Latin America - Wikipedia

Subregions and countries LatinAmerica FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch RegionoftheAmericaswhereRomancelanguagesareprimarilyspoken "Latinoamérica"redirectshere.Forthedemonym,seeLatinAmerican.Forthesong,seeLatinoamérica(song). Thisarticlemayrequirecopyeditingforgrammar,style,cohesion,tone,orspelling.Youcanassistbyeditingit.(August2021)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) LatinAmerica[a]Area20,111,457 km2(7,765,077 sq mi)[1]Population642,216,682(2018est.)[2][3][b]Populationdensity31/km2(80/sq mi)Ethnicgroups45.6%Mestizo(mixedwhiteandindigenous)26.6%White11.4%Indigenous6.5%Black6.3%Mulatto(mixedblackandwhite)3.0%Other0.5%AsianReligions90%Christianity—69%Catholicism—19%Protestantism—2%OtherChristian8%Noreligion3%Others[4]DemonymLatinAmericanCountries20[c]Dependencies14LanguagesRomancelanguagesOthers:Quechua,Mayanlanguages,Guaraní,Aymara,Nahuatl,HaitianCreole,German,English,Dutch,Welsh,Ukrainian,Polish,Russian,Yiddish,Greek,Arabic,Chinese,Korean,Japanese,OthersTimezonesUTC−2toUTC−8Largestcities(Metroareas)[5][6] 1.SãoPaulo2.MexicoCity3.BuenosAires4.RiodeJaneiro5.Bogotá6.Lima7.Santiago8.Guadalajara9.Monterrey10.BeloHorizonteUNM49code419–LatinAmerica019–Americas001–World LatinAmerica[a]istheportionoftheAmericascomprisingcountriesandregionswhereRomancelanguages—languagesthatderivedfromLatin—suchasSpanish,Portuguese,andFrencharepredominantlyspoken.[7]ThetermwasoriginallyusedtorefertoplacesintheAmericasthatwereruledundertheSpanish,Portuguese,andFrenchempires. PartsoftheUnitedStatesandCanadawhereRomancelanguagesareprimarilyspokenarenotusuallyincludedduetobeingcollectivelygroupedasAnglo-America(anexceptiontothisisPuertoRico,whichisalmostalwaysincludedwithinthedefinitionofLatinAmericadespitebeingaterritoryoftheUnitedStates).ThetermisbroaderthancategoriessuchasHispanicAmerica,whichspecificallyreferstoSpanish-speakingcountries;andIbero-America,whichspecificallyreferstobothSpanishandPortuguese-speakingcountries.Thetermisalsomorerecentinorigin. ThetermLatinAmericawasfirstusedinan1856conferencecalled"InitiativeofAmerica:IdeaforaFederalCongressoftheRepublics"(IniciativadelaAmérica.IdeadeunCongresoFederaldelasRepúblicas),[8]bytheChileanpoliticianFranciscoBilbao.ThetermwasfurtherpopularizedbyFrenchEmperorNapoleonIII'sgovernmentinthe1860sasAmériquelatinetojustifyFrance'smilitaryinvolvementintheSecondMexicanEmpireandtoincludeFrench-speakingterritoriesintheAmericassuchasFrenchCanada,FrenchLouisiana,orFrenchGuiana,inthelargergroupofcountrieswhereSpanishandPortugueselanguagesprevailed.[9] LatinAmericaconsistsof20countriesand14dependentterritoriesthatcoveranareathatstretchesfromMexicotoTierradelFuegoandincludesmuchoftheCaribbean.Ithasanareaofapproximately19,197,000 km2(7,412,000 sqmi),[1]almost13%oftheEarth'slandsurfacearea.AsofMarch2,2020,thepopulationofLatinAmericaandtheCaribbeanwasestimatedatmorethan652 million,[10]andin2019,LatinAmericahadacombinednominalGDPofUS$5,188,250 million[11]andaGDPPPPofUS$10,284,588 million.[11][12] Contents 1Etymologyanddefinitions 1.1Origins 1.2Contemporarydefinitions 1.3Subregionsandcountries 2History 2.1Pre-Columbianhistory 2.2SpanishandPortuguesecolonization 2.2.1Coloniallegacies 2.3Independenceera(1776–1825) 2.4Post-IndependenceinLatinAmerica,ca.1825–1879 2.5Foreignpowers'influenceandinterventions,ca.1825-1870 2.6Warsbetweennations 2.7USinvolvement1870–1933 2.8WorldWarI(1914–1918) 2.9InterwarandWWII,1920s–1945 2.9.1BrazilinWorldWarII 2.9.2MexicoandWorldWarII 2.9.3WorldWarIIandtheCaribbean 2.9.4Naziflight 2.10ColdWarera(1945–1992) 2.10.1Economy 2.10.2GuatemalanRevolution(1944–54) 2.10.3CubanRevolution(1959–1992) 2.10.4ImpactoftheCubanRevolution 2.10.5Chile(1958–1990) 2.10.6NicaraguanRevolutionandCentralAmericanwars 2.10.7Religiouschanges 2.11Post-ColdWarera 2.11.1WashingtonConsensus 2.11.2Returnofsocialmovements 2.11.3Turntotheleft 2.11.4Conservativewave 3Inequality 3.1Standardofliving 4Demographics 4.1Largestcities 4.2Raceandethnicity 4.3Language 4.4Religion 4.5Migration 4.6Education 4.7Crimeandviolence 4.8Publichealth 4.8.1Water 4.8.2Reproductiverights 4.8.3HIV/AIDS 5Economy 5.1Size 5.2Environment 5.3Agriculture 5.4Miningandpetroleum 5.5Manufacturing 5.6Infrastructure 5.7Energy 5.7.1Brazil 5.7.2Othercountries 6Tradeblocs 7Tourism 8Culture 8.1Art 8.2Film 8.3Literature 8.4Musicanddance 8.5WorldHeritagesites 9Seealso 10Notes 11References 12Furtherreading 13Externallinks Etymologyanddefinitions[edit] Origins[edit] PresenciadeAméricaLatina(PresenceofLatinAmerica,1964–65)isa300 m2(3,230 sq ft)muralatthehalloftheArtsHouseoftheUniversityofConcepción,Chile.ItisalsoknownasLatinAmerica'sIntegration. ThereisnouniversalagreementontheoriginofthetermLatinAmerica.Theconceptandtermcameintobeinginthenineteenthcentury,followingpoliticalindependenceofcountriesfromSpainandPortugal.Itwaspopularizedin1860sFranceduringthereignofNapoleonIII.ThetermLatinAmericawasapartofitsattempttocreateaFrenchempireintheAmericas.[13]ResearchhasshownthattheideathatapartoftheAmericashasalinguisticandculturalaffinitywiththeRomanceculturesasawholecanbetracedbacktothe1830s,inthewritingoftheFrenchSaint-SimonianMichelChevalier,whopostulatedthatthispartoftheAmericaswasinhabitedbypeopleofa"Latinrace",andthatitcould,therefore,allyitselfwith"LatinEurope",ultimatelyoverlappingtheLatinChurch,inastrugglewith"TeutonicEurope","Anglo-SaxonAmerica,"and"SlavicEurope."[14] HistorianJohnLeddyPhelanlocatedtheoriginsofthetermLatinAmericaintheFrenchoccupationofMexico.HisargumentisthatFrenchimperialistsusedtheconceptof"Latin"AmericaasawaytocounterBritishimperialism,aswellastochallengetheGermanthreattoFrance.[15]Theideaofa"Latinrace"wasthentakenupbyLatinAmericanintellectualsandpoliticalleadersofthemid-andlate-nineteenthcentury,whonolongerlookedtoSpainorPortugalasculturalmodels,butrathertoFrance.[16]FrenchrulerNapoleonIIIhadastronginterestinextendingFrenchcommercialandpoliticalpowerintheregion.HeandhisbusinesspromoterFelixBellycalledit"LatinAmerica"toemphasizethesharedLatinbackgroundofFrancewiththeformerViceroyaltiesofSpainandcoloniesofPortugal.ThisledtoNapoleon'sfailedattempttotakemilitarycontrolofMexicointhe1860s.[9] However,thoughPhelan'sthesisisstillfrequentlycitedintheUSAcademy,furtherscholarshiphasshownearlierusageoftheterm.TwoLatinAmericanhistorians,UruguayanArturoArdaoandChileanMiguelRojasMixfoundevidencethattheterm"LatinAmerica"wasusedearlierthanPhelanclaimed,andthefirstuseofthetermwasinfactinoppositiontoimperialistprojectsintheAmericas.ArdaowroteaboutthissubjectinhisbookGénesisdelaideayelnombredeAméricalatina(GenesisoftheIdeaandtheNameofLatinAmerica,1980),[17]andMiguelRojasMixinhisarticle"BilbaoyelhallazgodeAméricalatina:Unióncontinental,socialistaylibertaria"(BilbaoandtheFindingofLatinAmerica:aContinental,SocialistandLibertarianUnion,1986).[18]AsMichelGobatpointsoutinhisarticle"TheInventionofLatinAmerica:ATransnationalHistoryofAnti-Imperialism,Democracy,andRace","ArturoArdao,MiguelRojasMix,andAimsMcGuinnesshaverevealed[that]theterm'LatinAmerica'hadalreadybeenusedin1856byCentralAmericansandSouthAmericansprotestingUSexpansionintotheSouthernHemisphere".[19]EdwardShawcrosssummarizesArdao'sandRojasMix'sfindingsinthefollowingway:"ArdaoidentifiedtheterminapoembyaColombiandiplomatandintellectualresidentinFrance,JoséMaríaTorresCaicedo,publishedon15February1857inaFrenchbasedSpanish-languagenewspaper,whileRojasMixlocateditinaspeechdeliveredinFrancebytheradicalliberalChileanpoliticianFranciscoBilbaoinJune1856".[20] Bythelate1850s,thetermwasbeingusedinCalifornia(whichwasnowapartoftheUnitedStates),inlocalnewspaperssuchasElClamorPúblicobyCalifornioswritingaboutAméricalatinaandlatinoamérica,andidentifyingaslatinosastheabbreviatedtermfortheir"hemisphericmembershipinlarazalatina".[21] Thewords"Latin"and"America"werefirstcombinedinaprintedworktoproducetheterm"LatinAmerica"in1856inaconferencebytheChileanpoliticianFranciscoBilbaoinParis.[22]Theconferencehadthetitle"InitiativeoftheAmerica.IdeaforaFederalCongressofRepublics."[8]ThefollowingyeartheColombianwriterJoséMaríaTorresCaicedoalsousedtheterminhispoem"TheTwoAmericas".[23]TwoeventsrelatedwiththeUnitedStatesplayedacentralroleinbothworks.ThefirsteventhappenedlessthanadecadebeforethepublicationofBilbao'sandTorresCaicedo'sworks:theInvasionofMexicoor,inUSAtheMexican–AmericanWar,afterwhichMexicolostathirdofitsterritory.Thesecondevent,theWalkeraffair,happenedthesameyearbothworkswerewritten:thedecisionbyUSpresidentFranklinPiercetorecognizetheregimerecentlyestablishedinNicaraguabyAmericanWilliamWalkerandhisbandoffilibusterswhoruledNicaraguafornearlyayear(1856–57)andattemptedtoreinstateslaverythere,whereithadbeenalreadyabolishedforthreedecades InbothBilbao'sandTorresCaicedo'sworks,theMexican–AmericanWar(1846–48andWilliamWalker'sexpeditiontoNicaraguaareexplicitlymentionedasexamplesofdangersfortheregion.ForBilbao,"LatinAmerica"wasnotageographicalconcept,sinceheexcludedBrazil,Paraguay,andMexico.BothauthorsalsoaskfortheunionofallLatinAmericancountriesastheonlywaytodefendtheirterritoriesagainstfurtherforeignUSinterventions.BothrejectedalsoEuropeanimperialism,claimingthatthereturnofEuropeancountriestonon-democraticformsofgovernmentwasanotherdangerforLatinAmericancountries,andusedthesamewordtodescribethestateofEuropeanpoliticsatthetime:"despotism."Severalyearslater,duringtheFrenchinvasionofMexico,Bilbaowroteanotherwork,"EmancipationoftheSpiritinAmerica,"whereheaskedallLatinAmericancountriestosupporttheMexicancauseagainstFrance,andrejectedFrenchimperialisminAsia,Africa,EuropeandtheAmericas.HeaskedLatinAmericanintellectualstosearchfortheir"intellectualemancipation"byabandoningallFrenchideas,claimingthatFrancewas:"Hypocrite,becauseshe[France]callsherselfprotectoroftheLatinracejusttosubjectittoherexploitationregime;treacherous,becauseshespeaksoffreedomandnationality,when,unabletoconquerfreedomforherself,sheenslavesothersinstead!"[24]Therefore,asMichelGobatputsit,thetermLatinAmericaitselfhadan"anti-imperialgenesis,"andtheircreatorswerefarfromsupportinganyformofimperialismintheregion,orinanyotherplaceoftheglobe. InFrancethetermLatinAmericawasusedwiththeoppositeintention.ItwasemployedbytheFrenchEmpireofNapoleonIIIduringtheFrenchinvasionofMexicoasawaytoincludeFranceamongcountrieswithinfluenceintheAmericasandtoexcludeAnglophonecountries.ItplayedaroleinhiscampaigntoimplyculturalkinshipoftheregionwithFrance,transformFranceintoaculturalandpoliticalleaderofthearea,andinstallMaximilianofHabsburgasemperoroftheSecondMexicanEmpire.[25]Thistermwasalsousedin1861byFrenchscholarsinLarevuedesracesLatines,amagazinededicatedtothePan-Latinismmovement.[26] Contemporarydefinitions[edit] ThefourcommonsubregionsinLatinAmerica LatinAmericaisoftenusedsynonymouslywithIbero-America("IberianAmerica"),excludingthepredominantlyDutch-,French-,andEnglish-speakingterritories.ThusthecountriesofHaiti,Belize,GuyanaandSuriname,aswellasseveralFrenchoverseasdepartments,areexcluded.[27]Ontheotherhand,PuertoRicoisthenusuallyincluded. Inanotherdefinition,whichisclosetothesemanticorigin,LatinAmericadesignatesthesetofcountriesintheAmericaswhereaRomancelanguage(alanguagederivedfromLatin)predominates:Spanish,Portuguese,French,oracreolelanguagebaseduponthese.ThusitincludesMexico,mostofCentralandSouthAmerica,andintheCaribbean,Cuba,theDominicanRepublic,andHaiti.LatinAmericathencomprisesallthosecountriesoftheAmericasthatwereoncepartoftheSpanish,Portuguese,andFrenchEmpires.[28][29]PuertoRico,althoughnotacountry,mayalsobeincluded. ThetermissometimesusedmorebroadlytorefertoalloftheAmericassouthoftheUnitedStates,[29]thusincludingtheGuianas(FrenchGuiana,Guyana,andSuriname);theAnglophoneCaribbean(andBelize);theFrancophoneCaribbean;andtheDutchCaribbean.Thisdefinitionemphasizesasimilarsocioeconomichistoryoftheregion,whichwascharacterizedbyformalorinformalcolonialism,ratherthanculturalaspects(see,forexample,dependencytheory).[30]Somesourcesavoidthissimplificationbyusingthealternativephrase"LatinAmericaandtheCaribbean",asintheUnitedNationsgeoschemefortheAmericas.[31][32][33] ThedistinctionbetweenLatinAmericaandAnglo-AmericaisaconventionbasedonthepredominantlanguagesintheAmericasbywhichRomance-languageandEnglish-speakingculturesaredistinguished.Neitherareaisculturallyorlinguisticallyhomogeneous;insubstantialportionsofLatinAmerica(e.g.,highlandPeru,Bolivia,Mexico,Guatemala),NativeAmericanculturesand,toalesserextent,Amerindianlanguages,arepredominant,andinotherareas,theinfluenceofAfricanculturesisstrong(e.g.,theCaribbeanbasin –includingpartsofColombiaandVenezuela). Thetermisnotwithoutcontroversy.HistorianMauricioTenorio-Trilloexploresatlengththe"allureandpower"oftheideaofLatinAmerica.Heremarksattheoutset,"Theideaof'LatinAmerica'oughttohavevanishedwiththeobsolescenceofracialtheory...Butitisnoteasytodeclaresomethingdeadwhenitcanhardlybesaidtohaveexisted,"goingontosay,"Thetermisheretostay,anditisimportant."[34]FollowinginthetraditionofChileanwriterFranciscoBilbao,whoexcludedBrazil,ArgentinaandParaguayfromhisearlyconceptualizationofLatinAmerica,[35]ChileanhistorianJaimeEyzaguirrehascriticizedthetermLatinAmericafor"disguising"and"diluting"theSpanishcharacterofaregion(i.e.HispanicAmerica)withtheinclusionofnationsthataccordingtohimdonotsharethesamepatternofconquestandcolonization.