotakechargeofthepoliticalreformssince1986.However,hewasforcedtoleavehispositionastheGeneralSecretaryofCCPafterthe1989TiananmenSquareprotestsandmassacre,whilethemajorityoftheplannedpoliticalreforms(after1986)endeddrastically.On18August1980,DengXiaopinggaveaspeechtitled"OntheReformofthePartyandStateLeadershipSystem(党和国家领导制度改革)"atanenlargedmeetingofthePoliticalBureauoftheCCPCentralCommitteeinBeijing,launchingthepoliticalreformsinChina.[87][88][89][90]Hecalledfortheendofbureaucracy,centralisationofpoweraswellaspatriarchy,proposingtermlimitstotheleadingpositionsinChinaandadvocatingthe"democraticcentralism"aswellasthe"collectiveleadership".[88][89][90]Inaddition,DengproposedtotheNationalPeople'sCongressasystematicrevisionofChina'sconstitution(the1978Constitution),andemphasizedthattheConstitutionmustbeabletoprotectthecivilrightsofChinesecitizensandmustreflecttheprincipleofseparationofpowers;healsodescribedtheideaof"collectiveleadership"andchampionedtheprincipleof"oneman,onevote"amongleaderstoavoidthedictatorshipoftheGeneralSecretaryofCCP.[87][90][91]InDecember1982,thefourthConstitutionofChina,knownasthe"1982Constitution",waspassedbythe5thNationalPeople'sCongress,embodyingChinese-styleconstitutionalismwithmostofitscontentstillbeingeffectiveasoftoday.[92][93] Inthefirsthalfof1986,Dengrepeatedlycalledfortherevivalofpoliticalreforms,asfurthereconomicreformswerehinderedbytheoriginalpoliticalsystemwhilethecountryhadseenanincreasingtrendofcorruptionandeconomicinequality,aggravatedbythemanysocialprivilegesenjoyedbygovernmentalofficialsandtheirrelatives.[94][95]Afive-manresearchunitforChina'spoliticalreformswasestablishedinSeptember1986,andthemembersincludedZhaoZiyang,HuQili,TianJiyun,BoYiboandPengChong.[96][97]Deng'sintentionofpoliticalreformswastoboosttheadministrativeefficiency,furtherseparatetheresponsibilitiesbetweentheCommunistPartyandtheGovernment,andtoeliminatebureaucracy.[98][99]Althoughhealsomentioned"ruleoflaw"and"democracy",Dengdelimitedthereformswithintheone-partysystemandopposedtheimplementationofWestern-styleconstitutionalism.[99][100]InOctober1987,atthe13thNationalCongressofCCPchairedbyDeng,ZhaoZiyangdeliveredanimportanttalkdraftedbyBaoTongonthepoliticalreforms.[101][102]Inhisspeechtitled"AdvanceAlongtheRoadofSocialismwithChinesecharacteristics(沿着有中国特色的社会主义道路前进)",ZhaoarguedthatthesocialisminChinawasstillinitsprimarystageandbytakingDeng'sspeechin1980asguidelines,Zhaooutlinedavarietyofstepstobetakenforthepoliticalreforms,includingpromotingtheruleoflawandtheseparationofpowers,imposingde-centralisation,andimprovingtheelectionsystem.[98][101][102]AtthisCongress,ZhaowaselectedasthenewGeneralSecretaryofCCP.[103] However,afterthe1989TiananmenSquareprotestsandmassacre,manyleadingreformistsincludingZhaoandBaowereremovedfromtheirposts,andthemajorityoftheplannedpoliticalreforms(after1986)endeddrastically.[100][104][105]Left-wingconservativesledbyChenYun,PresidentLiXiannianandPremierLiPengtookcontroluntilDengXiaoping'ssoutherntourinearly1992.Ontheotherhand,manypoliciesduetothepoliticalreformslaunchedbyDengintheearly1980sremaineffectiveafter1989(suchasthenewConstitution,termlimits,andthedemocraticcentralism),eventhoughsomeofthemhavebeenreversedbyCCPgeneralsecretaryXiJinpingafter2012.[106][107][108] Politicalturmoil[edit] Mainarticles:1986Chinesestudentdemonstrationsand1989TiananmenSquareprotestsandmassacre The1989TiananmenSquareprotests,whichwasendedbyamilitary-ledmassacre. In1983,left-wingconservativesinitiatedthe"Anti-SpiritualPollutionCampaign". In1986,thestudentdemonstrationsledtotheresignationofHuYaobang,thenGeneralSecretaryofCCPandaleadingreformist,andtheleft-wingconservativescontinuedtolaunchthe"Anti-BourgeoisLiberalisationCampaign".Thecampaignendedinmid-1987becauseZhaoZiyangconvincedDengXiaopingthattheconservativesweretakingadvantageofthecampaigntoopposetheReformsandOpening-upprogram. Althoughstandardsoflivingimprovedsignificantlyinthe1980s,Deng'sreformswerenotwithoutcriticism.Hard-linersassertedthatDengopenedChinaonceagaintovarioussocialevils,andanoverallincreaseinmaterialisticthinking,whileliberalsattackedDeng'sunrelentingstanceonwiderpoliticalreforms.LiberalforcesbegangatheringindifferentformstoprotestagainsttheParty'sauthoritarianleadership.In1989,thedeathofHuYaobang,aliberalfigure,triggeredweeksofspontaneousprotestsintheTiananmenSquare.Thegovernmentimposedmartiallawandsentintanksandsoldierstosuppressthedemonstrations.WesterncountriesandmultilateralorganisationsbrieflysuspendedtheirformaltieswithChina'sgovernmentunderPremierLiPeng'sleadership,whichwasdirectlyresponsibleforthemilitarycurfewandbloodycrackdown.[109] Militarymodernisation[edit] Mainarticles:ModernizationofthePeople'sLiberationArmyandHistoryofthePeople'sLiberationArmy Inearly1979,Chinastartedaone-monthwarwithVietnam.Furthermore,ChinacontinuedtosupportKhmerRougeduringDengXiaoping'stimetogetherwiththeUnitedStates,ThailandandseveralothercountriestocountertheregionalinfluenceoftheSovietUnion.[110] InMarch1981,DengXiaopingdeterminedthatamilitaryexercisewasnecessaryforthePeople'sLiberationArmy(PLA),andinSeptember1981,theNorthChinaMilitaryExercisetookplace,becomingthelargestexerciseconductedbythePLAsincethefoundingofthePeople'sRepublic. In1985,inordertomodernisethePLAandtosavemoney,Dengcut1milliontroopsfromthemilitary(百万大裁军)andorderedfurthermodernisation.[111] Foreignrelations[edit] Seealso:DengXiaoping's1979visittotheUnitedStates,Sino-BritishJointDeclaration,and1989Sino-SovietSummit DengXiaopingandJimmyCarterin1979. On1January1979,thePeople'sRepublicofChinaformallyestablisheditsdiplomaticrelationswiththeUnitedStates.[112]InJanuary1979,DengXiaopingvisitedtheUnitedStates,whichwasfirstofficialvisitbyaparamountleaderofChinatotheUnitedStates.[113]Inthesameyear,theChineseOlympicCommitteeforPRCwasrecognizedbytheInternationalOlympicCommittee.UndertheadviceofLeeKuanYew,DengXiaopingagreedtofurtheropenupthecountryandstopexportingcommunistideologiesandrevolutionstoothercountrieslikeMaodid,andthedecisionssignificantlyimprovedtherelationsbetweenChinaandmanycountries,especiallythoseinsouth-eastAsia.[114][115] In1984,XuHaifeng,apistolshooter,wonthefirstOlympicgoldmedalforChinaduringthe1984SummerOlympicsinLosAngeles.Inthesameyear,theSino-BritishJointDeclarationwassignedbyChinaandtheUnitedKingdom,stipulatingthatthesovereigntyandtheadministrativemanagementofHongKongwouldbehandedoverbacktoChinaon1July1997underthe"onecountry,twosystems"framework.In1987,theJointDeclarationontheQuestionofMacauwassignedbyChinaandPortugal,stipulatingthatthesovereigntyandtheadministrativemanagementofMacauwouldbehandedoverbacktoChina20December1999,againunderthe"onecountry,twosystems"framework. In1989,therelationbetweenChinaandtheSovietUnionreturnedtonormalforthefirsttimesincetheSino-Sovietsplitinthe1950s.MikhailGorbachev,thenGeneralSecretaryoftheCommunistPartyoftheSovietUnion,visitedBeijingandmetwithDengXiaopingduringtheSino-SovietSummit,whichtookplaceamidtheTiananmenSquareprotests.[116] Afterthe1989TiananmenSquareprotestsandmassacre,Chinafacedstrongbacklashfromthewesterncountries.[117]Deng,asaresponse,devisedanewsetofdiplomaticstrategiesforChina,whichweresummarisedtobe"hideyourstrength,bideyourtime,nevertakethelead".[118][119]Inthe1980sandearly1990s,People'sRepublicofChinacontinuedtoestablishformaldiplomaticrelationswithanumberofcountriessuchasUnitedArabEmirates(1984),Qatar(1988),SaudiArabia(1990),Singapore(1990),Israel(1992)andSouthKorea(1992).[35] Disasters[edit] Onlymajordisastersarepresentedbelow(clicktoshow). Time Disaster Location Deaths Descriptions 1977 Russianflu Worldwide ThepandemicstartedinnorthernChinaandSiberia,duringthetransitionperiod(1976–78).