[36] Subregionsandcountries[edit] LatinAmericacanbesubdividedintoseveralsubregionsbasedongeography,politics,demographicsandculture.ItisdefinedasalloftheAmericassouthoftheUnitedStates,thebasicgeographicalsubregionsareNorthAmerica,CentralAmerica,theCaribbeanandSouthAmerica;[37]thelattercontainsfurtherpolitico-geographicalsubdivisionssuchastheSouthernCone,theGuianasandtheAndeanstates.ItmaybesubdividedonlinguisticgroundsintoSpanishAmerica,PortugueseAmericaandFrenchAmerica. Flag Arms Country/Territory Capital(s) Name(s)inofficiallanguage(s) Population(2018)[2][3] Area(km2)[38] Density(people/km2) Time(s)zone(s) Subregion Argentina BuenosAires Argentina 44,361,150 2,780,400 16 UTC/GMT-3hours SouthAmerica Bolivia SucreandLaPaz Bolivia;Buliwya;Wuliwya;Volívia 11,353,142 1,098,581 10 UTC/GMT-4hours SouthAmerica Brazil Brasília Brasil 209,469,323 8,514,877 25 UTC/GMT-2hours(FernandodeNoronha)UTC/GMT-3hours(Brasília)UTC/GMT-4hours(Amazonas)UTC/GMT-5hours(Acre) SouthAmerica Chile Santiago Chile 18,729,160 756,102 25 UTC/GMT-3hours(MagallanesandChileanAntarctica)UTC/GMT-4hours(ContinentalChile)UTC/GMT-5hours(EasterIsland) SouthAmerica Colombia Bogotá Colombia 49,661,048 1,141,748 43 UTC/GMT-5hours SouthAmerica CostaRica SanJosé CostaRica 4,999,441 51,100 98 UTC/GMT-6hours CentralAmerica Cuba Havana Cuba 11,338,134 109,884 103 UTC/GMT-4hours Caribbean DominicanRepublic SantoDomingo RepúblicaDominicana 10,627,141 48,192 221 UTC/GMT-4hours Caribbean Ecuador Quito Ecuador 17,084,358 256,369 67 UTC/GMT-5hours SouthAmerica ElSalvador SanSalvador ElSalvador 6,420,746 21,041 305 UTC/GMT-6hours CentralAmerica FrenchGuiana* Cayenne Guyane 282,938 83,534 3 UTC/GMT-3hours SouthAmerica Guadeloupe* Basse-Terre Guadeloupe 399,848 1,705 235 UTC/GMT-4hours Caribbean Guatemala GuatemalaCity Guatemala 17,247,849 108,889 158 UTC/GMT-6hours CentralAmerica Haiti Port-au-Prince Haïti;Ayiti 11,123,178 27,750 401 UTC/GMT-4hours Caribbean Honduras Tegucigalpa Honduras 9,587,522 112,492 85 UTC/GMT-6hours CentralAmerica Martinique* Fort-de-France Martinique 375,673 1,128 333 UTC/GMT-4hours Caribbean Mexico MexicoCity México 126,190,788 1,964,375 64 UTC/GMT-5hours(ZonaSureste)UTC/GMT-6hours(ZonaCentro)UTC/GMT-7hours(ZonaPacífico)UTC/GMT-8hours(ZonaNoroeste) NorthAmerica Nicaragua Managua Nicaragua 6,465,501 130,373 50 UTC/GMT-6hours CentralAmerica Panama PanamaCity Panamá 4,176,869 75,417 55 UTC/GMT-5hours CentralAmerica Paraguay Asunción Paraguay;TetãParaguái 6,956,066 406,752 17 UTC/GMT-4hours SouthAmerica Peru Lima Perú;Piruw 31,989,260 1,285,216 25 UTC/GMT-5hours SouthAmerica PuertoRico* SanJuan PuertoRico 3,039,596 8,870 343 UTC/GMT-4hours Caribbean SaintBarthélemy* Gustavia Saint-Barthélemy 9,816 25 393 UTC/GMT-4hours Caribbean SaintMartin* Marigot Saint-Martin 35,334 54 654 UTC/GMT-4hours Caribbean Uruguay Montevideo Uruguay 3,449,285 176,215 20 UTC/GMT-3hours SouthAmerica Venezuela(BolivarianRepublicof) Caracas Venezuela 28,887,118 912,050 32 UTC/GMT-4hours SouthAmerica Total 626,747,000 20,111,699 31 *:Notasovereignstate History[edit] Mainarticle:HistoryofLatinAmerica Seealso:HistoryofNorthAmerica,HistoryofSouthAmerica,HistoryofCentralAmerica,andHistoryoftheCaribbean Pre-Columbianhistory[edit] Mainarticles:SettlementoftheAmericas,PopulationhistoryofIndigenouspeoplesoftheAmericas,andPre-Columbianera MayanUNESCOWorldHeritageSiteofChichénItzá AviewofUNESCOWorldHeritageSiteofMachuPicchu,apre-ColumbianIncasiteinPeru. SurvivingsectionoftheIncaroadsysteminNorthwesternArgentina,nowaUNESCOWorldHeritageSite.TheroadsystemlinkedtheAndeanempire ThereisnoevidenceofhumanevolutionintheAmericas;humansettlementintheAmericasistheresultofmigrationfromAsia.[citationneeded] TheearliestknownhumansettlementwasidentifiedatMonteVerde,nearPuertoMonttinsouthernChile.Itsoccupationdatestosome14,000yearsagoandthereissomedisputedevidenceofevenearlieroccupation.Overthecourseofmillennia,peoplespreadtoallpartsoftheNorthandSouthAmericaandtheCaribbeanislands.AlthoughtheregionnowknownasLatinAmericastretchesfromnorthernMexicotoTierradelFuego,thediversityofitsgeography,topography,climate,andcultivablelandmeansthatpopulationswerenotevenlydistributed.SedentarypopulationsoffixedsettlementssupportedbyagriculturegaverisetocomplexcivilizationsinMesoamerica(centralandsouthernMexicoandCentralAmerica)andthehighlandAndespopulationsofQuechuaandAymara,aswellasChibcha. AgriculturalsurplusesfromintensivecultivationofmaizeinMesoamericaandpotatoesandhardygrainsintheAndeswereabletosupportdistantpopulationsbeyondfarmers'householdsandcommunities.Surplusesallowedthecreationofsocial,political,religious,andmilitaryhierarchies,urbanizationwithstablevillagesettlementsandmajorcities,specializationofcraftwork,andthetransferofproductsviatributeandtrade.IntheAndes,llamasweredomesticatedandusedtotransportgoods;Mesoamericahadnolargedomesticatedanimalstoaidhumanlabororprovidemeat.Mesoamericancivilizationsdevelopedsystemsofwriting;intheAndes,knottedquipusemergedasasystemofaccounting. TheCaribbeanregionhadsedentarypopulationssettledbyArawakorTainosandinwhatisnowBrazil,manyTupianpeopleslivedinfixedsettlements.Semi-sedentarypopulationshadagricultureandsettledvillages,butsoilexhaustionrequiredrelocationofsettlements.Populationswerelessdenseandsocialandpoliticalhierarchieslessinstitutionalized.Non-sedentarypeopleslivedinsmallbands,withlowpopulationdensityandwithoutagriculture.Theylivedinharshenvironments.BythefirstmillenniumCE,theWesternHemispherewasthehomeoftensofmillionsofpeople;theexactnumbersareasourceofongoingresearchandcontroversy.[40] Thelasttwogreatcivilizations,theAztecsandIncas,emergedintoprominenceintheearlyfourteenthcenturyandmid-fifteenthcenturies.AlthoughtheIndigenousempireswereconqueredbyEuropeans,thesub-imperialorganizationofthedenselypopulatedregionsremainedinplace.ThepresenceorabsenceofIndigenouspopulationshadanimpactonhowEuropeanimperialismplayedoutintheAmericas.Thepre-ColumbiancivilizationsofMesoamericaandthehighlandAndesbecamesourcesofprideforAmerican-bornSpaniardsinthelatecolonialeraandfornationalistsinthepost-independenceera.[41]ForsomemodernLatinAmericannation-states,theIndigenousrootsofnationalidentityareexpressedintheideologyofindigenismo.Thesemodernconstructionsofnationalidentityusuallycritiquetheircolonialpast.[42] SpanishandPortuguesecolonization[edit] Mainarticles:EuropeancolonizationoftheAmericas,SpanishcolonizationoftheAmericas,andPortuguesecolonizationoftheAmericas Seealso:SocietyintheSpanishColonialAmericas CristóbaldeOlidleadsSpanishsoldierswithTlaxcalanalliesagainstIndigenouswarriorsduringtheEuropeancolonizationoftheAmericas. MapofBrazilshowingIndigenousmencuttingbrazilwoodandPortugueseships SpanishandPortuguesecolonizationoftheWesternHemispherelaidthebasisforsocietiesnowseenascharacteristicofLatinAmerica. Inthefifteenthcentury,bothPortugalandSpainembarkedonvoyagesofoverseasexploration,followingtheChristianReconquistaofIberiafromMuslims.PortugalsaileddownthewestcoastofAfricaandtheCrownofCastileincentralSpainauthorizedthevoyageofGenoesemarinerChristopherColumbus.Portugal'sexpansionintotheIndianOceanoccupiedmuchofitsinterest,althoughbeginningwiththevoyageofPedroÁlvaresCabralin1500itlaidclaimtoBrazil.The1494lineofdemarcationbetweenSpainandPortugalgaveSpainallareastothewest,andPortugalallareastotheeast.However,comparedtotherichesofAfrica,India,andtheSpiceIslands,BrazildidnotimmediatelyattractmuchPortugueseexplorationorsettlement.SpanishcolonistsbeganfoundingpermanentsettlementsinHispaniola(1492),PuertoRico(1508),Cuba(1509)andtheSpanishMain(tierrafirme)(1509–13).Intheseregionsofearlycontact,SpaniardsestablishedpatternsofinteractionwithIndigenouspeoplesthattheytransferredtothemainland.AtthetimeofEuropeancontact,theareawasdenselypopulatedbyIndigenouspeopleswhohadnotorganizedasempires,norcreatedlargephysicalcomplexes.WiththeexpeditionofHernánCortésfromCubatoMexicoin1519,SpaniardsencounteredtheIndigenousimperialcivilizationoftheAztecs.UsingtechniquesofwarfarehonedintheirearlyCaribbeansettlements,CortéssoughtIndigenousalliestotopplethesuperstructureoftheAztecEmpireafteratwo-yearwarofconquest.TheSpanishrecognizedmanyIndigenouselitesasnoblesunderSpanishrulewithcontinuedpowerandinfluenceovercommoners,andusedthemasintermediariesintheemergingSpanishimperialsystem. WiththeexampleoftheconquestofcentralMexico,Spaniardssoughtsimilargreatempirestoconquer,andexpandedintootherregionsofMexicoandCentralAmerica,andthentheIncaempire,byFranciscoPizarro.BytheendofthesixteenthcenturySpainandPortugalclaimedterritoryextendingfromAlaskatothesoutherntipofPatagonia.Theyfoundedcitiesthatremainimportantcenters.InSpanishAmerica,theseincludePanamaCity(1519),MexicoCity(1521)Guadalajara(1531–42),Cartagena(1532),Lima(1535),andQuito(1534).InBrazil,coastalcitieswerefounded:Olinda(1537),SalvadordeBahia(1549),SãoPaulo(1554),andRiodeJaneiro(1565). AreasclaimedbytheSpanishandPortugueseempiresin1790. Spaniardsexploredextensivelyinthemainlandterritoriestheyclaimed,buttheysettledingreatnumbersinareaswithdenseandhierarchicallyorganizedIndigenouspopulationsandexploitableresources,especiallysilver.EarlySpanishconquerorssawtheIndigenousthemselvesasanexploitableresourcefortributeandlabor,andindividualSpaniardswereawardedgrantsofencomiendaforcedlaborasrewardforparticipationintheconquest.ThroughoutmostofSpanishAmerica,Indigenouspopulationswerethelargestcomponent,withsomeblackslavesservinginauxiliarypositions.ThethreeracialgroupsduringthecolonialerawereEuropeanwhites,blackAfricans,andIndigenous.Overtime,thesepopulationsintermixed,resultingincastas.InmostofSpanishAmerica,theIndigenouswerethemajoritypopulation. BothdenseIndigenouspopulationsandsilverwerefoundinNewSpain(colonialMexico)andPeru,andthesebecamecentersofSpanishempire.TheviceroyaltyofNewSpain,centeredinMexicoCity,wasestablishedin1535andtheViceroyaltyofPeru,centeredinLima,in1542.TheviceroyaltyofNewSpainalsohadjurisdictionoverthePhilippines,oncetheSpanishestablishedthemselvesthereinthelatesixteenthcentury.Theviceroywasthedirectrepresentativeoftheking.[43] RomanCatholicChurchasaninstitutionlauncheda"spiritualconquest"toconvertIndigenouspopulationstoChristianity,incorporatingthemintoChristiandom,withnootherreligionpermitted.PopeAlexanderVIin1493hadbestowedontheCatholicMonarchsgreatpoweroverecclesiasticalappointmentsandthefunctioningofthechurchinoverseaspossessions.Themonarchwasthepatronoftheinstitutionalchurch.ThestateandtheCatholicchurchweretheinstitutionalpillarsofSpanishcolonialrule.Inthelateeighteenthcentury,thecrownalsoestablishedaroyalmilitarytodefenditspossessionsagainstforeignincursions,especiallybytheBritish.ItalsoincreasedthenumberofviceroyaltiesinSpanishSouthAmerica. PortugaldidnotestablishfirminstitutionalruleinBraziluntilthe1530s,butitparalleledmanypatternsofcolonizationinSpanishAmerica.TheBrazilianIndigenouspeopleswereinitiallydense,butweresemi-sedentaryandlackedtheorganizationthatallowedSpaniardsmoreeasilyincorporatetheIndigenousintothecolonialorder.ThePortugueseusedIndigenouslaborerstoextractthevaluablecommodityknownasbrazilwood,whichgaveitsnametothecolony.PortugaltookgreatercontroloftheregiontopreventotherEuropeanpowers,particularlyFrance,fromthreateningitsclaims. Potosí,the"cerrorico"thatproducedmassiveamountsofsilverfromasinglesite.ThefirstimagepublishedinEurope.PedroCiezadeLeón,1553. Europeanssoughtwealthintheformofhigh-value,low-bulkproductsexportedtoEurope.TheSpanishEmpireestablishedinstitutionstosecurewealthforitselfandprotectitsempireintheAmericasfromrivals.Intradeitfollowedprinciplesofmercantilism,whereitsoverseaspossessionsweretoenrichthecenterofpowerinIberia.TradewasregulatedthroughtheroyalHouseofTradeinSeville,Spain,withthemainexportfromSpanishAmericatoSpainbeingsilver,laterfollowedbythereddyecochineal.SilverwasfoundintheAndes,inparticularthesilvermountainofPotosí,(nowinBolivia)intheregionwhereIndigenousmenwereforcedtolaborinthemines.InNewSpain,richdepositsofsilverwerefoundinnorthernMexico,inZacatecasandGuanajuato,outsideareasofdenseIndigenoussettlement.Laborwasattractedfromelsewhere[clarificationneeded]forminingandlandedestateswereestablishedtoraisewheat,rangecattleandsheep.Muleswerebredfortransportationandtoreplaceofhumanlaborinrefiningsilver.PlantationsforsugarcultivationdevelopedonalargescalefortheexportmarketinBrazilandtheCaribbeanislands. ManufacturedandluxurygoodsweresentfromSpainandenteredSpanishAmericalegallyonlythroughtheCaribbeanportsofVeracruz,Havana,andCartagena,aswellasthePacificportofCallao,inPeru.Trans-PacifictradewasestablishedinthelatesixteenthcenturyfromAcapulcotoManila,transportingsilverfromMexicoandPerutoAsia;ChinesesilksandporcelainsweresentfirsttoMexicoandthenre-exportedtoSpain.Thissystemofcommercewasintheorywastightlycontrolled,butwasincreasinglyunderminedbyotherEuropeanpowers.TheEnglish,French,andDutchseizedCaribbeanislandsclaimedbytheSpanishandestablishedtheirownsugarplantations.TheseislandsalsobecamehubsforcontrabandtradewithSpanishAmerica.ManyregionsofSpanishAmericathatwerenotwellsuppliedbySpanishmerchants,suchasCentralAmerica,participatedincontrabandtradewithforeignmerchants. Eighteenth-centuryBourbonreformssoughttomodernizethemercantilesystemtostimulategreatertradeexchangesbetweenSpainandSpanishAmericainasystemknownascomerciolibre.Thiswasnotfreetradeinthemodernsense,butratherfreecommercewithintheSpanishempire.LiberalizationoftradeandlimitedderegulationsoughttobreakthemonopolyofmerchantsbasedintheSpanishportofCádiz.Administrativereformscreatedthesystemofdistrictsknownasintendancies,modeledonthoseinFrance.Theircreationwasaimedatstrengtheningcrowncontroloveritspossessionsandsparkingeconomicdevelopment.[44] Sugarprocessingbyskilledblackslavelaborers.Sugarcanemustbeprocessedimmediatelyoncecutinordertocapturethemostsugarjuice,soengenhosneededtobeconstructednearfields. Brazil'seconomicimportanceemergedintheseventeenthcenturywiththeestablishmentoflarge-scalecanesugarplantations.Itwasthehighvalue,lowbulkexportproductthatthePortuguesesoughtanditwasentirelydependentonblackslavelabor.UnlikecoreareasofSpanishAmerica,IndigenouspopulationsinBrazilwerenotasourceoflabor,exceptduringtheearliestyearsofthecolony.BlacksbecamethemajorityofBrazil'spopulation.[45]ForPortugal,BrazilwasonepoleofatriangularAtlanticsystemoftradebetweenIberia,Africa,anditsAmericancolony.HugenumbersofAfricanslaveswereshippedtoBrazil.Theyworkedfirstonsugarplantationsinthesixteenthandseventeenthcenturies,thenindiamondminesintheeighteenthcentury,andcoffeeplantationsinthenineteenthcentury.LikeSpain,PortugalrestrictedforeignpowersfromtradinginitsAmericancolonyorenteringcoastalwatersithadclaimed.Astheeconomiccenterofthecolonyshiftedfromthesugar-producingnortheasttothesouthernregionofgoldanddiamondmines,thecapitalwastransferredfromSalvadordeBahiatoRiodeJaneiroin1763.[46]Duringthecolonialera,BrazilwasalsothemanufacturingcenterforPortugal'sships.Asaglobalmaritimeempire,PortugalcreatedavitalindustryinBrazil.OnceBrazilachieveditsindependence,thisindustrylanguished.[47] Coloniallegacies[edit] MonumenttoChristopherColumbus,BuenosAiresbeforeits2013removal ArgentinePresidentCristinaFernándezdeKirchnerandBolivianPresidentEvoMoralesattheinaugurationofthemonumenttoJuanaAzurduydePadillaJuly15,2015 ThemorethanthreecenturiesofdirectSpanishandPortuguesecolonialruleleftlastingimprintsonLatinAmerica.Themostsalientarelinguistic,withSpanishandPortuguesethedominantlanguagesoftheregion,andreligious,withRomanCatholicismcontinuingtoclaimthelargestnumberofadherents.DiseasestowhichIndigenouspeopleshadnoimmunitydevastatedtheirpopulations,althoughtheystillexistinmanyplaces.TheforcedtransportationofAfricanslavestransformedmajorregionswheretheylaboredtoproducetheexportproducts,especiallysugar.InregionswithdenseIndigenouspopulations,theyremainedthelargestpercentageofthepopulation;sugar-producingregionshadthelargestpercentageofblacks.EuropeanwhitesinbothSpanishAmericaandBrazilwereasmallpercentageofthepopulation,buttheywerethealsowealthiestandmostsociallyelite,andtheracialhierarchiestheyestablishedinthecolonialerahavepersisted.CitiesfoundedbyEuropeansinthecolonialeraremainmajorcentersofpower.Inthemodernera,LatinAmericangovernmentshaveworkedtodesignatemanycolonialcitiesasUNESCOWorldHeritageSites.[48]ExportsofmetalsandagriculturalproductstoEuropedominatedLatinAmericaneconomies,withthemanufacturingsectordeliberatelysuppressed;thedevelopmentofmodern,industrialeconomiesofEuropedependedontheunderdevelopmentofLatinAmerica.