[120]Around700,000deathsworldwide.[121]Thevirusiswidelybelievedtohavebeenleakedfromalab.[122][123] 1981 Dawuearthquake Sichuan 150 Some300peoplewereinjured. 1982 Flight3303accident Guangxi 112 CAACAirlinesplanecrash. 1987 BlackDragonfire Daxing'anlingPrefecture,Heilongjiang Over200 ThefirealsospreadtotheSovietUnion.Itwasoneofthelargestwildfiresinhistory.[124][125] 1988 Flight4146accident Chongqing 108 ChinaSouthwestAirlinesplanecrash. 1988 Lancangearthquake Yunnan 748 Additionally,about7700wereinjured.[126] Controversies[edit] Seealso:BoluanFanzheng§ Controversies,andChineseDemocracyMovementAftertheCulturalRevolution,DengstartedtheBoluanFanzhengprogramtocorrecttheMaoistmistakes,butsomeofhispoliciesandviewswerecontroversial.DenginsistedonpraisingthatMaohaddone"7goodand3bad"fortheChinesepeople,whileattributingnumerousdisastersintheCulturalRevolutiontoLinBiaoandtheGangofFour.[127]Inaddition,hestatedandimposedthe"FourCardinalPrinciples"asthefundamentalprinciplesoftheConstitutionofChina(1982),inordertomaintaintheone-partystateinChinafortheCommunistParty. Moreover,therolethatDengplayedinthe1989TiananmenSquareprotestsandmassacrewasrathercontroversial.[128][129]Infact,healsocrackeddowntheDemocracyWallmovementaswellastheBeijingSpringinearly1980s.[130] TocopewiththepopulationcrisisafterMao'sera,DengXiaoping,togetherwithotherseniorofficialsincludingChenYunandLiXiannian,supportedtheimplementationofthe"one-childpolicy".[131]Someoftheextrememeasuresinpracticecreatedmanycontroversiessuchashumanrightsviolations.[132] JiangZeminandthethirdgeneration(1989–2002)[edit] Seealso:HistoryofthePeople'sRepublicofChina(1989–2002) TransitionofpowerandDeng'sSouthernTour[edit] Mainarticle:DengXiaoping'ssoutherntour Afterthe1989TiananmenSquareprotestsandmassacre,DengXiaopingsteppedawayfrompublicviewandfullyretired.PowerpassedtothethirdgenerationofleadershipledbyJiangZemin,whowashailedasits"core".However,owingtotheTiananmenmassacre,theReformsandOpening-upprogramwentintostagnationinearly1990s,andJiang,supportedbyleft-wingconservatives,wasnotdoingenoughtocontinuethereforms. Inthespringof1992,DengmadehisfamoustourtosouthernChina,whichiswidelyregardedasacriticalpointinthehistoryofmodernChinaasitsavedChina'seconomicreformaswellasthecapitalmarket(ShanghaiStockExchangeandShenzhenStockExchange),andpreservedthestabilityofthesociety.JiangeventuallysidedwithDengandpubliclysupportedtheReformsandOpening-upprogram.ConservativeLiPengwasthePremierofChinauntil1998,whenreformistZhuRongjisucceededasthenewPremier.[133] Domesticaffairs[edit] JiangZemin Economicgrowthachievedasustainedhighratebythemid-1990s.JiangZemin'smacroeconomicreformsfurtheredDeng'svisionfor"SocialismwithChinesecharacteristics".Jianglaidheavyemphasisonscientificandtechnologicaladvancementinareassuchasspaceexploration.Atthesametime,Jiang'speriodsawacontinuedriseinsocialcorruptioninallareasoflife.UnemploymentskyrocketedasunprofitableState-ownedenterprise(SOE)wereclosedtomakewayformorecompetitiveventuresinternallyandabroad.Theill-equippedsocialwelfaresystemwasputonaserioustest.[134]In2000,Jiangproposedhisideologyof"ThreeRepresents",whichwasratifiedbytheChineseCommunistPartyattheSixteenthPartyCongressin2002. Atthesametime,PremierZhuRongji'seconomicpoliciesheldChina'seconomystrongduringtheAsianFinancialCrisis.Economicgrowthaveragedat8%annually,pushedbackbythe1998YangtzeRiverFloods.Standardsoflivingimprovedsignificantly,althoughawideurban-ruralwealthgapwascreatedasChinasawthereappearanceofthemiddleclass.WealthdisparitybetweentheEasterncoastalregionsandtheWesternhinterlandscontinuedtowidenbytheday,promptinggovernmentprogramsto"developtheWest",takingonambitiousprojectssuchastheQinghai–Tibetrailway.However,rampantcorruptioncontinueddespitePremierZhu'santi-corruptioncampaignthatexecutedmanyofficials.Corruptionaloneisestimatedtoamounttotheequivalentofanywherefrom10to20percentofChina'sGDP.