[49][50][51] DespitethemanycommonalitiesofcolonialSpanishAmericaandBrazil,theydidnotconceiveofthemselvesasbeingpartofasingleregion;thatwasadevelopmentofthepost-independenceperiodbeginninginthenineteenthcentury.TheimprintofChristopherColumbusandIberiancolonialisminLatinAmericabeganshiftinginthetwentiethcentury.Therewasare-evaluationofthecoloniallegacyasthe500thanniversaryofColumbus'svoyageapproached."Discovery"byEuropeanswasreframedas"encounter"oftheOldWorldandtheNew.AnexampleofthenewconsciousnesswasthedismantlingoftheChristopherColumbusmonumentinBuenosAires,oneofmanyinthehemisphere,mandatedbyleftistPresidentCristinaFernándezdeKirchner.Itsreplacementwasastatuetoamestizafighterforindependence,JuanaAzurduydePadilla,provokingamajorcontroversyinArgentinaoverhistoricalandnationalidentity.[52] Independenceera(1776–1825)[edit] Mainarticles:LatinAmericanwarsofindependence,SpanishAmericanwarsofindependence,andIndependenceofBrazil DevelopmentofSpanishAmericanIndependence  GovernmentundertraditionalSpanishlaw  LoyaltoSupremeCentralJuntaorCortes  Americanjuntaorinsurrectionmovement  Independentstatedeclaredorestablished  HeightofFrenchcontrolofthePeninsula FerdinandVIIofSpaininwhosenameSpanishAmericanjuntasruledduringhisexile1808–1814;whenrestoredtopowerin1814,hereinstatedautocraticrule,renewingindependencemovements IndependenceintheAmericaswasnotinevitableoruniformintheAmericas.EventsinEuropehadaprofoundimpactonthecolonialempiresofSpain,Portugal,andFranceintheAmericas.FranceandSpainhadsupportedtheAmericanRevolutionthatsawtheindependenceoftheThirteenColoniesfromBritain,whichhaddefeatedthemintheSevenYears'War(1757–63).TheoutbreakoftheFrenchRevolutionin1789,apoliticalandsocialuprisingtopplingtheBourbonmonarchyandoverturningtheestablishedorder,precipitatedeventsinFrance'srichCaribbeansugarcolonyofSaint-Domingue,whoseblackpopulationroseup,ledbyToussaintL'ouverture.TheHaitianRevolutionhadfar-reachingconsequences.BritaindeclaredwaronFranceandattackedportsinSaint-Domingue.Haitigainedindependencein1804,ledbyex-slaveJean-JacquesDessalinesfollowingmanyyearsofviolentstruggle,withhugeatrocitiesonbothsides.HaitianindependenceaffectedcolonialempiresintheAmericas,aswellastheUnitedStates.Manywhite,slave-owningsugarplantersofSaint-DominguefledtotheSpanishislandofCuba,wheretheyestablishedsugarplantationsthatbecamethebasisofCuba'seconomy.[53]Uniquelyinthehemisphere,theblackvictorsinHaitiabolishedslaveryatindependence.ManythousandsofremainingwhiteswereexecutedontheordersofDessalines.Forotherregionswithlargeenslavedpopulations,theHaitianRevolutionwasacautionarytaleforthewhiteslave-owningplanters.DespiteSpainandBritain'ssatisfactionwithFrance'sdefeat,they"wereobsessedbythepossibleimpactoftheslaveuprisingonCuba,SantoDomingo,andJamaica",bythenaBritishsugarcolony.[54]USPresidentThomasJefferson,awealthyslaveowner,refusedtorecognizeHaiti'sindependence.Recognitiononlycamein1862fromPresidentAbrahamLincoln.GivenFrance'sfailuretodefeattheslaveinsurgencyandsinceneedingmoneyforthewarwithBritain,NapoleonBonapartesoldFrance'sremainingmainlandholdingsinNorthAmericatotheUnitedStatesinthe1803LouisianaPurchase. Napoleon'sinvasionoftheIberianpeninsulain1807-1808wasamajorchangeintheworldorder,withthestabilityofboththemetropoles[clarificationneeded]andtheiroverseaspossessionsupended.Itresultedintheflight,withBritishhelp,ofthePortugueseroyalcourttoBrazil,itsrichestcolony.InSpain,FranceforcedabdicationoftheSpanishBourbonmonarchsandtheirreplacementwithNapoleon'sbrotherJosephBonaparteasking.Theperiodfrom1808totherestorationin1814oftheBourbonmonarchysawnewpoliticalexperiments.InSpanishAmerica,thequestionofthelegitimacyofthenewforeignmonarch'srighttorulesetofffiercedebateandinmanyregionstowarsofindependence.Theconflictswereregionalandusuallyquitecomplex.ChronologicallytheseSpanishAmericanindependencewarsweretheconquestinreverse,withtheareasmostrecentlyincorporatedintotheSpanishempire,suchasArgentinaandChile,becomingthefirsttoachieveindependence,whilethecolonialstrongholdsofMexicoandPeruwerethelasttoachieveindependenceintheearlynineteenthcentury.CubaandPuertoRico,botholdCaribbeansugar-producingareas,didnotachieveindependencefromSpainuntilthe1898Spanish-AmericanWar,withUSintervention. Constitutionof1812 InSpain,abloodywaragainsttheFrenchinvadersbrokeoutandregionaljuntaswereestablishedtoruleinthenameofthedeposedBourbonking,FerdinandVII.InSpanishAmerica,localjuntasalsorejectedNapoleon'sbrotherastheirmonarch.SpanishLiberalsre-imaginedtheSpanishEmpireasequallybeingIberiaandtheoverseasterritories.Liberalssoughtanewmodelofgovernment,aconstitutionalmonarchy,withlimitsonthepowerofthekingaswellasontheCatholicChurch.RulinginthenameofthedeposedBourbonmonarchFerdinandVII,representativesoftheSpanishempire,bothfromthepeninsulaandSpanishAmerica,convenedaconventionintheportofCadiz.ForSpanishAmericaneliteswhohadbeenshutoutofofficialpositionsinthelateeighteenthcenturyinfavorofpeninsular-bornappointees,thiswasamajorrecognitionoftheirroleintheempire.[55]Theseempire-widerepresentativesdraftedandratifiedtheSpanishConstitutionof1812,establishingaconstitutionalmonarchyandsetdownotherrulesofgovernance,includingcitizenshipandlimitationsontheCatholicChurch.ConstitutionalrulewasabreakfromabsolutistmonarchyandgaveSpanishAmericaastartingpointforconstitutionalgovernance.[56]SolongasNapoleoncontrolledSpain,theliberalconstitutionwasthegoverningdocument. WhenNapoleonwasdefeatedandtheBourbonmonarchywasrestoredin1814,FerdinandVIIandhisconservativesupportersimmediatelyreassertedabsolutistmonarchy,endingtheliberalinterregnum.InSpanishAmerica,thiscounter-revolutionsetoffanewwaveofstrugglesforindependenceinSpanishAmerica.[57][58] DomPedroI,emperorofBrazil InSouthAmericaSimónBolívarofVenezuelaandJosédeSanMartínofArgentina,andBernardoO'HigginsinChileledarmieswhofoughtforindependence.InMexico,whichhadseentheinitialinsurgencyledbyHidalgoandJoséMaríaMorelos,royalistforceskeptcontrol.In1820,whenmilitaryofficersinSpainrestoredtheliberalConstitutionof1812,conservativesinMexicosawindependenceasabetteroption.RoyalistmilitaryofficerAgustíndeIturbidechangedsidesandforgedanalliancewithinsurgentleaderVicenteGuerrero,andtogethertheybroughtaboutMexico'sindependencein1821. ForPortugalandBrazil,Napoleon'sdefeatdidnotimmediatelyresultinthereturnofthePortuguesemonarchtoPortugal,sinceBrazilwastherichestpartofthePortugueseempire.AswithSpainin1820,PortugueseliberalsthreatenedthepowerofthemonarchyandcompelledJohnVItoreturninApril1821,leavinghissonPedrotoruleBrazilasregent.InBrazil,PedrocontendedwithrevolutionariesandinsubordinationbyPortuguesetroops,allofwhomhesubdued.ThePortuguesegovernmentthreatenedtorevokethepoliticalautonomythatBrazilhadenjoyedsince1808,provokingwidespreadoppositioninBrazil.PedrodeclaredBrazil'sindependencefromPortugalon7September1822andbecameemperor.ByMarch1824hehaddefeatedallarmiesloyaltoPortugal.Brazil'sindependencewasachievedrelativelypeaceably,territorialintegritywasmaintained,anditsrulerwasfromtheRoyalHouseofBraganza,whosesuccessorsruledBraziluntiltheiroverthrowin1889.[59][60] SimónBolívar,LiberatorofVenezuela,Colombia,Ecuador,Bolivia,PeruandPanama JosédeSanMartín,LiberatorofArgentina,ChileandPeru. BernardoO'Higgins,heroofChileanindependence FatherMiguelHidalgo,fatherofMexicanindependence,withthebannerofOurLadyofGuadalupe VicenteGuerrero,insurgentheroofMexicanindependence,whojoinedwithIturbide AgustíndeIturbide,formerroyalmilitaryofficerwhobroughtaboutMexicanindependenceandwascrownedemperor Post-IndependenceinLatinAmerica,ca.1825–1879[edit] SpanishAmericaandBrazil AlthoughmuchofLatinAmericagaineditsindependenceintheearlynineteenthcentury,formalrecognitionbytheirformermetropolitanpowersinSpainandPortugaldidnotcomeimmediately.PortugalofficiallyrecognizedBrazilonAugust29,1825.[61]TheSpanishcrowndidnotrecognizenewSpanishAmericannations'independenceandsentexpeditionstoMexicoinfailedattemptstoregaincontroloveritsvaluableformerterritory.SpainfinallyrecognizedMexico'sindependencein1836,15yearsafteritwasachieved.ItsrecognitionofEcuador'sindependencecamein1840andParaguay'saslateas1880.Thenewindependentterritoriesexertedtheirrightstoestablishagovernment,controltheirnationalterritory,establishtraderelationswithothernations,andlevytaxes.BrazilandMexicobothestablishedmonarchiesin1822.Mexico'swasshort-lived(1822–23)underleaderoftheindependencemovementGeneralIturbide,electedconstitutionalemperor19May1822andforcedtoabdicate19March1823.Iturbidehadnoroyalpedigree,soasacommonerhehadnoprestigeorpermanentlegitimacyasruler.Brazil'smonarchy,abranchoftheHouseofBraganza,lasteduntil1889.SpanishAmericafragmentedintovariousregions. ArgentinecaudilloJuanManueldeRosas MexicanstrongmanAntonioLópezdeSantaAnna EmperorPedroIIofBrazil AsaconsequenceoftheviolentstrugglesforindependenceinmostofSpanishAmerica,themilitarygrewinimportance.Inthepost-independenceperiod,itoftenplayedakeyroleinpolitics.Militaryleadersoftenbecamethefirstheadsofstate,butregionalstrongmenorcaudillosalsoemerged.Thefirsthalfofthenineteenthcenturyissometimescharacterizedasthe“ageofcaudillos.”InArgentina,JuanManuelRosasandinMexicoAntonioLópezdeSantaAnnaareexemplarsofcaudillos.Althoughmostcountriescreatedwrittenconstitutionsandcreatedseparatebranchesofgovernment,thestateandtheruleoflawwereweak,andthemilitaryemergedasthedominantinstitutioninthecivilsphere.Constitutionswerewrittenlayingoutdivisionofpowers,buttheruleofpersonaliststrongmendominated.Dictatorialpowersweregrantedtosomestrongmen,nominallyrulingaspresidentsunderaconstitution,as"constitutionaldictators."[62] Inthereligioussphere,theRomanCatholicChurch,oneofthepillarsofcolonialrule,remainedapowerfulinstitutionandgenerallycontinuedastheonlypermissiblereligion.WiththeSpanishmonarchnolongerthepatronofthechurch,manynationalgovernmentsassertedtheirrighttoappointclericsasalogicaltransferofpowertoasovereignstate.TheCatholicChurchdeniedthatthisrighthadtransferredtothenewgovernments,andforatimetheVaticanrefusedtoappointnewbishops.[63]InBrazil,becausetherulerafterindependencewasamemberoftheHouseofBraganza,andPortugalrecognizedpoliticalindependencequitespeedily,theVaticanappointedapapalnunciotoBrazilin1830.ThisofficialhadjurisdictionovernotjustBrazil,butalsothenewstatesinSpanishAmerica.However,inBrazil,therewerealsoconflictsbetweenchurchandstate.DuringthereignofPedroII,Protestantmissionariesweretolerated,andwhenthemonarchywasoverthrownin1889,theCatholicChurchwasdisestablished.[64] Inthenewnation-states,conservativesfavoredtheoldorderofapowerful,centralizedstateandcontinuationoftheCatholicChurchasakeyinstitution.InMexico,followingtheabdicationofEmperorIturbidein1823,Mexicanpoliticalleaderswroteaconstitutionforitsnewlydeclaredfederatedrepublic,theConstitutionof1824.CentralAmericaoptedoutofjoiningthenewfederatedrepublicofMexico,withnorealconflict.HerooftheinsurgencyGuadalupeVictoriabecamethefirstpresidentofMexicoin1824.Conservativespushedtotakecontrolofthegovernment,favoringcentralruleofthenation,asopposedtoliberals,whogenerallyfavoredthepowerofstatesexpressedinfederalism.GeneralSantaAnnawaselectedpresidentin1833andwasinandoutofofficeuntil1854.InSouthAmerica,GranColombiacameintobeing,spanningwhatarenowtheseparatecountriesofColombia,Venezuela,Ecuador,Panama,andPeru,withindependenceleaderSimónBolívarasheadofstate(1819–30).GranColombiadissolvedin1831duetoconflictssimilartothoseelsewhereinSpanishAmericabetweencentralistconservativesandpro-federalistliberals.InArgentina,theconflictresultedinaprolongedcivilwarbetweenunitarianas(i.e.centralists)andfederalists,whichwereinsomeaspectsrespectivelyanalogoustoliberalsandconservativesinothercountries.Addingtothisdisputewasthealmostinheritedcolonial-eraconflictoveritsborderswithBrazil.TheCisplatineWareruptedin1814andendedin1828,resultinginoccupationandfurthersecessionofProvinciaOrientalwhichin1830becamethemodernRepublicofUruguaywithacentralgovernmentinMontevideo.Between1832and1852,Argentinaexistedasaconfederation,withoutaheadofstate,althoughthefederalistgovernorofBuenosAiresprovince,JuanManueldeRosas,wasgiventhepowertopaydebtandmanageinternationalrelations,andexertedagrowinghegemonyoverthecountry.Anationalconstitutionwasnotenacteduntil1853,andreformedin1860,andthecountryreorganizedasafederalrepublicledbyaliberal-conservativeelite.[65]Ironically,centralistUruguayenacteditsconstitutiononitsfirstdayoflifein1830,butwasn'timmunetoasimilarpolarizationofthenewstatethatinvolvedblancosandcolorados,wheretheagrarianconservativeinterestsofblancoswerepittedagainsttheliberalcommercialinterestsofcoloradosbasedinMontevideo,andwhicheventuallyresultedintheGuerraGrandecivilwar(1839–1851).[66]BoththeblancosandcoloradosevolvedintopoliticalpartiesofthesamenamesthatstillexistinUruguaytodayandareconsideredamongthefirstandmostlongstandingpoliticalpartiesintheworld. InBrazil,EmperorDomPedroI,worndownbyyearsofadministrativeturmoilandpoliticaldissensionwithboththeliberalandconservativesidesofpolitics,includinganattemptofrepublicansecession,[67]wenttoPortugalin1831toreclaimhisdaughter'scrown,abdicatingtheBrazilianthroneinfavorofhisfive-year-oldsonandheir(whothusbecametheEmpire'ssecondmonarch,withthetitleofDomPedro II).[68]Asaminor,thenewEmperorcouldnotexerthisconstitutionalpowersuntilhecameofage,soaregencywassetupbytheNationalAssembly.[69]Intheabsenceofacharismaticfigurewhocouldrepresentamoderatefaceofpower,duringthisperiodaseriesoflocalizedrebellionstookplace,astheCabanagem,theMalêRevolt,theBalaiada,theSabinada,andtheRagamuffinWar,whichemergedfromdissatisfactionoftheprovinceswiththecentralpower,coupledwitholdandlatentsocialtensionspeculiartoavast,slave-holdingandnewlyindependentnationstate.[70]Thisperiodofinternalpoliticalandsocialupheaval,whichincludedthePraieirarevolt,wasovercomeonlyattheendofthe1840s,yearsaftertheendoftheregency,whichoccurredwiththeprematurecoronationofPedroIIin1841.[71]Duringthelastphaseofthemonarchy,aninternalpoliticaldebatewascenteredontheissueofslavery.TheAtlanticslavetradewasabandonedin1850,[72]asaresultoftheBritishAberdeenAct,butonlyinMay1888afteralongprocessofinternalmobilizationanddebateforanethicalandlegaldismantlingofslaveryinthecountry,wastheinstitutionformallyabolished.[73]On15November1889,wornoutbyyearsofeconomicstagnation,attritionofthemajorityofArmyofficers,aswellaswithruralandfinancialelites(fordifferentreasons),themonarchywasoverthrownbyamilitarycoup.[74] Foreignpowers'influenceandinterventions,ca.1825-1870[edit] Foreignpowers,particularlytheBritishandtheU.S.,werekeenlyinterestedinthepossibilitiesopeningfortheircountrieswiththestrugglesforindependence.TheyquicklyrecognizednewlyindependentcountriesinLatinAmericaandestablishedcommercialrelationshipswiththem,sincethecoloniallimitsontradewithforeignpowershadended.Withthe1803LouisianaPurchasefromFrance,theU.S.nowborderedSpanishMexico,andboththeU.S.andSpainsoughtclarityabouttheirborders,signingthe1819Adams-OnísTreatycedingFloridatotheU.S.andsettingthenorthernborderofSpain'sclaiminNorthAmerica.[75]WhenMexicoachievedindependence,theU.S.recognizedthegovernmentunderAgustíndeIturbide,sendingdiplomatJoelPoinsettasitsrepresentative1822–23.PoinsettconcludedanagreementwithMexicoconfirmingthetermsoftheAdams-OnísTreaty.PreviouslyPoinsetthadtraveledwidelyinLatinAmericaandhadconcludedatradeagreementwithindependentArgentina.EuropeanandU.S.interestsintheregionfueledthedemandforLatinAmericantravelogues,animportantsourceofinformationthatdescribedeconomic,political,andsocialconditions.