[135] Tosustaintheincreasedelectricityconsumption,theThreeGorgesDamwasbuilt,attractingsupportersandwidespreadcriticism.EnvironmentalpollutionbecameaveryseriousproblemasBeijingwasfrequentlyhitbysandstormsasaresultofdesertification.[136] In1990s,Project211andProject985werelaunchedforhighereducationinChina. Foreignrelations[edit] On10November2001,theMinisterialConferenceoftheWorldTradeOrganization(WTO)inDohaapprovedChina'sentryintotheWTO.[137] InNovember1991,ChinajoinedtheAsia-PacificEconomicCooperation.The1990ssawthepeacefulHandoverofHongKongandMacaubytheUnitedKingdomandPortugalrespectivelytoChina.[138]HongKongandMacaumostlycontinuedtheirowngovernance,retainingindependenceintheireconomic,social,andjudicialsystemsuntil2019,whenBeijingtriedtoexpandnationalpowersinthefaceoflarge-scaleprotestsinHongKong.[139][140] JiangZeminandBillClintonexchangedstatevisits,butSino-Americanrelationstookverysourturnsattheendofthedecade,especiallyafterthethirdTaiwanStraitCrisis.On7May1999,duringtheKosovoWar,U.S.aircraftbombedtheChineseembassyinBelgrade.TheU.S.governmentclaimedthestrikewasduetobadintelligenceandfalsetargetidentification.[141]InsidetheUnitedStates,theCoxReportstatedthatChinahadbeenstealingvarioustopUnitedStatesmilitarysecrets.[142]In2001,aUnitedStatessurveillanceplanecollidedwithaChinesefighterjetoverinternationalwatersnearHainan,incitingfurtheroutragewiththeChinesepublic,alreadydissatisfiedwiththeUnitedStates.[143] Afteradecadeoftalks,ChinawasfinallyadmittedintotheWorldTradeOrganizationin2001.ThesameyearsawtheestablishmentoftheShanghaiCooperationOrganisation.[144]InAugust2002,duetotheeffortsoftherenownedmathematicianShiing-ShenChern,thequadrennialInternationalCongressofMathematicianswasheldinBeijing—thefirsttimeinadevelopingcountry,withChernbeingthehonorarypresidentoftheCongressandWuWenjunbeingthepresident.[145] Disasters[edit] Onlymajordisastersarepresentedbelow(clicktoshow). Time Disaster Location Deaths Descriptions 1990 GuangzhouBaiyunairportcollisions Guangdong 128 Hijackingofaplaneledtorunwaycollision. 1992 EasternChinaflood EastChina Atleast431 Atleast267deathsinAnhuiand164inJiangsu.[146]Someothersourcesclaimthedeathtollwasover1,000.[147][148] 1992 Flight7552accident Jiangsu 106-109 ChinaGeneralAviationplanecrash. 1992 Flight3943accident Guangxi 141 ChinaSouthernAirlinesplanecrash. 1994 Flight2303accident Shaanxi 160 ChinaNorthwestAirlinesplanecrash. 1994 TyphoonFred Zhejiang 1,426[149] KnownastheTyphoon9417inChina.[149] 1994 Karamayfire Xinjiang 325 Amajorcontroversywasthatthestudentsweretoldtoremainseatedtoallowgovernmentofficialstoescapethefirefirst.[150]288schoolchildrenwerekilled. 1996 Lijiangearthquake Yunnan 309 Magnitude6.6Mw. 1996 TyphoonHerb Fujian 779[149] KnownastheTyphoon9608inChina.[149] 1997 Asianfinancialcrisis Asia AffectedChina'seconomytoanextent. 1998 YangtzeRiverfloods YangtzeRiverandothers 3,000-4,150 TheeventwasconsideredtheworstNorthernChinafloodin40years.[151][152] 2001 Shijiazhuangbombings Hebei 108 2002 Flight6136accident Liaoning 112 ChinaNorthernAirlinesplanecrash. Controversies[edit] Onthepoliticalagenda,ChinawasonceagainputonthespotlightforthebanningofpublicFalunGongactivityin1999.SilentprotestersfromthespiritualmovementsatoutsideofZhongnanhai,askingfordialoguewithChina'sleaders.Jiangsawitasathreattothepoliticalsituationandoutlawedthegroupaltogether,whileusingmassmediapropaganda[153]todenounceitasan"evilcult".[154] JiangZemin,afterformallyretiringastheparamountleaderofChinain2004,wasbelievedtohavemovedbehindthescenesandwasstillincontrolofthecountryevenafterhislatestep-downfromtheChairmanoftheCentralMilitaryCommissionin2005.[155][156][157]TheJiangfaction,includingZhouYongkang,GuoBoxiongandXuCaihou,continuedtoimpactChinasignificantlyafterHuJintaosucceededastheparamountleaderofChina.[156][157] HuJintaoandthefourthgeneration(2002–2012)[edit] Seealso:HistoryofthePeople'sRepublicofChina(2002–present) Transitionofpower[edit] Mainarticle:Hu–WenAdministration HuJintao HuJintaosucceededastheGeneralSecretaryoftheChineseCommunistPartyinNovember2002.[158]InMarch2003,HuJintaobecamethe6thPresidentofthePeople'sRepublicofChina,withWenJiabaobeingthePremierofChina.[159]InSeptember2004,HuJintaobecametheChairmanoftheCentralMilitaryCommission. Domesticaffairs[edit] Theeconomycontinuedtogrowindouble-digitnumbersasthedevelopmentofruralareasbecamethemajorfocusofgovernmentpolicy.In2010,ChinaovertookJapanastheworld'ssecond-largesteconomy.[160][161]TheassertionoftheScientificPerspectivetocreateaSocialistHarmoniousSocietywasthefocusoftheHuJintao-WenJiabaoadministration,assomeJiangZemin-eraexcesseswereslowlyreversed.Inlate2002,theSouth–NorthWaterTransferProjectbeganconstruction. Ingradualstepstoconsolidatehispower,HuJintaoremovedShanghaiPartysecretaryChenLiangyuandotherpotentialpoliticalopponentsamidstthefightagainstcorruption,andtheongoingstruggleagainstoncepowerfulShanghaiclique.Inparticular,in2012,theWangLijunincidentandthescandalofBoXilaireceivedwidespreadattentionandmediacoverage.[162][163] The2008BeijingOlympics ThecontinuedeconomicgrowthofthecountryaswellasitssportingpowerstatusgainedChinatherighttohostthe2008SummerOlympics.However,thisalsoputHuJintao'sadministrationunderintensespotlight.Whilethe2008Olympicswascommonlyunderstoodtobeacome-outpartyforPeople'sRepublicofChina,inlightoftheMarch2008Tibetprotests,thegovernmentreceivedheavyscrutiny.TheOlympictorchwasmetwithprotestenroute.Withinthecountry,thesereactionsweremetwithaferventwaveofnationalismwithaccusationsofWesternbiasagainstChina.[citationneeded] Meanwhile,anumberofscientificprogressesandbreakthroughstookplacebetween2002and2012,manyofwhichoriginatedfromthe863Program.In2003,Chinasuccessfullysentanastronaut,YangLiwei,tothespaceviaShenzhou5,becomingthethirdcountryintheworldtodosoindependentlyaftertheUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnion.[164]In2010,Jiaolong,theChinesemanneddeep-searesearchsubmersible,wasdeployed.In2011–2012,BeiDou-2,theChinesesatellitenavigationsystem,becameoperational.In2011,Tiangong-1,thefirstprototypespacestationofChina,wassuccessfullylaunched.[165]InMarch2012,resultsfromtheDayaBayReactorNeutrinoExperimentinShenzhenreceivedinternationalattention.[166]InOctober2012,MoYanbecamethefirstChinesecitizen(mainland)towintheNobelPrizeinLiterature.[167] Foreignrelations[edit] China'spositioninthewaronterrordrewthecountrycloserdiplomaticallytotheUnitedStates.In2010,theAsianGameswasheldinGuangzhou,andin2011,theSummerUniversiadewasheldinShenzhen.In2010,anotherinternationaleventtookplaceinChina—ShanghaiheldtheWorldExpoforthefirsttime. ThepoliticalstatusandfutureofTaiwanremainuncertain,butstepshavebeentakentoimprovingrelationsbetweentheCommunistPartyandseveralofTaiwan'spartiesthatholdalessantagonisticviewtowardsChina,notablyformerrivalKuomintang. Hu'scriticssaythathisgovernmentwasoverlyaggressiveinassertingitsnewpower,overestimateditsreach,andraisedtheireandapprehensionofvariousneighbours,includingSoutheastAsiancountries,India,andJapan.SuchpoliciesarealsosaidtobeprovocativetowardstheUnitedStates.[168] Disasters[edit] Onlymajordisastersarepresentedbelow(clicktoshow). Time Disaster Location Deaths Descriptions 2003 SARSepidemic Nationwide 349(mainlandChina) SARSkilled774peopleglobally,with349inmainlandChinaand299inHongKong.[169][170] 2005 Sunjiawanminedisaster Liaoning 214 2005 ShalanTownflood Heilongjiang 117 105studentswerekilled. 