[76] ThefirstmajorarticulationofU.S.foreignpolicytowardLatinAmericaasaregionwasthe1820MonroeDoctrine.ItwarnedforeignpowersnottointerveneintheAmericas.TheU.S.wasrelativelyweakcomparedtothepowerfulBritishEmpire,butitwasakeypolicythatinformedU.S.actionstowardLatinAmerica.TheU.S.wasconcernedthatforeignpowerscouldsupportSpaininitsattemptstoreclaimitsempire.[77]Thoseactionsoftenincludeditsowndirectinterventionsintheregion,justifiedbyPresidentTheodoreRooseveltinhis1904RooseveltCorollarytotheMonroeDoctrine. BritishcommercialinterestswereeagertoseizetheopportunitytotradeinLatinAmerica.BritainandPortugalhadlongbeenalliesagainsttheSpanishandFrench,soBritishrecognitionofBrazil'sindependencefollowedquicklyafterPortugal's.AswithmanyotherLatinAmericancountries,Brazilexportedrawmaterialsandimportedmanufacturedgoods.ForBritain,assertingeconomicdominanceinLatinAmericainwhatisnowcalledneocolonialismmeantthatnation-statesweresovereigncountries,butweredependentonotherpowerseconomically.BritishdominancehinderedthedevelopmentofLatinAmericanindustriesandstrengthenedtheirdependenceontheworldtrade network.[78]BritainnowreplacedSpainastheregion'slargesttrading partner.[79]GreatBritaininvestedsignificantcapitalinLatinAmericatodeveloptheareaasamarketforprocessedgoods.[80]Fromtheearly1820sto1850,thepost-independenceeconomiesofLatinAmericancountrieswerelaggingandstagnant.[81]Overthenineteenthcentury,enhancedtradebetweenBritainandLatinAmericaledtodevelopmentsuchasinfrastructureimprovements,includingroadsandrailroads,whichgrewthetradebetweenthescountriesandoutsidenationssuchasGreatBritain.[82]By1870,exportsdramaticallyincreased,attractingcapitalfromabroad(includingEuropeandUSA).[83]Until1914andtheoutbreakofWorldWarI,BritainwasamajoreconomicpowerinLatinAmerica.AmericanoccupationofMexicoCity FortheU.S.,itsinitialsphereofinfluencewasinMexico,butthedriveforterritorialexpansion,particularlyforsouthernslave-ownersseekingnewterritoryfortheirenterprises,sawimmigrationofwhiteslave-ownerswiththeirslavestoTexas,whichultimatelyprecipitatedconflictbetweentheMexicangovernmentandtheAnglo-Americansettlers.TheTexasRevolutionof1836-37defeatedMexicanforces,andin1845,U.S.annexationoftheTexasterritorythatMexicostillclaimedsetthestagefortheMexican-AmericanWar(1846–48).ThatwarresultedintheresoundingdefeatofMexico.U.S.troopsoccupiedMexicoCity.TheTreatyofGuadalupeHidalgoaddedahugeswathofwhathadbeennorthandnorthwestMexicototheU.S.,territorythatSpainandthenMexicohadclaimed,buthadnotsucceededinoccupyingeffectively.Southernslaveowners,suchasThomasJeffersonandJohnC.Calhoun,werealsointerestedinthepossibilityoftheU.S.acquiringCubafromSpain,withtheaimofexpandingbothslaveryandU.S.territory.The1854leakoftheOstendManifesto,offering$130milliontoSpain,causedascandalamongabolitionistsintheU.S.,whosoughttoendtheexpansionofslavery.ItwasrepudiatedbyU.S.PresidentFranklinPierce.TheAmericanCivilWar(1861–65)decidedthequestionofslavery.[84]AnotherepisodeinUS-LatinAmericanrelationsinvolvedthefilibusterWilliamWalker.In1855,hetraveledtoNicaraguahopingtooverthrowthegovernmentandtaketerritoryfortheUnitedStates.WithOnly56followers,hewasabletotakeoverthecityofGranada,declaringhimselfcommanderofthearmyandinstallingPatricioRivasasapuppetpresident.However,Rivas'presidencyendedwhenhefledNicaragua;Walkerriggedtheensuingelectiontoensurethathebecamethenextpresident.Hispresidencydidnotlastlong,however,ashewasmetwithmuchoppositioninNicaraguaandfromneighboringcountries.On1May1857,WalkerwasforcedbyacoalitionofCentralAmericanarmiestosurrenderhimselftoaUnitedStatesNavyofficerwhorepatriatedhimandhisfollowers.WhenWalkersubsequentlyreturnedtoCentralAmericain1860,hewasapprehendedbytheHonduranauthoritiesandexecuted.[85] Britain'snineteenth-centurypolicywastoendslaveryandtheslavetrade,includinginLatinAmerica.InBrazil,Britainmadetheendoftheslavetradeaconditionfordiplomaticrecognition.TheBrazilianeconomywasentirelydependentonslaves.AbolitionistsinBrazilpressedfortheendofslavery,whichfinallyendedin1888,followedthenextyearbythefalloftheBrazilianmonarchy. MaximilianreceivingadelegationofMexicanconservativesofferinghimthecrownofMexico TheExecutionofEmperorMaximilian,ÉdouardManet1868.TheexecutionendedmonarchicruleinMexico,andMexicanliberalstriumphed TheFrenchalsosoughtcommercialtiestoLatinAmerica,toexportluxurygoodsandestablishfinancialties,includingextendingforeignloanstogovernments,oftenindireneedofrevenue.FranceintervenedinMexicoinaspectacularfashion.AsMexicanconservativesandliberalsfoughttheWaroftheReformoverLaReforma,Mexicanconservatives,tobolstertheirside,soughtaEuropeanmonarchtoputonthethroneofMexico.NapoleonIIIofFranceinvadedMexicoin1862andfacilitatedtheappointmentofMaximilianvonHapsburg.SincetheU.S.wasembroiledinitsowncivilwar,itcouldnothindertheFrenchoccupation,whichitsawasaviolationoftheMonroeDoctrine,butthegovernmentofAbrahamLincolncontinuedtorecognizetheMexicangovernmentofBenitoJuárez.TheFrenchwithdrewtheirsupportofMaximilianin1867,andMaximilianandtwoconservativeMexicangeneralswereexecuted,whenMexicanliberalsreturnedtopower. EuropeanandUnitedStatesinterestsinnineteenth-centuryLatinAmericaisalsoreflectedinthepopularityoftraveloguesdescribingthelandscapes,peoples,customs,andeconomicsoftheregion.[86] Warsbetweennations[edit] ManyarmedconflictsbrokeoutbetweenLatinAmericannationsinthelatenineteenthcentury,aswellasprotractedcivilwarsinMexicoandColombia.OnenotableinternationalconflictwastheWarofthePacificfrom1879to1884,inwhichChileseizedterritoryandresourcesfromPeruandBolivia,gainingvaluablenitratedepositsandleavingBolivialandlockedwithnoaccesstothesea.[87]AlsonotablewastheWaroftheTripleAlliance(1864–1870)inwhichParaguayunderFranciscoSolanoLópezprovokedwaragainstBrazil,whichalliedwithArgentinaandUruguay.ThewarwasadisasterforParaguay,withhugelossoflifeanddestructionofthemodernizedsector.[88] USinvolvement1870–1933[edit] PoliticalcartoondepictingTheodoreRooseveltusingtheMonroeDoctrinetokeepEuropeanpowersoutoftheDominicanRepublic Inthelate19thcenturyandearly20thcentury,U.S.bananaimportersUnitedFruitCompanyandCuyamelFruitCompany,bothancestorsofChiquita,andtheStandardFruitCompany(nowDole),acquiredlargeamountsoflandinCentralAmericancountrieslikeGuatemala,Honduras,andCostaRica.Thecompaniesgainedleverageovergovernmentsandrulingelitesinthesecountriesbydominatingtheireconomiesandpayingkickbacks,andexploitedlocalworkers.Thesecountriescametobecalledbananarepublics. Cubans,withtheaidofDominicans,[89]launchedawarforindependencein1868and,overthenext30years,suffered279,000casualties[90]inabrutalwaragainstSpainthatculminatedinU.S.intervention.The1898Spanish–AmericanWarresultedintheendoftheSpanishcolonialpresenceintheAmericas.AperiodoffrequentU.S.interventioninLatinAmericafollowed,withtheacquisitionofthePanamaCanalZonein1903,theso-calledBananaWarsinCuba,Haiti,DominicanRepublic,Nicaragua,andHonduras;theCacoWarsinHaiti;andtheso-calledBorderWarwithMexico.Some3,000LatinAmericanswerekilledbetween1914and1933.[91]TheU.S.pressdescribedtheoccupationoftheDominicanRepublicasan'Anglo-Saxoncrusade',carriedouttokeeptheLatinAmericans'harmlessagainsttheultimateconsequencesoftheirownmisbehavior'.[92] Inthe1930stheFordMotorCompanyinvestedinlandandindustryinnorthernBraziltoproducerubberforitstires.TheinstallationwasknownasFordlandiaandalthoughtheprojectwasabandonedbecauseofculturalbreakdownandtheemergenceofvulcanizationthatmadeiteconomicallyunviable,thecityisstillinhabitedandretainsitsname. AfterWorldWarI,U.S.interventionismdiminished,culminatinginPresidentFranklinD.Roosevelt'sGoodNeighborpolicyin1933. WorldWarI(1914–1918)[edit] Seealso:Pan-AmericanismandBrazilduringWorldWarI TheZimmermannTelegramasitwassentfromWashingtontoAmbassadorHeinrichvonEckardt(GermanambassadortoMexico) Ingeneral,LatinAmericastayedoutofdirectconflictinWorldWarI,buttheGreatPowerswereawareoftheregion'simportancefortheshortandlongterm.GermanyattemptedtodrawMexicointosupportingitssideagainsttheBritish,theFrench,andespeciallytheU.S.,bytryingtoleverageanti-Americanismtoitsadvantage.TheGreatPowershadbeenactivelyworkingtoaffectthecourseoftheMexicanRevolution(1910–1920).GreatBritainandtheU.S.hadhugeinvestmentsinMexico,withGermanyclosebehind,sotheoutcomeoftheconflictwouldhaveconsequencesthere.TheU.S.directlyintervenedmilitarily,butnotonahugescale.[93]AGermandiplomaticproposal,nowknownastheJanuary1917ZimmermannTelegram,soughttoenticeMexicotojoinanalliancewithGermanyintheeventoftheUnitedStatesenteringWorldWarIagainstGermanybypromisingthereturnofterritoryMexicohadlosttotheU.S.TheproposalwasinterceptedanddecodedbyBritishintelligence.TherevelationofthecontentsoutragedtheAmericanpublicandswayedpublicopinion.ThenewshelpedtogeneratesupportfortheUnitedStatesdeclarationofwaronGermanyinApril1917aswellastocalmU.S.-Mexicorelations.[94]Mexico,farweakermilitarily,economicallyandpoliticallythantheU.S.,ignoredtheGermanproposal;aftertheU.S.enteredthewar,itofficiallyrejectedit. WhentheU.S.enteredtheconflictin1917,itabandoneditshuntinMexicofortherevolutionaryPanchoVillawhohadattackedtheU.S.inColumbus,NewMexico.TheMexicangovernmentwasnotpro-Villa,butwasangeredbyU.S.violationofMexico'ssovereignterritorywithtroops.TheexpeditionaryforceledbyGeneralJohnJ.PershingthathadhopelesslychasedhimaroundnorthernMexicowasdeployedtoEurope.TheU.S.thenaskedLatinAmericannationstojoinBritain,France,andtheU.S.againstGermany.Theywerenotquicktojoin,sinceGermanywasnowamajorfinanciallendertoLatinAmerica,andanumberofnationswereantipathetictothetraditionallendersinBritainandFrance.WhileLatinAmericadidjointheallies,itwasnotwithoutcost.TheU.S.soughthemisphericsolidarityagainstGermany,andBrazil,CostaRica,Cuba,Guatemala,Honduras,NicaraguaandHaitideclaredwar.Otherstookthelesserstepofbreakingdiplomaticrelations.Argentina,Chile,MexicoandUruguayremainedneutral.[95] Moreimportantwastheimpactofthewarontransatlanticshipping,theeconomiclifelinefortheirexporteconomies.Exportseconomiesfromtheminingsectorandespeciallynitratesforgunpowderdidboom,butagriculturalexportsofsugarandcoffeelanguishedwhenEuropeaneconomiesturnedtowarproduction.Britainwasonthewinningsideofthewar,butinitsaftermathitseconomicpowerwasmuchreduced.After1914,theU.S.replacedBritainasthemajorforeignpowerinLatinAmerica.LatinAmericannationsgainedstandinginternationallyintheaftermathofthewar,participatingintheVersaillesConference,signingtheTreatyofVersaillesandjoiningtheLeagueofNations.LatinAmericaalsoplayedanimportantroleintheInternationalCourtofJustice.[95] InterwarandWWII,1920s–1945[edit] U.S.PresidentRooseveltandMexicanPresidentManuelAvilaCamacho,Monterrey,Mexico1943.RooseveltsoughtstrongtiesbetweentheU.S.andLatinAmericaintheWorldWarIIera TheGreatDepressionwasaworldwidephenomenonandhadanimpactonLatinAmerica.Exportslargelyfellandeconomiesstagnated.ForanumberofLatinAmericancountries,theDepressionmadethemfavoraninternaleconomicdevelopmentpolicyofimportsubstitutionindustrialization.[96] WorldWarIandtheLeagueofNationsdidnotsettleconflictsbetweenEuropeannations,butinthewakeofWorldWarI,LatinAmericannationsgainedsuccessinpressingdiscussionsofhemisphericimportance.TheInter-AmericanSystemwasinstitutionallyestablishedwiththeFirstInternationalConferenceofAmericanStatesof1889–90,where17LatinAmericannationssentdelegatestoWashingtonD.C.andformedthePanAmericanUnion.SubsequentPan-AmericanConferencessawtheinitialdominanceoftheU.S.inthehemispheregivewayasLatinAmericannationsassertedtheirpriorities.TheHavanaConferenceof1928wasthehighwatermarkofU.S.dominanceandassertionofitsrighttointerveneinLatinAmerica,[97]butwiththeelectionofFranklinDelanoRoosevelttotheU.S.presidencyin1932,U.S.policychangedtowardLatinAmerica.HeabandonedtheroutineU.S.interventionsinLatinAmericathatithadclaimedasitsrightandinitiatedtheGoodNeighborPolicyinMarch1933.HesoughthemisphericcooperationratherthanU.S.coercionintheregion.[98]AttheMontevideoConventioninDecember1933,theU.S.SecretaryofStatevotedinfavoroftheConventionontheRightsandDutiesofStates,declaring“nostatehastherighttointerveneintheinternalorexternalaffairsofanother.”[99]PresidentRoosevelthimselfattendedtheinauguralsessionofthehemisphericconferenceinBuenosAiresin1936,wheretheU.S.reaffirmedthepolicyofnon-interventioninLatinAmericaanddiscussedtheissueofneutralityforthehemisphereshouldwarbreakout.[100]WiththeNaziinvasionofPolandinSeptember1939andthespreadofwarinEurope,foreignministersofhemisphericnationsmetinPanama,atwhichtheDeclarationofNeutralitywassigned,andtheterritorialwatersborderingthehemispherewereexpanded.Theaimofthesemoveswastostrengthenhemisphericsolidarityandsecurity.[101]Withthe7December1941JapaneseattackontheU.S.navalbaseatPearlHarbor,hemisphericministersmetinJanuary1942inRiodeJaneiro.SomenationshadalreadydeclaredwarontheAxispowers,whileothersseveredrelationswiththeAxis.Chiledidnotdosountil1943,andArgentina,traditionallypro-German,notuntil1945.[102]TheU.S.requestedthatGermanssuspectedofNazisympathiesbedeportedfromLatinAmericatotheU.S.[103] BrazilinWorldWarII[edit] AfterWorldWarI,inwhichBrazilwasanallyoftheUnitedStates,GreatBritain,andFrance,thecountryrealizeditneededamorecapablearmybutdidnothavethetechnologytocreateit.In1919,theFrenchMilitaryMissionwasestablishedbytheFrenchCommissioninBrazil.TheirmaingoalwastocontaininternalrebellionsinBrazil.TheytriedtoassistthearmybybringingthemuptotheEuropeanmilitarystandardbutconstantcivilmissionsdidnotpreparethemforWorldWarII.Brazil'spresident,GetúlioVargas,wantedtoindustrializeBrazilandmakeitmorecompetitivewithothercountries.HereachedouttoGermany,Italy,France,andtheUnitedStatesastradeallies.ManyItalianandGermanpeoplehadimmigratedtoBrazilmanyyearsbeforeWorldWarIIandcreatedaNaziinfluence.Theseimmigrantsheldhighpositionsingovernmentandthearmedforces. BraziliansoldiersgreetItalianciviliansinthecityofMassarosa,September1944.BrazilwastheonlyindependentLatinAmericancountrytosendgroundtroopstofightinWWII. BrazilremainedneutralbutattendedcontinentalmeetingsinBuenosAires,Argentina(1936);Lima,Peru(1938);andHavana,Cuba(1940)thatobligatedthemtoagreetodefendanypartoftheAmericasifattacked.BrazilstoppedtradingwithGermanyonceGermanybeganattackingoffshoretradingships,resultinginGermanydeclaringablockadeagainsttheAmericasintheAtlanticOcean.OnceGermansubmarinesattackedunarmedBraziliantradingships,PresidentVargasmetwithRoosevelttodiscusshowtoretaliate.On22January1942,BrazilofficiallyendedallrelationswithGermany,Japan,andItaly,andjoinedtheAllies. TheBrazilianExpeditionaryForcewassenttoNaples,ItalytofightwiththeAlliedPowers.BrazilwastheonlyLatinAmericancountrytosendtroopstoEurope.Initially,Brazilwantedtoonlyprovideresourcesandshelterforthewartohaveachanceofgainingahighpostwarstatusbutendedupsending25,000mentofight.