2007-2008 Financialcrisis Global AffectedChina'seconomytoanextent. 2008 Chinesewinterstorms SouthernandcentralChina Atleast129 2008 Zibotraincollision Shandong 72 416injuries. 2008 Sichuanearthquake Sichuan 69,227 Magnitude8.0Ms.[171] 2008 SouthChinafloods SouthChina Over200 SeverefloodingintheprovincesofAnhui,Hunan,Jiangxi,FujianandGuangdong,withdozensoffatalitiesandoveramillionpeopleforcedtoevacuate. 2008 Shanximudslide Shanxi 277 4missing. 2009 Heilongjiangmineexplosion Heilongjiang 108 2010 Yushuearthquake Qinghai 2,698 270missing. 2010 Chinafloods Nationwide 3,185 1060missing.[172] 2010 Gansumudslide Gansu 1,557 2012 Beijingflood Beijing 79 Controversies[edit] IntheyearsafterHuJintao'srisetopower,respectofbasichumanrightsinChinacontinuedtobeasourceofconcern.LiuXiaobo,NobelPeacePrizewinnerandhumanrightsactivist,wasarrestedandsentencedtojailfor11yearsin2010.[173][174]LiuXiaobo,togetherwithothers,authoredtheCharter08andreceivedtheNobelPeacePrizein2010.[173][174]LiuXiaobopassedawayin2017. InHuJintao'stime,theChineseCommunistPartyandtheChinesegovernmentcreatedthe"50CentParty",attemptingto"guide"publicopinionsonlineinfavoroftheCommunistPartyandtheChinesegovernment.[175][176] XiJinpingandthefifthgeneration(2012–present)[edit] Seealso:HistoryofthePeople'sRepublicofChina(2002–present) Transitionofpower[edit] Seealso:Xi–LiAdministrationandXiJinpingAdministration XiJinping XiJinpingbecametheGeneralSecretaryoftheChineseCommunistPartyandtheChairmanoftheCentralMilitaryCommission,thetwomostpowerfulpositionson15November2012.[177]AndonMarch14,2013,hebecamethe7thPresidentofChina.[178]LiKeqiangbecamethePremierofChinainMarch2013. Domesticaffairs[edit] Seealso:XiJinpingThought Amassive,long-termanti-corruptioncampaignhasbeencarriedoutunderXiJinpingsince2012,mostlytargetingXiJinping'spoliticalrivalssuchasmembersoftheJiangfactionincludingPartyseniorleadersZhouYongkang,GuoBoxiongandXuCaihou.[179][180] InMarch2018,theParty-controlledNationalPeople'sCongresspassedasetofconstitutionalamendmentsincludingtheremovaloftermlimitsforthepresidentandvicepresident,thecreationofaNationalSupervisoryCommission,aswellasenhancingthecentralroleoftheCommunistParty.[181][182]On17March2018,theChineselegislaturere-appointedXiJinpingaspresident,nowwithouttermlimits.[183][184]AccordingtotheFinancialTimes,XiJinpingexpressedhisviewsofconstitutionalamendmentatmeetingswithChineseofficialsandforeigndignitaries.XiJinpingexplainedthedecisionintermsofneedingtoaligntwomorepowerfulposts—GeneralSecretaryoftheChineseCommunistPartyandChairmanoftheCentralMilitaryCommission(CMC)—whichhavenotermlimits.However,XiJinpingdidnotsaywhetherheintendedtoserveaspartygeneralsecretary,CMCchairmanandstatepresident,forthreeormoreterms.[185] Ontheotherhand,aseriesofscientificadvancestookplace.In2013,theYuturoverwassuccessfullydeployedontheMoonaftertheChang'e3landerlandedontheMoon.[186]In2015,TuYouyoubecamethefirstChinesecitizen(mainland)towintheNobelPrizeinPhysiologyorMedicine.[187]InDecember2015,theDarkMatterParticleExplorer,China'sfirstspaceobservatory,wassuccessfullylaunched.TheTiangong-2spacelaboratorywassuccessfullylaunchedin2016,andinthesameyeartheFive-hundred-meterApertureSphericalTelescope(FAST)wasbuiltinGuizhou.In2018,theHongKong–Zhuhai–MacauBridge,world'slongestsea-crossingbridge,wasopentopublic.[188] Foreignrelations[edit] Seealso:ForeignpolicyofXiJinpingandWolfwarriordiplomacy AsXiJinpingcontinuedtoconsolidatepowerdomestically,hegraduallyabandonedthediplomaticprinciples("hideyourstrength,bideyourtime,nevertakethelead")setbyDengXiaopingandappearedmoreasa"strongman"intheglobalstage.[118][119][189][190]Helaunchedthe"OneBeltOneRoadinitiative"tomakeinfrastructureinvestmentindozensofcountries,whichreceivedwidespreadattention(bothreceptionsandcriticism)fromaroundtheworld.[191][192] SinceXiJinpingsucceededastheleaderofChina,hetriedtochange"China'spassivity"intoanassertivestrategytodefendChina'sclaimsoverborderandterritorydisputessuchasintheSouthChinaSeaandinTaiwan.[193][194]In2018,China–UnitedStatestradewarstartedandsignificantlyaffectedtheglobaleconomy.[195][196]InMay2020,China–Indiaskirmishesalongtheborderbrokeoutandresultedincasualties.[197] Ontheotherhand,afterXiJinpingcametopower,anumberofinternationalsummitswereheldinChina.In2014,the22ndannualgatheringofAsia-PacificEconomicCooperation(APEC)leaderswasheldinBeijing;in2016,theG20summitwasheldinHangzhou;andin2017,the9thBRICSsummitwasheldinXiamen.Additionally,in2015,theMa–XimeetinginSingaporewasthefirstmeetingbetweenthepoliticalleadersofthetwosidesoftheTaiwanStraitsincetheendoftheChineseCivilWarin1950. Disasters[edit] Onlymajordisastersarepresentedbelow(clicktoshow). Time Disaster Location Death Descriptions 2013 Lushanearthquake Sichuan Over200 Magnitude7.0Ms.[171] 2014 Kunshanexplosion Jiangsu 146 114injuries. 2014 Ludianearthquake Yunnan Atleast617 Magnitude6.5ML. 2015 SinkingofDongfangzhiXing Hubei Atleast442 On1June2015,arivercruisenamed"DongfangzhiXing"with454peopleonboardcapsizedinJianli,Hubei. 2015 Tianjinexplosions Tianjin 173 798injuries. 2015 Shenzhenlandslide Guangdong Atleast73 4missing. 2016 Chinafloods YangtzeRiverandothers Atleast449 2016 Jiangsutornado Jiangsu 99 846injuries. 2019 Xiangshuichemicalplantexplosion Jiangsu 78 617injuries. 2019–present COVID-19pandemic Global Ongoing InDecember2019,anepidemiccausedbyanovelcoronavirus(lateridentifiedasthecauseofCOVID-19)brokeoutinWuhan,Hubei.[198][199]On11March2020,theWorldHealthOrganizationdeclaredCOVID-19asapandemic.[200][201] 2020 Chinafloods SouthernChina 219 63.46millionpeopleaffected. 2021 Henanfloods Henan 398 2022 Flight5735accident Guangxi 132 Controversies[edit] The2019HongKongprotests Since2012,XiJinpingtogetherwithhisallieshasrolledbackseveralpoliciesfromtheBoluanFanzhengperiodofDengXiaopingandpromotedhiscultofpersonalityasMaoZedongdid.Forexample,in2018,XiJinpingeliminatedthetermlimitinChina'sConstitutionforChinesePresident,whichchallengedsomeofthepoliticallegaciesofDengXiaopingandtriggeredconcernsofanewCulturalRevolution.[202][203][204][205] Domestichumanrightsviolationhasdeteriorated.InJuly2015,hundredsofChineselawyersandhumanrightsactivistsnationwideweredetainedorarrestedduringthe709crackdown.[206][207]Moreover,theXinjiangre-educationcampssince2017,inwhichoveramillionUyghursandotherethnicminoritiesarebeingdetained,andthemassiveprotestsinHongKongsince2019havereceivedwidespreadattentionandextensivemediacoveragefromaroundtheworld.[208][209][210][211]TheHongKongnationalsecuritylawpublishedon30June2020alsoreceivedwidespreadattentionandraisedconsiderableconcernworldwideoverthebreachofthe"OneCountry,TwoSystems"principle.[212][213][214] AfterXiJinpingcametopowerin2012,theCommunistPartyalongwiththeChinesegovernmenthavesignificantlystrengthenedtheirinternetcensorshipandtightenedtheircontrolovertheChineseinternetenvironment,blockingChinesecitizens'accesstomanyforeignwebsitesandmobileappsusingthe"GreatFirewall".[215][216][217]Atthesametime,alargenumberof"50CentParty"membershavebeenrecruitedto"guide"onlinenarrativesaroundtheglobeinfavorofthePartyandtheGovernment.[218][219]DuringthemassiveHongKongprotests,forinstance,TwitterandFacebookclaimedtohaveremovedorsuspendedover200,000accountsandpageslinkedwiththeChinesegovernment.[220][221]Asof2020,themasssurveillancesystemandthe"SocialCreditSystem"keepthewholepopulationunderclosewatch.[5][222] Globally,theaggressive"wolfwarriordiplomacy"underXiJinpingAdministrationhascreatednumerouscontroversiesandbacklashes.