[104]However,itwasnotasecretthatVargasadmiredHitler'sNaziGermanyanditsFührer.HeevenlettheGermanLuftwaffebuildsecretairforcesaroundBrazil.ThisalliancewithGermanybecameBrazil'ssecondbesttradeallianceaftertheUnitedStates. Inthepost-warperiod,ninethousandwarcriminalsescapedtoSouthAmerica,includingCroats,Ukrainians,RussiansandotherwesternEuropeanswhoaidedtheNaziwarmachine.Most,perhapsasmanyas5,000,wenttoArgentina;between1,500and2,000arethought[bywhom?]tohavemadeittoBrazil;around500to1,000toChile;andtheresttoParaguayandUruguay.[105] AfterWorldWarII,theUnitedStatesandLatinAmericacontinuedtohaveacloserelationship.Forexample,USAIDcreatedfamilyplanningprogramsinLatinAmericacombiningtheNGOsalreadyinplace,providingwomeninlargelyCatholicareaswithaccesstocontraception.[106] MexicoandWorldWarII[edit] Mainarticle:HistoryofMexico ThefirstBracerosarriveinLosAngeles,1942. MexicoenteredWorldWarIIinresponsetoGermanattacksonMexicanships.ThePotrerodelLlano,originallyanItaliantanker,hadbeenseizedinportbytheMexicangovernmentinApril1941andrenamedforaregioninVeracruz.ItwasattackedandcrippledbytheGermansubmarine U-564onMay13,1942.Theattackkilled13of35crewmen.[107]OnMay20,1942,asecondtanker,FajadeOro,alsoaseizedItalianship,wasattackedandsunkbytheGermansubmarine U-160,killing10of37crewmen.Inresponse,PresidentManuelÁvilaCamachoandtheMexicangovernmentdeclaredwarontheAxispowersonMay22,1942. AlargepartofMexico'scontributiontothewarcamethroughanagreementinJanuary1942thatallowedMexicannationalslivingintheUnitedStatestojointheU.S.armedforces.Asmanyas250,000Mexicansservedinthisway.[108]Inthefinalyearofthewar,MexicosentoneairsquadrontoserveundertheMexicanflag:theMexicanAirForce'sEscuadrónAéreodePelea201(201stFighterSquadron),whichsawcombatinthePhilippinesinthewaragainstImperialJapan.[109]MexicowastheonlyLatin-AmericancountrytosendtroopstotheAsia-Pacifictheatreofthewar.Inadditiontothoseinthearmedforces,tensofthousandsofMexicanmenwerehiredasfarmworkersintheUnitedStatesduringthewaryearsthroughtheBraceroprogram,whichcontinuedandexpandedinthedecadesafterthewar.[110] WorldWarIIhelpedsparkaneraofrapidindustrializationknownastheMexicanMiracle.[111]MexicosuppliedtheUnitedStateswithmorestrategicrawmaterialsthananyothercountry,andAmericanaidspurredthegrowthofindustry.[112]PresidentÁvilawasabletousetheincreasedrevenuetoimprovethecountry'scredit,investininfrastructure,subsidizefood,andraisewages.[113] WorldWarIIandtheCaribbean[edit] Seealso:CubaduringWorldWarIIandPuertoRicansinWorldWarII WithMorroCastleinthebackground,theUSSTexassailsintoHavanaHarbor,February1940. PresidentFedericoLaredoBrúledCubawhenwarbrokeoutinEurope,thoughrealpowerbelongedtoFulgencioBatistaasthearmy'sChiefofStaff.[114]In1940,Brúinfamouslydeniedentryto900JewishrefugeeswhoarrivedinHavanaaboardtheMSSt.Louis.AfterboththeUnitedStatesandCanadalikewiserefusedtoaccepttherefugees,theyreturnedtoEurope,wheremanywereeventuallymurderedintheHolocaust.[115]Batistabecamepresidentinhisownrightfollowingthe1940election.HecooperatedwiththeUnitedStatesasitmovedclosertowaragainsttheAxis.CubadeclaredwaronJapanonDecember8,1941,andonGermanyandItalyonDecember11.[116] CubawasanimportantparticipantintheBattleoftheCaribbeananditsnavygainedareputationforskillandefficiency.ThenavyescortedhundredsofAlliedshipsthroughhostilewaters,flewthousandsofhoursonconvoyandpatrolduty,andrescuedover200victimsofGermanU-Boatattacksfromthesea.SixCubanmerchantshipsweresunkbyU-boats,takingthelivesofaroundeightysailors.OnMay15,1943,asquadronofCubansubmarinechaserssanktheGermansubmarine U-176nearCayoBlanquizal.[117]CubareceivedmillionsofdollarsinAmericanmilitaryaidthroughtheLend-Leaseprogram,whichincludedairbases,aircraft,weapons,andtraining.[116]TheUnitedStatesnavalstationatGuantanamoBayalsoservedasabaseforconvoyspassingbetweenthemainlandUnitedStatesandthePanamaCanalorotherpointsintheCaribbean.[118] TheDominicanRepublicdeclaredwaronGermanyandJapanfollowingtheattackonPearlHarborandtheNazideclarationofwarontheUS.Itdidnotdirectlycontributewithtroops,aircraft,orships,however112DominicansjoinedtheUSmilitaryandfoughtinthewar.[119] OnMay3,1942,Germansubmarine U-125sanktheDominicanshipSanRafaelwithonetorpedoand32roundsfromthedeckgun50mileswestoffJamaica;onewaskilled,but37survived.OnMay21,1942,Germansubmarine U-156sanktheDominicanshipPresidenteTrujillooffFort-de-France,Martinique;24werekilled,15survived.[120]Rumorsofpro-NaziDominicanssupplyingGermanU-boatswithfood,waterandfuelaboundedduringthewar.[121] Naziflight[edit] FalsepassportofNaziAdolfEichmanninthenameofRicardoKlement,issuedbytheRedCrossinSwitzerlandbyanItalianofficial.EichmannenteredArgentinaunderthisname IntheimmediateaftermathofWorldWarIIandthedefeatoffascism,manyNazisandotherfascistsescapedEuropetoSouthAmericaviaratlines,withtheaidoftheVatican.Argentinawasafavoreddestination,becauseofitslargeGermanpopulationandthepro-GermangovernmentofJuanDomingoPerón.[122]ProminentNazisAdolfEichmannandJosefMengelewereabletofleetherefromEurope.Bothlivedundetectedforyears,withMengeledyinginBrazil.IsraeliintelligencetrackeddownEichmann,livingunderanassumedname,andabductedandbroughthimtoIsraeltostandtrial.Hewasexecuted. ColdWarera(1945–1992)[edit] FollowingWorldWarII,theUnitedStatesfocusedonwhatitperceivedasthethreatofcommunismandtheSovietUniontotheinterestsofWesternEuropeandtheUnitedStates.AlthoughLatinAmericancountrieshadbeenstaunchalliesinthewarandreapedsomebenefitsfromit,inthepost-warperiodtheregiondidnotprosperasithadexpected.LatinAmericastruggledinthepost-warperiodwithoutlarge-scaleaidfromtheU.S.,whichdevoteditsresourcestorebuildingWesternEurope,includingGermany.InLatinAmericatherewasincreasinginequality,withpoliticalconsequencesinindividualcountries.TheU.S.returnedtoapolicyofinterventionismwhereitfeltitspoliticalandeconomicinterestswerethreatened.WiththebreakupoftheSovietblocinthelate1980sandearly1990s,includingtheSovietUnionitself,LatinAmericasoughttofindnewsolutionstolong-standingproblems.WithitsSovietalliancedissolved,CubaenteredaSpecialPeriodofsevereeconomicdisruption,highdeathrates,andfoodshortages. Economy[edit] ManyLatinAmericaneconomiescontinuedtogrowinthepost-WorldWarIIera,butnotasquicklyastheyhadhoped.Whenthetransatlantictradere-openedfollowingthepeace,EuropelookedasifitwouldneedLatinAmericanfoodexportsandrawmaterials.ThepoliciesofindustrializationadoptedinLatinAmericawhenexportsslowedduetotheGreatDepressionandsubsequentisolationinWorldWarIIwerenowsubjecttointernationalcompetition.ThosewhosupportedareturntotheexportofcommoditiesforwhichLatinAmericahadacompetitiveadvantagedisagreedwithadvocatezofanexpandedindustrialsector.TherebuildingofEurope,includingGermany,withtheaidoftheU.S.afterWorldWarIIdidnotbringstrongerdemandforLatinAmericanexports.InLatinAmerica,muchofthehardcurrencyearnedbytheirparticipationinthewarwenttonationalizeforeign-ownedindustriesandpaydowntheirdebt.Anumberofgovernmentssettariffandexchangeratepoliciesthatunderminedtheexportsectorandaidedtheurbanworkingclasses.Growthslowedinthepost-warperiodandbythemid-1950s,theoptimismofthepostwarperiodwasreplacedbypessimism.[123] Economicintegrationwascalledfor,[who?]toattaineconomiesthatcouldcompetewiththeeconomiesoftheUnitedStatesorEurope.Startinginthe1960swiththeLatinAmericanFreeTradeAssociationandCentralAmericanCommonMarket,Latincountriesworkedtowardeconomicintegration. GuatemalanRevolution(1944–54)[edit] Mainarticle:GuatemalanRevolution Agrarianreformposter,Guatemala1952 Inthepostwarera,theGuatemalanRevolutionoverthrewtheU.S.-backeddictatorJorgeUbicoin1945andheldfreeandfairelections.ThesebroughtinthereformistpresidentDr.JuanJoséArévalo(1945–51),anon-communistbelieverin"spiritualsocialism",withpopulistinstitutionalreforms.Reformsincludedlandlawsthatthreatenedtheinterestsoflargeforeign-ownedenterprises,asocialsecuritylaw,workmen'scompensation,lawsallowinglabortoorganizeandstrike,anduniversalsuffrageexceptforilliteratewomen.HisgovernmentestablisheddiplomatictieswiththeSovietUnioninApril1945,whenitwasstillanallyagainsttheAxispowers.Communistsenteredleadershippositionsinthelabormovement.Attheendofhisterm,hishand-pickedsuccessor,thepopulistandnationalistJacoboArbenz,waselectedfollowingtheassassinationoftherivalright-wingcandidate.ArbenzproposedplacingcapitalinthehandsofGuatemalans,buildingnewinfrastructure,andsignificantlandreformviaDecree900.WithwhattheU.S.consideredtheprospectofevenmoreradicalchangesinGuatemala,itbackedacoupagainstArbenzin1954,overthrowinghim.[124][125][126]ArgentineCheGuevarawasinGuatemaladuringtheArbenzpresidency;thecoupoustingArbenzwasinstructiveforhim[127]andforLatinAmericannationsseekingsignificantstructuralchange. CubanRevolution(1959–1992)[edit] Mainarticle:CubanRevolution FidelCastroandhismenintheSierraMaestra,2December1956 Afteryearsofstruggle,CubanrevolutionariesledbytheJesuit-educatedCubanlawyerFidelCastrooverthrewtheregimeofFulgencioBatista,with1January1959markingastherevolution'svictory.TherevolutionwasahugeeventnotonlyinCubanhistory,butalsothehistoryofLatinAmericaandtheworld.Almosttheimmediately,theU.S.reactedwithhostilityagainstthenewregime.Astherevolutionariesbeganconsolidatingpower,manymiddle-andupper-classCubansleftfortheU.S.,likelynotexpectingtheCastroregimetolastlong.Cubabecameapoorerandblackercountry,andtheCubaRevolutionsoughttotransformthesocialandeconomicinequalitiesandpoliticalinstabilityofthepreviousregimesintoamoresociallyandeconomicallyequalone.ThegovernmentputemphasisonliteracyasakeytoCuba'soverallbetterment,essentiallywipingoutilliteracyafteranearlymajorliteracycampaign.SchoolsbecameameanstoinstillinCubanstudentsmessagesofnationalism,solidaritywiththeThirdWorld,andMarxism.[citationneeded]Cubaalsomadeacommitmenttouniversalhealthcare,sotheeducationofdoctorsandconstructionofhospitalsweretoppriorities.Cubaalsosoughttodiversifyitseconomy,untilthenbasedmainlyonsugar,butalsotobacco.[128] Cuba-Russiafriendshipposter,withCastroandNikitaKhrushchev AfterthefailedU.S.attempttooverthrowCastrointheApril1961BayofPigsinvasion,CubaenteredintoaformalalliancewiththeSovietUnion.InFebruary1962,theU.S.U.S.placedanembargoontradewithCuba,whichremainsinforceasofJune2021.[129]AlsoinFebruary1962,theU.S.pressuredmembersoftheOrganizationofAmericanStatestoexpelCuba,attemptingtoisolateit.InresponsetotheBayofPigs,CubacalledforrevolutionintheAmericas.Theseeffortsultimatelyfailed,mostnotablyCheGuevarainBolivia,wherehewasisolated,captured,andexecuted.WhentheU.S.discoveredthattheSovietUnionhadplacedmissilesinCubain1962,theU.S.reactedswiftlyinashowdownnowcalledtheCubanMissileCrisis,whichendedwithanagreementbetweentheU.S.andtheSovietUnion,whodidnotconsultCubaaboutitsterms.OnetermoftheagreementwasthattheU.S.wouldceaseeffortstoinvadeCuba,aguaranteeofitssovereignty.However,theU.S.continuedtotrytoremoveCastrofrompowerbyassassination.TheSovietUnioncontinuedtomateriallysupporttheCubanregime,providingoilandotherpetrochemicals,technicalsupport,andotheraid,inexchangeforCubansugarandtobacco.[130] From1959to1992,FidelCastroruledasacaudillo,orstrongman,dominatingpoliticsandtheinternationalstage.HiscommitmenttosocialandeconomicequalitybroughtaboutpositivechangesinCuba,includingtheimprovementofthepositionofwomen,eliminatingprostitution,solvingtheproblemofhomelessness,andraisingthestandardoflivingformostCubans.However,Cubalacksfreedomofexpression,dissentersweremonitoredbytheCommitteesfortheDefenseoftheRevolution,andtravelwasrestricted.[131]In1980,CastrotoldCubanswhowantedtoleavetodoso,promisingthatthegovernmentwouldnotstopthem.TheMarielboatliftsawsome125,000CubanssailfromtheCubanportofMariel,acrossthestraitstotheU.S.,whereU.S.PresidentCarterinitiallywelcomedthem.[132]ManyofthepositivechangesinCubadisappearedinthewakeofthecollapseoftheSovietUnionandtheeconomiccrisisinCubafollowed. ImpactoftheCubanRevolution[edit] Seealso:LatinAmerica–UnitedStatesrelations,ForeigninterventionsbytheUnitedStates,andUnitedStatesinvolvementinregimechangeinLatinAmerica CheGuevaraCubanrevolutionaryposter TheCubanRevolutionwasformanycountriesaninspirationandamodel,butfortheU.S.itwasachallengetoitspowerandinfluenceinLatinAmerica.AfterleftiststookpowerinChile(1970)andNicaragua(1979),FidelCastrovisitedthemboth,extendingCubansolidarity.InChile,SalvadorAllendeandacoalitionofleftists,UnidadPopular,wonanelectoralvictoryin1970andlasteduntiltheviolentmilitarycoupof11September1973.IntheNicaragualeftistsheldpowerfrom1979to1990.TheU.S.wasconcernedwiththespreadofcommunisminLatinAmerica,andU.S.PresidentDwightEisenhowerrespondedtothethreathesawintheDominicanRepublic'sdictatorRafaelTrujillo,whovoicedadesiretoseekanalliancewiththeSovietUnion.In1961,TrujillowasmurderedwithweaponssuppliedbytheCIA.[133]U.S.PresidentJohnF.KennedyinitiatedtheAllianceforProgressin1961,toestablisheconomiccooperationbetweentheU.S.andLatinAmericaandprovide$20 billionforreformandcounterinsurgencymeasures.ThereformfailedbecauseofthesimplistictheorythatguideditandthelackofexperiencedAmericanexpertswhounderstoodLatinAmericancustoms.[134] From1966tothelate1980s,theSovietgovernmentupgradedCuba'smilitarycapabilities,andCubawasactiveinforeigninterventions,assistingwiththeliberationmovementsofseveralcountriesinLatinAmericaandelsewhereintheworld.MostnotablewereAngolaandMozambique,andtheanti-imperialiststrugglesofcountriessuchasSyria,Algeria,Venezuela,Bolivia,andVietnam.[135][136]CheGuevaraleftCubatofightfirstinAfrica,thenwenttoBoliviatotrytomountarevolutionthere.InSeptember1977,twelveMiG-21sconductedstrafingflightsoverPuertoPlataintheDominicanRepublictowarnthen-presidentJoaquínBalagueragainstinterceptingCubanwarshipsheadedtoorreturningfromAngola.[137][138]Cuba'soverseasinterventionsendedwiththefalloftheSovietUnionandthecollapseoftheCubaneconomyinitswake. Chile(1958–1990)[edit] ChileandictatorAugustoPinochetandU.S.SecretaryofStateHenryKissinger InChile,thepostwarperiodsawuneveneconomicdevelopment.Theminingsector(copper,nitrates)continuedtobeimportant,butanindustrialsectoralsoemerged.TheagriculturalsectorstagnatedandChileneededtoimportfoodstuffs.Afterthe1958election,Chileenteredaperiodofreform.Thesecretballotwasintroduced,theCommunistPartywasrelegalized,andpopulismgrewinthecountryside.In1970,democraticelectionsbroughttopowersocialistSalvadorAllende,whoimplementedmanyreformsbegunin1964underChristianDemocratEduardoFrei.Theeconomycontinuedtodependonmineralexportsandalargeportionofthepopulationreapednobenefitsfromtheprosperityandmodernityofsomesectors.Chilehadalongtraditionofstableelectoraldemocracy,Inthe1970election,acoalitionofleftists,theUnidadPopular("popularunity")candidateAllendewaselected.Allendeandhiscoalitionheldpowerforthreeyears,withtheincreasinghostilityoftheU.S.TheChileanmilitarystagedabloodycoupwithUSsupportin1973.ThemilitaryunderGeneralAugustoPinochetthenheldpoweruntil1990. NicaraguanRevolutionandCentralAmericanwars[edit] Mainarticles:NicaraguanRevolutionandBananaWars ThenameAugustoSandino,NicaraguannationalistheroforhisstruggleagainsttheUnitedStates,wastakenbyleftistguerrillasastheSandinistaNationalLiberationFront(FSLN). ExhumationofcorpsesintheaftermathoftheGuatemalangenocide The1970sand1980ssawalargeandcomplexpoliticalconflictinCentralAmerica.TheU.S.administrativeofRonaldReaganfundedright-winggovernmentsandproxyfightersagainstleft-wingchallengestothepoliticalorder.ComplicatingmattersweretheliberationtheologyemergingintheCatholicChurchandtherapidgrowthofevangelicalChristianity,whichwereentwinedwithpolitics. Afterthe1912AmericanoccupationofNicaraguaintheBananaWars,theSomozapoliticaldynastycametopower,andruledNicaraguauntilitsousterin1979duringtheNicaraguanRevolution.TheeraofSomozafamilyrulewascharacterizedbystrongU.S.supportforthegovernmentanditsmilitaryaswellasheavyrelianceonU.S.-basedmultinationalcorporations.TheNicaraguanRevolution(Spanish:RevoluciónNicaragüenseorRevoluciónPopularSandinista)encompassedtherisingoppositiontotheSomozadictatorshipinthe1960sand1970s,thecampaignledbytheSandinistaNationalLiberationFront(FSLN)toviolentlyoustthedictatorshipin1978–79,thesubsequenteffortsoftheFSLNtogovernNicaraguafrom1979until1990andtheContraWarbetweentheFSLNandtheContrasfrom1981to1990. TheRevolutionrevealedthecountryasamajorproxywarbattlegroundintheColdWar.AlthoughtheinitialoverthrowoftheSomozaregimein1978–79wasabloodyaffair,theContraWarofthe1980stookthelivesoftensofthousandsofNicaraguansandwasthesubjectoffierceinternationaldebate.[139]Duringthe1980sboththeFSLN(aleftistcollectionofpoliticalparties)andtheContras(arightistcollectionofcounter-revolutionarygroups)receivedlargeamountsofaidfromtheColdWarsuperpowers.TheSandinistasallowedfreeelectionsin1990andafteryearsofwar,losttheelection.Theybecametheoppositionparty,followingapeacefultransferofpower. AcivilwarinElSalvadorpittedleftistguerrillasagainstarepressivegovernment.Thebloodywarthereendedinastalemate,andfollowingthefalloftheSovietUnion,anegotiatedpeaceaccordendedtheconflictin1992.InGuatemala,thecivilwarincludedgenocideofMayanpeasants.Apeaceaccordwasreachedin1996andtheCatholicChurchcalledforatruthandreconciliationcommission. Religiouschanges[edit] PopePaulVIandSalvadoranclericOscarRomero(nowStOscarRomero) TheRomanCatholicChurchhadamonopolyonreligioninthecolonialeraandcontinuedtobeamajorinstitutioninnineteenth-centuryLatinAmerica.Foranumberofcountriesinthenineteenthcentury,especiallyMexico,liberalsviewedtheCatholicChurchasanintransigentobstacletomodernization,andwhenliberalsgainedpower,anticlericalismwaswrittenintolaw,suchastheMexicanliberalConstitutionof1857andtheUruguayanConstitutionof1913whichsecularizedthestate.AlthoughsecularismwasanincreasingtrendinEuropeandNorthAmerica,mostLatinAmericansidentifiedasCatholic,eveniftheydidnotattendchurchregularly.ManyfollowedfolkCatholicism,veneratedsaints,andcelebratedreligiousfestivals.Manycommunitiesdidnothavearesidentpriestorevenvisitsbyprieststokeepcontactbetweentheinstitutionalchurchandthepeople.Inthe1950s,evangelicalProtestantsbeganproselytizinginLatinAmerica.InBrazil,theCatholicbishopsorganizedthemselvesintoanationalcouncil,aimedatbettermeetingthecompetitionnotonlyofProtestants,butalsoofsecularsocialismandcommunism.FollowingVaticanII(1962–65)calledbyPopeJohnXXIII,theCatholicChurchinitiatedaseriesofmajorreformsempoweringthelaity.PopePaulVIactivelyimplementedreformsandsoughttoaligntheCatholicChurchonthesideofthedispossessed,(“preferentialoptionforthepoor”),ratherthanremainabulwarkofconservativeelitesandright-wingrepressiveregimes.ColombianCatholicpriestCamiloTorrestookuparmswiththeColombianguerrillamovementELN,whichmodeleditselfonCubabutwaskilledinhisfirstcombatin1966.[140]In1968,PopePaulcametothemeetingofLatinAmericanbishopsinMedellín,Colombia.PeruvianpriestGustavoGutiérrezwasoneofthefoundersofliberationtheology,atermhecoinedin1968,sometimesdescribedaslinkingChristianityandMarxism.Conservativessawthechurchaspoliticized,andpriestsaskproselytizingleftistpositions.Priestsbecametargetsas“subversives,”suchasSalvadoranJesuitRutilioGrande.ArchbishopofElSalvadorÓscarRomerocalledforanendtopersecutionofthechurch,andtookpositionsofsocialjustice.Hewasassassinatedon24March1980whilesayingmass.LiberationtheologyinformedthestrugglebyNicaraguanleftistsagainsttheSomozadictatorship,andwhentheycametopowerin1979,therulinggroupincludedsomepriests. WhenaPolishclericbecamePopeJohnPaulIIfollowingthedeathofPaulVI,andthebriefpapacyofJohnPaulI,hereversedtheprogressivepositionofthechurch,evidentinthe1979PueblaconferenceofLatinAmericanbishops.OnapapalvisittoNicaraguain1983,hereprimandedFatherErnestoCardenal,whowasMinisterofCulture,andcalledonprieststoleavepolitics.BraziliantheologianLeonardoBoffwassilencedbytheVatican.DespitetheVaticanstanceagainstliberationtheology,articulatedin1984byCardinalJosefRatzinger,laterPopeBenedictXVI,manyCatholicclergyandlaityworkedagainstrepressivemilitaryregimes.AfteramilitarycoupoustedthedemocraticallyelectedSalvadorAllende,theChileanCatholicChurchwasaforceinoppositiontotheregimeofAugustoPinochetandforhumanrights.TheArgentineChurchdidnotfollowtheChileanpatternofoppositionhowever.[141]WhenJesuitJorgeBergogliowaselectedPopeFrancis,hisactionsduringtheDirtyWarwereanissue,asportrayedinthefilmTheTwoPopes. CallsforjusticeinthewakeoftheGuatemalangenocide AlthoughmostcountriesdidnothaveCatholicismastheestablishedreligion,Protestantismmadefewinroadsintheregionuntilthelatetwentiethcentury.EvangelicalProtestants,particularlyPentecostals,proselytizedandgainedadherentsinBrazil,CentralAmerica,andelsewhere.InBrazil,Pentecostalshadalonghistory.ButinanumberofcountriesruledbymilitarydictatorshipsmanyCatholicsfollowedthesocialandpoliticalteachingsofliberationtheologyandwereseenassubversives.Undertheseconditions,theinfluenceofreligiousnon-Catholicsgrew.Evangelicalchurchesoftengrewquicklyinpoorcommunitieswheresmallchurchesandmemberscouldparticipateinecstaticworship,oftenmanytimesaweek.Pastorsinthesechurchesdidattendaseminarynorwerethereotherinstitutionalrequirements.Insomecases,thefirstevangelicalpastorscamefromtheU.S.,butthesechurchesquicklybecame"LatinAmericanized,"withlocalpastorsbuildingreligiouscommunities.Insomecountries,theygainedasignificantholdandwerenotpersecutedbymilitarydictators,sincetheywerelargelyapolitical.[142]InGuatemalaunderGeneralEfraínRíosMontt,anevangelicalChristian,CatholicMayapeasantsweretargetedassubversivesandslaughtered.PerpetratorswerelaterputontrialinGuatemala,includingRíosMontt. Post-ColdWarera[edit] Seealso:FreeTradeAreaoftheAmericas Roll-on/roll-offships,suchasthisonepicturedhereatMirafloreslocks,areamongthelargestshipstopassthroughthePanamaCanal.ThecanalcutsacrosstheIsthmusofPanamaandisakeyconduitforinternationalmaritimetrade. WashingtonConsensus[edit] Mainarticle:WashingtonConsensus AfterthefalloftheSovietUnionandtheendoftheColdWar,U.S.policy-makersdevelopedtheWashingtonConsensus,asetofspecificeconomicpolicyprescriptionsconsideredthestandardreformpackageforcrisis-wrackeddevelopingcountriesbyWashington,D.C.-basedinstitutionssuchastheInternationalMonetaryFund(IMF),thWorldBank,andtheUSDepartmentoftheTreasuryduringthe1980sand1990s. Inrecentyears,severalLatinAmericancountriesledbysocialistorotherleftwinggovernments –includingArgentinaandVenezuela –havecampaignedfor,andtosomedegreeadopted,policiescontrarytotheWashingtonConsensus.OtherLatincountrieswithgovernmentsoftheleft,includingBrazil,Mexico,ChileandPeru,haveinpracticeadoptedthebulkofthepolicies.AlsocriticalofthepoliciespromotedbytheInternationalMonetaryFundhavebeensomeUSeconomists,suchasJosephStiglitzandDaniRodrik,whohavechallengedwhataresometimesdescribedasthefundamentalistpoliciesoftheInternationalMonetaryFundandtheUSTreasuryforwhatStiglitzcalledaonesizefitsalltreatmentofindividualeconomies. Thetermhasbecomeassociatedwithneoliberalpoliciesingeneralanddrawnintothebroaderdebateovertheexpandingroleofthefreemarket,constraintsuponthestate,andUSinfluenceonothercountries'nationalsovereignty. Thispolitico-economicalinitiativewasinstitutionalizedinNorthAmericabythe1994NAFTA,andelsewhereintheAmericasthroughaseriesoflikeagreements.ThecomprehensiveFreeTradeAreaoftheAmericasproject,however,wasrejectedbymostSouthAmericancountriesatthe4thSummitoftheAmericasin2005. Returnofsocialmovements[edit] In1982,Mexicoannouncedthatitcouldnotmeetitsforeigndebtpaymentobligations,inauguratingadebtcrisisthatwould"discredit"LatinAmericaneconomiesthroughoutthedecade.[143]Thisdebtcrisiswouldleadtoneoliberalreformsthatwouldinstigatemanysocialmovementsintheregion.A"reversalofdevelopment"reignedoverLatinAmerica,seenthroughnegativeeconomicgrowth,declinesinindustrialproduction,andthus,fallinglivingstandardsforthemiddleandlowerclasses.[144]Governmentsmadefinancialsecuritytheirprimarypolicygoaloversocialsecurity,enactingnewneoliberaleconomicpoliciesthatimplementedprivatizationofpreviouslynationalindustriesandtheinformalsectoroflabor.[143]Inanefforttobringmoreinvestorstotheseindustries,thesegovernmentsalsoembracedglobalizationthroughmoreopeninteractionswiththeinternationaleconomy. Significantly,asdemocracyre-emergedacrossmuchofLatinAmericaandtherealmofthestatebecamemoreinclusive(atrendthatprovedconducivetosocialmovements),economicventuresremainedexclusivetoafewelitegroupswithinsociety.Neoliberalrestructuringconsistentlyredistributedincomeupward,whiledenyingpoliticalresponsibilitytoprovidesocialwelfarerights,anddevelopmentprojectsthroughouttheregionincreasedbothinequalityandpoverty.[143]Feelingexcludedfromthesenewprojects,thelowerclassestookownershipoftheirowndemocracythrougharevitalizationofsocialmovementsinLatinAmerica. Bothurbanandruralpopulationshadseriousgrievancesasaresultofeconomicandglobaltrendsandvoicedtheminmassdemonstrations.Someofthelargestandmostviolenthavebeenprotestsagainstcutsinurbanservices,suchastheCaracazoinVenezuelaandtheArgentinazoinArgentina.[145]In2000,theCochabambaWaterWarinBoliviasawmajorprotestsagainstaWorldBank-fundedprojectthatwouldhavebroughtpotablewatertothecity,butatapricethatnoresidentscouldafford.[146]ThetitleoftheOscarnominatedfilmEventheRainalludestothefactthatCochabambaresidentscouldnolongerlegallycollectrainwater;thefilmdepictstheprotestmovement. ComandantaRamonaoftheZapatistaArmyofNationalLiberation,Mexico Ruralmovementsmadedemandsrelatedtounequallanddistribution,displacementatthehandsofdevelopmentprojectsanddams,environmentalandIndigenousconcerns,neoliberalagriculturalrestructuring,andinsufficientmeansoflivelihood.InBolivia,cocaworkersorganizedintoaunion,andEvoMorales,ethnicallyanAymara,becameitshead.ThecocalerossupportedthestrugglesintheCochabambawaterwar.Therural-urbancoalitionbecameapoliticalparty,MovementforSocialism(Bolivia)(MAS),whichdecisivelywonthe2005presidentialelection,makingEvoMoralesthefirstIndigenouspresidentofBolivia.Adocumentaryofthecampaign,Cocalero,showshowtheysuccessfullyorganized.[147] AnumberofmovementshavebenefitedconsiderablyfromtransnationalsupportfromconservationistsandINGOs.TheMovementofRuralLandlessWorkers(MST)inBrazilforexampleisanimportantcontemporaryLatinAmericansocialmovement.[145] Indigenousmovementsaccountforalargeportionofruralsocialmovements,including,inMexico,theZapatistarebellionandthebroadIndigenousmovementinGuerrero,[148]AlsoimportantaretheConfederationofIndigenousNationalitiesofEcuador(CONAIE)andIndigenousorganizationsintheAmazonregionofEcuadorandBolivia,pan-MayancommunitiesinGuatemala,andmobilizationbytheIndigenousgroupsofYanomamipeoplesintheAmazon,KunapeoplesinPanama,andAltiplanoAymaraandQuechuapeoplesinBolivia.[145] Othersignificanttypesofsocialmovementsincludelaborstrugglesandstrikes,suchasrecoveredfactoriesinArgentina. InArgentinainthewakeofthestateterrorism,agender-basedmovement,theMothersofthePlazadeMayoaroseinArgentina.Protestsagainstmaquilaproductionhavetakenplace;ithasbeenseenlargelyasawomen'sissuebecauseassemblyplantsdrawonwomenforcheaplabor.[145] Turntotheleft[edit] Seealso:Pinktide UNASURsummitinthePalaciodelaMoneda,SantiagodeChile Inmanycountriesintheearly2000s,left-wingpoliticalpartiesrosetopower.ThepresidenciesofHugoChávez(1999–2013)inVenezuela,RicardoLagosandMichelleBacheletinChile,LuladaSilvaandDilmaRousseffoftheWorkersParty(PT)inBrazil,NéstorKirchnerandhiswifeCristinaFernándezinArgentina,TabaréVázquezandJoséMujicainUruguay,EvoMoralesinBolivia,DanielOrtegainNicaragua,RafaelCorreainEcuador,FernandoLugoinParaguay,ManuelZelayainHonduras(removedfrompowerbyacoupd'état),MauricioFunesandSalvadorSánchezCeréninElSalvadorareallpartofthiswaveofleft-wingpoliticianswhooftendeclarethemselvessocialists,LatinAmericanists,oranti-imperialists,oftenimplyingoppositiontoUSpoliciestowardstheregion).Anaspectofthishasbeenthecreationoftheeight-memberALBAalliance,or"TheBolivarianAllianceforthePeoplesofOurAmerica"(Spanish:AlianzaBolivarianaparalosPueblosdeNuestraAmérica)bysomeofthesecountries. ByJune2014,Honduras(JuanOrlandoHernández),Guatemala(OttoPérezMolina),andPanama(RicardoMartinelli)hadright-winggovernments,however. Conservativewave[edit] Mainarticle:Conservativewave Hondurandemonstratorholdingabannerwitha"don'tturnleft"sign,2009. Followingthepinktide,theconservativewavesweptacrossthecontinent.Severalright-wingleadersrosetopower,includingArgentina'sMauricioMacriandBrazil'sMichelTemer,followingtheimpeachmentofthecountry'sfirstfemalepresident.InChile,theconservativeSebastiánPiñerasucceededthesocialistMichelleBacheletin2017.[149] The2000scommoditiesboomcausedpositiveeffectsformanyLatinAmericaneconomies.AnothertrendistherapidlyincreasingimportanceoftherelationswithChina.[150] Withtheendofthecommodityboominthe2010s,economicstagnationorrecessionresultedinsomecountries.Asaresult,theleft-winggovernmentsofthePinkTidelostsupport.Theworst-hitwasVenezuela,whichisfacingseveresocialandeconomicupheaval. ThecorruptionscandalofOdebrecht,aBrazilianconglomerate,hasraisedallegationsofcorruptionacrosstheregion'sgovernments(seeOperationCarWash).ThisbriberyringhasbecomethelargestcorruptionscandalinLatinAmericanhistory.[151]AsofJuly2017,thehighestrankingpoliticianschargedwereformerBrazilianPresidentLuizInácioLuladaSilva,whowasarrested,[152]andformerPeruvianpresidentsOllantaHumala,alsoarrested,andAlejandroToledo,whofledtotheUnitedStatesandisnowafugitive.[153] TheCOVID-19pandemicprovedapoliticalchallengeformanyunstableLatinAmericandemocracies,withscholarsidentifyingadeclineincivillibertiesasaresultofopportunisticemergencypowers.Thiswasespeciallytrueforcountrieswithstrongpresidentialregimes,suchasBrazil.[154] Inequality[edit] Mainarticle:WealthinequalityinLatinAmerica WealthinequalityinLatinAmericaandtheCaribbeanremainsaseriousissuedespitestrongeconomicgrowthandimprovedsocialindicators.Areportreleasedin2013bytheUNDepartmentofEconomicandSocialAffairsentitledInequalityMatters.ReportoftheWorldSocialSituation,observedthat:‘Declinesinthewagesharehavebeenattributedtotheimpactoflabour-savingtechnologicalchangeandtoageneralweakeningoflabourmarketregulationsandinstitutions.’[155]Suchdeclinesarelikelytodisproportionatelyaffectindividualsinthemiddleandbottomoftheincomedistribution,sincetheyrelymostlyonwagesforincome.Inaddition,thereportnotedthat‘highly-unequallanddistributionhascreatedsocialandpoliticaltensionsandisasourceofeconomicinefficiency,assmalllandholdersfrequentlylackaccesstocreditandotherresourcestoincreaseproductivity,whilebigownersmaynothavehadenoughincentivetodoso.