[223][224][225]Controversiesalsosurroundthe"OneBeltOneRoadinitiative"andtheChina–UnitedStatestradewar.In2019–2020,underXiJinping,China'shandlingoftheoutbreakofanovelcoronavirus(COVID-19)aswellasitsrelationshipwiththeWorldHealthOrganization(WHO)wasrathercontroversial.[226][227][228]TherehavebeenalargenumberofconspiracytheoriesandmisinformationrelatedtoCOVID-19,includingtheoriginofthevirus.[229]Chinahasalsolauncheditsowndisinformationcampaigngloballyovertheissuesofthepandemic,ofHongKongandUyghurs,andmore,promotingChinaasagloballeaderwhileattackingtheUnitedStatesforinstance.[230][231][232]Furthermore,manipulationofeconomicdatabytheChinesegovernment,suchaspublishinginflatedGDPfiguresovertheyears,isalsoamajorconcern.[233][234][235] Seealso[edit] HistoryofChina HistoryoftheRepublicofChina HistoryofHongKong HistoryofMacau DynastiesinChineseHistory EconomicHistoryofChina 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Furtherreading[edit] Benson,Linda.Chinasince1949(3rded.Routledge,2016).excerpt;alsoonlinereview Chang,GordonH.Friendsandenemies:theUnitedStates,China,andtheSovietUnion,1948-1972(1990)onlinefreetoborrow Coase,Ronald,andNingWang.HowChinabecamecapitalist.(Springer,2016). Economy,ElizabethC."China'sNewRevolution:TheReignofXiJinping."ForeignAffairs97(2018):60+.online Economy,ElizabethC.TheThirdRevolution:XiJinpingandtheNewChineseState(OxfordUP,2018),343pp. Evans,Richard.DengXiaopingandthemakingofmodernChina(1997) EzraF.Vogel.DengXiaopingandtheTransformationofChina.ISBN 9780674725867.2013. Falkenheim,VictorC.ed.ChinesePoliticsfromMaotoDeng(1989)11essaysbyscholars Fenby,Jonathan.ThePenguinHistoryofModernChina:TheFallandRiseofaGreatPower1850tothePresent(3rded.2019) Fravel,M.Taylor.ActiveDefense:China'sMilitaryStrategysince1949(PrincetonUniversityPress,2019)onlinereviews Garver,JohnW.China'sQuest:TheHistoryoftheForeignRelationsofthePeople'sRepublic(2nded.2018)comprehensivescholarlyhistory.excerpt Lampton,DavidM.FollowingtheLeader:RulingChina,fromDengXiaopingtoXiJinping(2014)online Lynch,Michael.AccesstoHistory:Mao'sChina1936–97(3rded.HachetteUK,2015) MacFarquhar,Roderick,ed.ThepoliticsofChina:TheerasofMaoandDeng(CambridgeUP,1997). Meisner,Maurice.Mao'sChinaandafter:AhistoryofthePeople'sRepublic(3rded.1999). Mühlhahn,Klaus.MakingChinaModern:FromtheGreatQingtoXiJinping(HarvardUP,2019)excerpt Shambaugh,David,ed.ChinaandtheWorld(OxfordUP,2020).essaysbyscholars.excerpt Sullivan,LawrenceR.HistoricalDictionaryofthePeople'sRepublicofChina(2007) Wasserstrom,Jeffrey.Vigil:HongKongontheBrink(2020)Politicalprotest2003–2019. Westad,OddArne.Restlessempire:Chinaandtheworldsince1750(2012)Onlinefreetoborrow Historiographyandmemory[edit] EbenV.Racknitz,Ines."RepositioningHistoryfortheFuture–RecentAcademicDebatesinChina"HistoryCompass(2014)12#6pp. 465–472. Finnane,Antonia."ReinventingModernChina:ImaginationandAuthenticityinChineseHistoricalWriting."AsianStudiesReview39#1(2015):163–164. Fromm,MartinT.BorderlandMemories:SearchingforHistoricalIdentityinPost-MaoChina(CambridgeUP,2019). Longxi,Zhang."Re-conceptualizingChinainourTime:FromaChinesePerspective."EuropeanReview23#2(2015):193–209. Smith,StephenA."RecenthistoriographyofthePeople'sRepublicofChina,1949-76."TwentiethCenturyCommunism3.3(2011):196–216. Unger,Jonathan.UsingthePasttoServethePresent:HistoriographyandPoliticsinContemporaryChina(Routledge,2015) Wu,Guo."Recallingbitterness:Historiography,memory,andmythinMaoistChina."Twentieth-CenturyChina39.3(2014):245–268.online[deadlink] Externallinks[edit] ColdWarInternationalHistoryProject:DocumentCollectiononChinaintheColdWar "Rethinking‘CapitalistRestoration’inChina"byYichingWu PeoplesRepublicofChinabyP.M.Calabrese ChinaTimeline:AChronologyofKeyEventsinChinabyGerhardK.Heilig ChinafromtheInside–2006PBSdocumentary.KQEDPublicTelevisionandGranadaTelevisionforPBS,GranadaInternationalandtheBBC. 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