[155][156] AccordingtotheUnitedNationsECLAC,LatinAmericaisthemostunequalregionintheworld.[157]InequalityinLatinAmericahasdeephistoricalrootsintheLatinEuropeanraciallybasedCastasystem[158][159][160][161][162][163][164]institutedinLatinAmericaincolonialtimesthathavebeendifficulttoeradicatesincethedifferencesbetweeninitialendowmentsandopportunitiesamongsocialgroupshaveconstrainedthepoorest'ssocialmobility,thuscausingpovertytotransmitfromgenerationtogeneration,andbecomeaviciouscycle.HighinequalityisrootedinthedeepestexclusionaryinstitutionsoftheCastasystem[165][166][167]thathavebeenperpetuatedeversincecolonialtimesandthathavesurviveddifferentpoliticalandeconomicregimes.InequalityhasbeenreproducedandtransmittedthroughgenerationsbecauseLatinAmericanpoliticalsystemsallowadifferentiatedaccessontheinfluencethatsocialgroupshaveinthedecision-makingprocess,anditrespondsindifferentwaystotheleastfavoredgroupsthathavelesspoliticalrepresentationandcapacityofpressure.[168]Recenteconomicliberalisationalsoplaysaroleasnoteveryoneisequallycapableoftakingadvantageofitsbenefits.[169]Differencesinopportunitiesandendowmentstendtobebasedonrace,ethnicity,ruralityandgender.Becauseinequalityingenderandlocationarenear-universal,raceandethnicityplayalarger,moreintegralroleindiscriminatorypracticesinLatinAmerica.Thesedifferenceshaveastrongimpactonthedistributionofincome,capitalandpoliticalstanding. Standardofliving[edit] LatinAmericahasthehighestlevelsofincomeinequalityintheworld.[170]ThefollowingtablelistsallthecountriesinLatinAmericaindicatingavaluationofthecountry'sHumanDevelopmentIndex,GDPatpurchasingpowerparitypercapita,measurementofinequalitythroughtheGiniindex,measurementofpovertythroughtheHumanPovertyIndex,ameasureofextremepovertybasedonpeoplelivingonlessthan1.25dollarsaday,lifeexpectancy,murderratesandameasurementofsafetythroughtheGlobalPeaceIndex.Greencellsindicatethebestperformanceineachcategory,andredthelowest. SocialandeconomicindicatorsforLatinAmericancountries Country HDI(2019)[171] GDP(PPP)percapitainUS$(2015)[172] RealGDPgrowth %(2015) IncomeinequalityGini(2015)[173] Extremepoverty %<1.25US$(2011)[174] Youthliteracy %(2015)[175] Lifeexpectancy(2016)[176] Murderrateper100,000(2014)[177] PeaceGPI(2016)[178]  Argentina 0.845(VH) 20,170 2.6 43.6 0.9 99.2 78 6 1.957  Bolivia 0.765(H) 6,421 4.1 46.6 14.0 99.4 70 12(2012) 2.038  Brazil 0.765(H) 15,690 −3.0 52.7 0.9 97.5 70 29 2.176  Chile 0.851(VH) 25,564 2.3 50.8 0.8 98.9 79 4 1.635[178]  Colombia 0.767(H) 13,794 2.5 52.2[179] 8.2 98.2 76 28 2.764  CostaRica 0.810(VH) 15,318 3.0 48.6 0.7 98.3 79 10 1.699  Cuba 0.783(H) N/A N/A N/A N/A 100.0 79 2.057  DominicanRepublic 0.756(H) 15,777 5.5 45.7 4.3 97.0 78 17 2.143  Ecuador 0.759(H) 11,168 −0.6 46.6 5.1 98.7 77 8 2.020  ElSalvador 0.673(M) 8,293 2.3 41.8 15.1 96.0 75 64 2.237  Guatemala 0.663(M) 7,721 3.8 52.4 16.9 87.4 72 31 2.270  Haiti 0.510(L) 1,794 2.5 59.2 54.9 72.3 64 10(2012) 2.066  Honduras 0.634(M) 4,861 3.5 57.4 23.3 95.9 71 75 2.237  Mexico 0.779(H) 18,335 2.3 48.1 8.4 98.5 77 16 2.557  Nicaragua 0.660(M) 4,972 4.0 45.7 15.8 87.0 73 8(2019)[180] 1.975  Panama 0.815(VH) 20,512 6.0 51.9 9.5 97.6 79 18(2012) 1.837  Paraguay 0.728(H) 8,671 3.0 48.0 5.1 98.6 77 9 2.037  Peru 0.777(H) 12,077 2.4 45.3 5.9 97.4 74 7 2.057  Uruguay 0.817(VH) 21,719 2.5 41.3 0.0 98.8 77 8 1.726  Venezuela 0.711(H) 15,892 −10.0 44.8 3.5 98.5 75 62 2.651 Demographics[edit] Furtherinformation:LatinAmericans Seealso:DemographicsofSouthAmerica HistoricalpopulationsYearPop.±%175016,000,000—    180024,000,000+50.0%185038,000,000+58.3%190074,000,000+94.7%1950167,000,000+125.7%1999511,000,000+206.0%2013603,191,486+18.0%Source:"UNreport2004data"(PDF) Largestcities[edit] Urbanizationacceleratedstartinginthemid-twentiethcentury,especiallyincapitalcities,orinthecaseofBrazil,traditionaleconomicandpoliticalhubsfoundedinthecolonialera.InMexico,therapidgrowthandmodernizationincountry'snorthhasseenthegrowthofMonterrey,inNuevoLeón.ThefollowingisalistofthetenlargestmetropolitanareasinLatinAmerica.[5] City Country 2017population 2014GDP(PPP,$million,USD) 2014GDPpercapita,(USD) MexicoCity Mexico 23,655,355 $403,561 $19,239 SãoPaulo Brazil 23,467,354 $430,510 $20,650 BuenosAires Argentina 15,564,354 $315,885 $23,606 RiodeJaneiro Brazil 14,440,345 $176,630 $14,176 Lima Peru 10,804,609 $176,447 $16,530 Bogotá Colombia 9,900,800 $199,150 $19,497 Santiago Chile 7,164,400 $171,436 $23,290 BeloHorizonte Brazil 6,145,800 $95,686 $17,635 Guadalajara Mexico 4,687,700 $80,656 $17,206 Monterrey Mexico 4,344,200 $122,896 $28,290 Raceandethnicity[edit] Mainarticles:EthnicgroupsinLatinAmericaandRaceandethnicityinLatinAmerica Eighteenth-centuryMexicanCastapaintingshowing16castashierarchicallyarranged.IgnacioMariaBarreda,1777.RealAcademiaEspañoladelaLengua,Madrid. LatinAmericanpopulationsarediverse,withdescendantsoftheIndigenouspeoples,Europeanwhites,Africansinitiallybroughtasslaves,andAsians,aswellasnewimmigrants.MixingofgroupswasafactoflifeatcontactoftheOldWorldandtheNew,butcolonialregimesestablishedlegalandsocialdiscriminationagainstnon-whitepopulationssimplyonthebasisofperceivedethnicityandskincolor.Socialclasswasusuallylinkedtoaperson'sracialcategory,withwhitesontop.Duringthecolonialera,withadearthinitiallyofEuropeanwomen,EuropeanmenandIndigenouswomenandAfricanwomenproducedwhatwereconsideredmixed-racechildren.InSpanishAmerica,theso-calledSociedaddecastasorSistemadecastaswasconstructedbywhiteelitestotrytorationalizetheprocessesatwork.InthesixteenthcenturytheSpanishcrownsoughttoprotectIndigenouspopulationsfromexploitationbywhiteelitesfortheirlaborandland.ThecrowncreatedtheRepúblicadeindios [es]topaternalisticallygovernandprotectIndigenouspeoples.ItalsocreatedtheRepúblicadeEspañoles,whichincludednotonlyEuropeanwhites,butallnon-Indigenouspeoples,suchasblacks,mulattoes,andmixed-racecastaswhowerenotdwellinginIndigenouscommunities.Inthereligioussphere,theIndigenousweredeemedperpetualneophytesintheCatholicfaith,whichmeantIndigenousmenwerenoteligibletobeordainedasCatholicpriests;however,IndigenouswerealsoexcludedfromthejurisdictionoftheInquisition.CatholicssawmilitaryconquestandreligiousconquestastwopartsoftheassimilationofIndigenouspopulations,suppressingIndigenousreligiouspracticesandeliminatingtheIndigenouspriesthood.Someworshipcontinuedunderground.Jewsandothernon-Catholics,suchasProtestants(allcalled"Lutherans")werebannedfromsettlingandweresubjecttotheInquisition.Considerablemixingofpopulationsoccurredincities,whilethecountrysidewaslargelyIndigenous.Atindependenceintheearlynineteenthcentury,inmanyplacesinSpanishAmericaformalracialandlegaldistinctionsdisappeared,althoughblackslaverywasnotuniformlyabolished. LargeblackpopulationsexistinBrazilandSpanishCaribbeanislandssuchasCubaandPuertoRicoandthecircum-Caribbeanmainland(Venezuela,Colombia,Panama),aslongasinthesouthernpartofSouthAmericaandCentralAmerica(Honduras,CostaRica,NicaraguaEcuador,andPeru)alegacyoftheiruseinplantations.Alltheseareashadsmallwhitepopulations.InBrazil,coastalIndigenouspeopleslargelydiedoutintheearlysixteenthcentury,withIndigenouspopulationssurvivingfarfromcities,sugarplantations,andotherEuropeanenterprises. Inthenineteenthcentury,anumberofLatinAmericancountriessoughtimmigrantsfromEuropeandAsia.Withtheabolitionofblackslaveryin1888,theBrazilianmonarchyfellin1889.Bythen,anothersourceofcheaplabortoworkoncoffeeplantationswasfoundinJapan.ChinesemaleimmigrantsarrivedinCuba,Mexico,Peruandelsewhere.WithpoliticalturmoilinEuropeduringthemid-nineteenthcenturyandwidespreadpoverty,Germans,Spaniards,andItaliansimmigratedtoLatinAmericainlargenumbers,welcomedbyLatinAmericangovernmentsbothasasourceoflaboraswellasawaytoincreasethesizeoftheirwhitepopulations.InArgentina,manyAfro-ArgentinesmarriedEuropeans,sothatinmodernArgentinathereisnodiscernibleblackpopulation.[181] Intwentieth-centuryBrazil,sociologistGilbertoFreyreproposedthatBrazilwasa“racialdemocracy,”withlessdiscriminationagainstblacksthanintheU.S.[182]SubsequentresearchhasshownthatBraziliansalsodiscriminateagainstdarkercitizens,andthatwhitesremaintheelitesinthecountry.[183][184]InMexico,theAfro-Mexicanpopulationwaslargelywrittenoutofthenationalnarrativeofindigenismo,andIndigenousandespeciallymestizopopulationswereconsideredthetrueembodimentofMexicanness(mexicanidad),“thecosmicrace”,accordingtoMexicanintellectualJoséVasconcelos.InMexico,therewasconsiderablediscriminationagainstAsians,withcallsfortheexpulsionofChineseinnorthernMexicoduringtheMexicanRevolution(1910-1920)andraciallymotivatedmassacres. InanumberofLatinAmericancountries,IndigenousgroupshaveorganizedexplicitlyasIndigenous,toclaimhumanrightsandinfluencepoliticalpower.Withthepassageofanti-colonialresolutionsintheUnitedNationsGeneralAssemblyandthesigningofresolutionsforIndigenousrights,theIndigenousareabletoacttoguaranteetheirexistencewithinnation-stateswithlegalstanding. Language[edit] LinguisticmapofLatinAmerica.Spanishingreen,Portugueseinorange,andFrenchinblue. SpanishisthepredominantlanguageofLatinAmerica.Itisspokenasfirstlanguagebyabout60%ofthepopulation.Portugueseisspokenbyabout30%,andabout10%speakotherlanguagessuchasQuechua,Mayanlanguages,Guaraní,Aymara,Nahuatl,English,French,DutchandItalian.PortugueseisspokenmostlyinBrazil(BrazilianPortuguese),thebiggestandmostpopulouscountryintheregion.SpanishistheofficiallanguageofmostoftheothercountriesandterritoriesontheLatinAmericanmainland(SpanishlanguageintheAmericas),aswellasinCubaandPuertoRico(whereitisco-officialwithEnglish),andtheDominicanRepublic.FrenchisspokeninHaitiandintheFrenchoverseasdepartmentsofGuadeloupe,MartiniqueandGuiana.ItisalsospokenbysomePanamaniansofAfro-Antilleandescent.DutchistheofficiallanguageinSuriname,Aruba,Curaçao,andtheNetherlandsAntilles.(AsDutchisaGermaniclanguage,theseterritoriesarenotnecessarilyconsideredpartofLatinAmerica.)However,thenativelanguageofAruba,BonaireandCuraçao,isPapiamento,acreolelanguagelargelybasedonPortugueseandSpanishthathashadaconsiderableinfluencefromDutchlanguageandthePortuguese-basedcreolelanguages. Quechua,Guaraní,Aymara,Náhuatl,LenguasMayas,Mapudungun AmerindianlanguagesarewidelyspokeninPeru,Guatemala,Bolivia,ParaguayandMexico,andtoalesserdegree,inPanama,Ecuador,Brazil,Colombia,Venezuela,Argentina,andChile.InotherLatinAmericancountries,thepopulationofspeakersofIndigenouslanguagestendtobeverysmallorevennon-existent,forexampleinUruguay.MexicoispossiblycontainsmoreIndigenouslanguagesthananyotherLatinAmericancountry,butthemostspokenlanguagethereisNahuatl. InPeru,Quechuaisanofficiallanguage,alongsideSpanishandotherIndigenouslanguagesintheareaswheretheypredominate.InEcuador,whileQuichuaholdsnoofficialstatus,itisarecognizedlanguageunderthecountry'sconstitution;however,itisonlyspokenbyafewgroupsinthecountry'shighlands.InBolivia,Aymara,QuechuaandGuaraníholdofficialstatusalongsideSpanish.Guaraní,likeSpanish,isanofficiallanguageofParaguay,andisspokenbyamajorityofthepopulation,whichis,forthemostpart,bilingual,anditisco-officialwithSpanishintheArgentineprovinceofCorrientes.InNicaragua,Spanishistheofficiallanguage,butonthecountry'sCaribbeancoastEnglishandIndigenouslanguagessuchasMiskito,Sumo,andRamaalsoholdofficialstatus.ColombiarecognizesallIndigenouslanguagesspokenwithinitsterritoryasofficial,thoughfewerthan1%ofitspopulationarenativespeakersoftheselanguages.Nahuatlisoneofthe62NativelanguagesspokenbyIndigenouspeopleinMexico,whichareofficiallyrecognizedbythegovernmentas"nationallanguages"alongwithSpanish. OtherEuropeanlanguagesspokeninLatinAmericainclude:English,byhalfofthecurrentpopulationinPuertoRico,aswellasinnearbycountriesthatmayormaynotbeconsideredLatinAmerican,likeBelizeandGuyana,andspokenbydescendantsofBritishsettlersinArgentinaandChile.GermanisspokeninsouthernBrazil,southernChile,portionsofArgentina,VenezuelaandParaguay,ItalianinBrazil,Argentina,Venezuela,andUruguay,Ukrainian,PolishandRussianinsouthernBrazilandArgentina,andWelsh,insouthernArgentina.[185][186][187][188][189][190] YiddishandHebrewarepossibletobeheardaroundBuenosAiresandSãoPauloespecially.[191]Non-EuropeanorAsianlanguagesincludeJapaneseinBrazil,Peru,Bolivia,andParaguay,KoreaninBrazil,Argentina,Paraguay,andChile,ArabicinArgentina,Brazil,Colombia,Venezuela,andChile,andChinesethroughoutSouthAmerica.CountrieslikeVenezuela,ArgentinaandBrazilhavetheirowndialectsorvariationsofGermanandItalian. Inseveralnations,especiallyintheCaribbeanregion,creolelanguagesarespoken.ThemostwidelyspokencreolelanguageinLatinAmericaandtheCaribbeanisHaitianCreole,thepredominantlanguageofHaiti,derivedprimarilyfromFrenchandcertainWestAfricantongueswithAmerindian,English,PortugueseandSpanishinfluencesaswell.CreolelanguagesofmainlandLatinAmerica,similarly,arederivedfromEuropeanlanguagesandvariousAfricantongues. TheGarifunalanguageisspokenalongtheCaribbeancoastinHonduras,Guatemala,NicaraguaandBelize,mostlybytheGarifunapeople,oamixedraceZambopeoplewhoweretheresultofmixingbetweenIndigenousCaribbeansandescapedBlackslaves.PrimarilyanArawakanlanguage,ithasinfluencesfromCaribbeanandEuropeanlanguages. Archaeologistshavedecipheredover15pre-ColumbiandistinctwritingsystemsfromMesoamericansocieties.AncientMayahadthemostsophisticatedtextuallywrittenlanguage,butsincetextswerelargelyconfinedtothereligiousandadministrativeelite,traditionswerepasseddownorally.OraltraditionsalsoprevailedinothermajorIndigenousgroupsincluding,butnotlimitedtotheAztecsandotherNahuatlspeakers,QuechuaandAymaraoftheAndeanregions,theQuichéofCentralAmerica,theTupi-Guaraníintoday'sBrazil,theGuaraníinParaguayandtheMapucheinChile.[192] Religion[edit] Mainarticle:ReligioninLatinAmerica TheLasLajasSanctuaryinthesouthernColombia,DepartmentofNariño. ThevastmajorityofLatinAmericansareChristians(90%),[193]mostlyRomanCatholicsbelongingtotheLatinChurch.[194]About70%oftheLatinAmericanpopulationconsidersitselfCatholic.[195]In2012LatinAmericaconstitutesinabsolutetermsthesecondworld'slargestChristianpopulation,afterEurope.[196] AccordingtothedetailedPewmulti-countrysurveyin2014,69%oftheLatinAmericanpopulationisCatholicand19%isProtestant.Protestantsare26%inBrazilandover40%inmuchofCentralAmerica.MorethanhalfoftheseareconvertsfromRomanCatholicism.[197][198] ReligioninLatinAmerica(2014)[198] Country Catholic(%) Protestant(%) Irreligion(%) Other(%) Paraguay 89 7 1 2 Mexico 81 9 7 4 Colombia 79 13 6 2 Ecuador 79 13 5 3 Bolivia 77 16 4 3 Peru 76 17 4 3 Venezuela 73 17 7 4 Argentina 71 15 12 3 Panama 70 19 7 4 Chile 64 17 16 3 CostaRica 62 25 9 4 Brazil 61 26 8 5 DominicanRepublic 57 23 18 2 PuertoRico 56 33 8 2 ElSalvador 50 36 12 3 Guatemala 50 41 6 3 Nicaragua 50 40 7 4 Honduras 46 41 10 2 Uruguay 42 15 37 6 Total 69 19 8 3 Migration[edit] TheentirehemispherewassettledbymigrantsfromAsia,Europe,andAfrica,somigrationisnotanewphenomenon.NativeAmericanpopulationssettledthroughoutthehemispherebeforethearrivalofEuropeansinthelatefifteenthandsixteenthcenturies,andtheforcedmigrationofslavesfromAfrica. Inthepost-independenceperiod,anumberofLatinAmericancountriessoughttoattractEuropeanimmigrantsasasourceoflaboraswellastodeliberatelychangetheproportionsofracialandethnicgroupswithintheirborders.Chile,Argentina,andBrazilactivelyrecruitedlaborfromCatholicsouthernEurope,wherepopulationswerepoorandsoughtbettereconomicopportunities.Manynineteenth-centuryimmigrantswenttotheUnitedStatesandCanada,butasignificantnumberarrivedinLatinAmerica.AlthoughMexicotriedtoattractimmigrants,itlargelyfailed.[199]AsblackslaverywasabolishedinBrazilin1888,coffeegrowersrecruitedJapanesemigrantstoworkincoffeeplantations.ThereisasignificantpopulationofJapanesedescentinBrazil.CubaandPerurecruitedChineselaborinthelatenineteenthcentury.SomeChineseimmigrantswhowereexcludedfromimmigratingtotheU.S.settledinnorthernMexico.WhentheU.S.acquireditssouthwestbyconquestintheMexicanAmericanWar,LatinAmericanpopulationsdidnotcrossthebordertotheU.S.,thebordercrossedthem. Inthetwentiethcenturytherehavebeenseveraltypesofmigration.Oneisthemovementofruralpopulationswithinagivencountrytocitiesinsearchofwork,causingmanyLatinAmericancitiestogrowsignificantly.Anotherisinternationalmovementofpopulations,oftenfleeingrepressionorwar.Otherinternationalmigrationisforeconomicreasons,oftenunregulatedorundocumented.MexicansimmigratedtotheU.S.duringtheviolenceoftheMexicanRevolution(1910-1920)[200]andthereligiousCristeroWar(1926–29);[201]duringWorldWarII,MexicanmenworkedintheU.S.inthebraceroprogram.EconomicmigrationfromMexicofollowedthecrashoftheMexicaneconomyinthe1980s.[202] SpanishrefugeesfledtoMexicofollowingthefascistvictoryintheSpanishCivilWar(1936–38),withsome50,000exilesfindingrefugeattheinvitationofPresidentLázaroCárdenas.[203]FollowingWorldWarIIalargerwaveofrefugeestoLatinAmerica,manyofthemJews,settledinArgentina,Brazil,Chile,Cuba,andVenezuela.Somewereonlytransitingthroughtheregion,butothersstayedandcreatedcommunities.[204]AnumberofNazisescapedtoLatinAmerica,livingunderassumednames,inanattemptingtoavoidattentionandprosecution. IntheaftermathoftheCubanRevolution,middleclassandeliteCubansmovedtotheU.S.,particularlytoFlorida.SomefledChilefortheU.S.andEuropeafterthe1973militarycoup.[205]ColombiansmigratedtoSpainandtheUnitedKingdomduringtheregion'spoliticalturmoil,compoundedbytheriseofnarcotraffickingandguerrillawarfare.[206]DuringtheCentralAmericanwarsofthe1970stothe1990s,manySalvadorans,Guatemalans,andHonduransmigratedtotheU.S.toescapenarcotrafficking,gangs,andpoverty.AslivingconditionsdeterioratedinVenezuelaunderHugoChávezandNicolásMaduro,manyleftforneighboringColombiaandelsewhere.Inthei990s,economicstressinEcuadortriggeredconsiderablemigrationtoSpainandtotheU.S.[207] SomeLatinAmericancountriesseektostrengthenlinksbetweenmigrantsandtheirstatesoforigin,whilepromotingtheirintegrationinthereceivingstate.Theseemigrantpoliciesfocusontherights,obligationsandopportunitiesforparticipationofemigratedcitizenswhoalreadyliveoutsidethebordersofthecountryoforigin.ResearchonLatinAmericashowsthattheextensionofpoliciestowardsmigrantsislinkedtoafocusoncivilrightsandstatebenefitsthatcanpositivelyinfluenceintegrationinrecipientcountries.Inaddition,thetoleranceofdualcitizenshiphasspreadmoreinLatinAmericathaninanyotherregionoftheworld.[208] Education[edit] Seealso:EducationinLatinAmerica Worldmapindicatingliteracyratebycountryin2015(2015CIAWorldFactbook).Grey=nodata. Despitesignificantprogress,educationaccessandschoolcompletionremainsunequalinLatinAmerica.Theregionhasmadegreatprogressineducationalcoverage;almostallchildrenattendprimaryschoolandaccesstosecondaryeducationhasincreasedconsiderably.Qualityissuessuchaspoorteachingmethods,lackofappropriateequipmentandovercrowdingexistthroughouttheregion.Theseissuesleadtoadolescentsdroppingoutoftheeducationalsystemearly.[209]Mosteducationalsystemsintheregionhaveimplementedvarioustypesofadministrativeandinstitutionalreformsthathaveenabledreachforplacesandcommunitiesthathadnoaccesstoeducationservicesintheearly1990s.Comparedtopriorgenerations,LatinAmericanyouthhaveseenanincreaseintheirlevelsofeducation.Onaverage,theyhavecompletedtwomoreyearsofschoolthantheirparents.[209] However,therearestill23 millionchildrenintheregionbetweentheagesof4and17outsideoftheformaleducationsystem.Estimatesindicatethat30%ofpreschoolagechildren(ages4–5)donotattendschool,andforthemostvulnerablepopulations,thepoorandrural,thisproportionexceeds40percent.Amongprimaryschoolagechildren(ages6to12),attendanceisalmostuniversal;howeverthereisstillaneedtoenrollfivemillionmorechildrenintheprimaryeducationsystem.Thesechildrenmostlyliveinremoteareas,areIndigenousorAfro-descendantsandliveinextremepoverty.[210] Amongpeoplebetweentheagesof13and17years,only80%arefull-timestudents,andonly66%oftheseadvancetosecondaryschool.Thesepercentagesareloweramongvulnerablepopulationgroups:only75%ofthepoorestyouthbetweentheagesof13and17yearsattendschool.Tertiaryeducationhasthelowestcoverage,withonly70%ofpeoplebetweentheagesof18and25yearsoutsideoftheeducationsystem.Currently,morethanhalfoflowincomeorruralchildrenfailtocompletenineyearsofeducation.[210] Crimeandviolence[edit] Mainarticle:CrimeandviolenceinLatinAmerica 2012mapofcountriesbyhomiciderate.Asof2015,theLatinAmericancountrieswiththehighestrateswereElSalvador(108.64per100,000people),Honduras(63.75)andVenezuela(57.15).ThecountrieswiththelowestrateswereChile(3.59),Cuba(4.72)andArgentina(6.53). LatinAmericaandtheCaribbeanhavebeencitedbynumeroussourcestobethemostdangerousregionsintheworld.[211][212]StudieshaveshownthatLatinAmericacontainsthemajorityoftheworld'smostdangerouscities.Manyanalysts[who?]attributethistosocialandincomeinequalityintheregion.[213]Manyagreethattheprisoncrisis[clarificationneeded]willnotberesolveduntilthegapbetweentherichandthepoorisaddressed. CrimeandviolencepreventionandpublicsecurityarenowimportantissuesforgovernmentsandcitizensinLatinAmericaandtheCaribbeanregion.HomicideratesinLatinAmericaarethehighestintheworld.Fromtheearly1980sthroughthemid-1990s,homicideratesincreasedby50percent.LatinAmericaandtheCaribbeanexperiencedmorethan2.5 millionmurdersbetween2000and2017.[214]Therewereatotalof63,880murdersinBrazilin2018.[215] Themostfrequentvictimsofsuchhomicidesareyoungmen,69percentofthembetweentheagesof15and19.Countrieswiththehighesthomiciderateperyearper100,000inhabitantsin2015were:ElSalvador109,Honduras64,Venezuela57,Jamaica43,Belize34.4,St.KittsandNevis34,Guatemala34,TrinidadandTobago31,theBahamas30,Brazil26.7,Colombia26.5,theDominicanRepublic22,St.Lucia22,Guyana19,Mexico16,PuertoRico16,Ecuador13,Grenada13,CostaRica12,Bolivia12,Nicaragua12,Panama11,AntiguaandBarbuda11,andHaiti10.[216]MostofthecountrieswiththehighesthomicideratesareinAfricaandLatinAmerica.CountriesinCentralAmerica,likeElSalvadorandHonduras,topthelistofhomicidesintheworld.[217] Brazilhasmoreoverallhomicidesthananycountryintheworld,at50,108,accountingforonein10globally.Crime-relatedviolenceisthebiggestthreattopublichealthinLatinAmerica,strikingmorevictimsthanHIV/AIDSoranyotherinfectiousdisease.[218]Countrieswiththelowesthomiciderateperyearper100,000inhabitantsasof2015were:Chile3,Peru7,Argentina7,Uruguay8andParaguay9.[216][219] Publichealth[edit] Water[edit] ThissectionisanexcerptfromWatersupplyandsanitationinLatinAmerica.[edit] WatersupplyandsanitationinLatinAmericaischaracterizedbyinsufficientaccessandinmanycasesbypoorservicequality,withdetrimentalimpactsonpublichealth.[citationneeded]Waterandsanitationservicesareprovidedbyavastarrayofmostlylocalserviceprovidersunderanoftenfragmentedpolicyandregulatoryframework.Financingofwaterandsanitationremainsaseriouschallenge. Reproductiverights[edit] ThissectionisanexcerptfromReproductiverightsinLatinAmerica.[edit] Thisarticleneedsadditionalcitationsforverification.Pleasehelpimprovethisarticlebyaddingcitationstoreliablesources.Unsourcedmaterialmaybechallengedandremoved.Findsources: "LatinAmerica" – news ·newspapers ·books ·scholar ·JSTOR(December2020)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) Asof2020,LatinAmericaisapredominantlySpanish-PortuguesespeakingandpredominantlyRomanCatholicregion WhilefeministmovementsbecameprevalentinEuropeandNorthAmericainthe1960sand1970s,thewomenofLatinAmericaweregatheringtoopposedictatorshipsandcivilwars.[220]Asdemocracybegantospreadacrosstheregion,feministmovementsgraduallybegantopushformorereproductiverights. Inthe1990s,manyofthegroupsthatmadeupthewomen'smovementbegantoevolveinordertoadapttoachangingpoliticalclimate.Thesegroupsfocusedonspecificpolicyissues,suchasabortion,andwerenotcomposedexclusivelyofcivilsocietyactors.Duringthissametimeperiod,anti-abortionactivismwasalsobeginningtogainmomentum.TheVaticanreplacedhundredsofprogressiveclergyandsummarilyrepresseddiscussionsofreproductiveissues.GroupscontinuingtofightforlegalabortionacrosstheregionhavefacedastrongresistancefromtheCatholicchurchaswellasthereligiousrightintheUnitedStates.Althoughamajorityofcountrieswithintheregionareofficiallysecular,thechurchcontinuestohaveanextensiveinfluencewithintheregionduetoLatinAmericabeingthelargestCatholicregionintheworld.ThereligiousrightintheUnitedStatesholdssubstantialcloutoverthepoliticalrightinitsowncountry,whichhasresultedintheUnitedStatesbanningfederalfundingforinternationalNGOs.[221]ConsiderablydamagingtogroupsinLatinAmericawasRonaldReagan's1984GlobalGagRulewhichprohibitedinternationalorganizationsreceivingUSfederalfundsfromperformingorpromotingabortionasamethodoffamilyplanning. LatinAmericaishometosomeofthefewcountriesoftheworldwithacompletebanonabortion,withoutanexceptionforsavingmaternallife.[222] HIV/AIDS[edit] ThissectionisanexcerptfromHIV/AIDSinLatinAmerica.[edit] HIV/AIDShasbeenapublichealthconcernforLatinAmericaduetoaremainingprevalenceofthedisease.[223]In2018anestimated2.2millionpeoplehadHIVinLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean,makingtheHIVprevalencerateapproximately0.4%inLatinAmerica.[223] SomedemographicgroupsinLatinAmericahavehigherprevalenceratesforHIV/AIDSincludingmenwhohavesexwithmenhavingaprevalencerateof10.6%,andtransgenderwomenhavingoneofthehighestrateswithinthepopulationwithaprevalencerateof17.7%.[224]Femalesexworkersanddrugusersalsohavehigherprevalenceforthediseasethanthegeneralpopulation(4.9%and1%-49.7%respectively).[224] OneaspectthathascontributedtothehigherprevalenceofHIV/AIDSinLGBT+groupsinLatinAmericaistheconceptofhomophobia.[223]HomophobiainLatinAmericahashistoricallyaffectedHIVserviceprovisionthroughunderreporteddataandlessprioritythroughgovernmentprograms.[225] Antiretroviraltreatmentcoveragehasbeenhigh,withAIDSrelateddeathsdecreasingbetween2007to2017by12%,althoughtherateofnewinfectionshasnotseenalargedecrease.[223]ThecostofantiretroviralmedicinesremainabarrierforsomeinLatinAmerica,aswellascountrywideshortagesofmedicinesandcondoms.[226]In201777%ofLatinAmericanswithHIVwereawareoftheirHIVstatus.[226] ThepreventionofHIV/AIDSinLatinAmericaamonggroupswithahigherprevalencesuchasmenwhohavesexwithmenandtransgenderwomen,hasbeenaidedwitheducationaloutreach,condomdistribution,andLGBT+friendlyclinics.[227]Othermainpreventionmethodsincludecondomavailability,educationandoutreach,HIVawareness,andmother-to-childtransmissionprevention.[223] Economy[edit] Mainarticle:LatinAmericaneconomy Size[edit] LatinAmericancitiesMexicoCityBuenosAiresSantiago AccordingtoGoldmanSachs'BRICSreviewofemergingeconomies,by2050thelargesteconomiesintheworldwillbeasfollows:China,UnitedStates,India,Japan,Germany,UnitedKingdom,MexicoandBrazil.[228] PopulationandeconomysizeforLatinAmericancountries Country Population[2][3](2018,millions) GDP(nominal)[229](2019,millionsUS$) GDP(PPP)(2019,millionsUS$)  Argentina 44.4 445,469 903,542  Bolivia 11.4 42,401 94,392  Brazil 209.5 1,847,020 3,456,357  Chile 18.7 294,237 502,846  Colombia 49.7 327,895 783,002  CostaRica 5 61,021 91,611  Cuba 11.3 N/A N/A  DominicanRepublic 10.6 89,475 201,266  Ecuador 17.1 107,914 202,773  ElSalvador 6.4 26,871 55,731  Guatemala 17.2 81,318 153,322  Haiti 11.1 8,819 21,124  Honduras 9.6 24,449 51,757  Mexico 126.2 1,274,175 2,627,851  Nicaragua 6.5 12,528 34,531  Panama 4.2 68,536 113,156  Paraguay 7 40,714 97,163  Peru 32 228,989 478,303  Uruguay 3.4 59,918 82,969  Venezuela 28.9 70,140 N/A Total 577,8 N/A N/A [229] Environment[edit] Seealso:EnvironmentalhistoryofLatinAmerica TheenvironmentofLatinAmericahasbeenchangedbyhumanuseintheexpandingofagriculture,newagriculturaltechnologies,includingtheGreenRevolution,extractionofminerals,growthofcities,andredirectionofriversbytheconstructionofdamsforirrigation,drinkingwater,andhydroelectricpower.Inthetwentiethcentury,thereisagrowingmovementtoprotectnatureandmanygovernmentshavesoughtrecognitionofnaturalsitesbytheUNESCOWorldHeritageSites.Brazil,Mexico,andPerucurrentlyhavethegreatestnumberofnaturalsites.[48] SumideroCanyon,locatedinChiapas,Mexico. Glaucousmacaw(behindhyacinthmacaw)andothermacaws.Macawsarelong-tailed,oftencolorfulNewWorldparrots.[230] EnvironmentalindicatorsforLatinAmericancountries Country Environmentalperformance[231](2012)EPI CO2emissions[232](2009)(tonsofCO2percapita)  Argentina 56.48 4.14  Bolivia 54.57 1.31  Brazil 60.90 1.74  Chile 55.34 3.84  Colombia 62.33 1.33  CostaRica 69.03 1.37  Cuba 56.48 2.40  DominicanRepublic 52.44 1.79  Ecuador 60.55 2.09  ElSalvador 52.08 1.10  Guatemala 51.88 1.03  Haiti 41.15 0.24  Honduras 52.54 0.96  Mexico 49.11 3.72  Nicaragua 59.23 0.73  Panama 57.94 2.10  Paraguay 52.40 0.64  Peru 50.29 1.32  Uruguay 57.06 2.31  Venezuela 55.62 5.45 Agriculture[edit] Mainarticle:AgricultureinLatinAmerica SugarcaneplantationinSãoPaulo.In2018,Brazilwastheworld'slargestproducer,with746milliontons.LatinAmericaproducesmorethanhalfoftheworld'ssugarcane. SoybeanplantationinMatoGrosso.In2020,Brazilwastheworld'slargestproducer,with130milliontons.LatinAmericaproduceshalfoftheworld'ssoybeans. CoffeeinMinasGerais.In2018,Brazilwastheworld'slargestproducer,with3.5 milliontons.LatinAmericaproduceshalfoftheworld'scoffee. OrangesinSãoPaulo.In2018,Brazilwastheworld'slargestproducer,with17milliontons.LatinAmericaproduces30%oftheworld'soranges. ThefourcountrieswiththestrongestagriculturalsectorinSouthAmericaareBrazil,Argentina,ChileandColombia.Currently: Brazilistheworld'slargestproducerofsugarcane,soy,coffee,oranges,guaraná,açaíandBrazilnut;isoneofthetopfiveproducersofmaize,papaya,tobacco,pineapple,banana,cotton,beans,coconut,watermelon,lemonandyerbamate;isoneofthetoptenworldproducersofcocoa,cashew,avocado,tangerine,persimmon,mango,guava,rice,oat,sorghumandtomato;andisoneofthetop15worldproducersofgrapes,apples,melons,peanuts,figs,peaches,onions,palmoilandnaturalrubber; Argentinaistheworld'slargestproducerofyerbamate;isoneofthefivelargestproducersintheworldofsoy,maize,sunflowerseeds,lemonsandpears,oneofthe10largestproducersintheworldofbarley,grapes,artichokes,tobaccoandcotton,andoneofthe15largestproducersintheworldofwheat,oats,chickpeas,sugarcane,sorghumandgrapefruit; Chileisoneofthefivelargestworldproducersofcherriesandcranberries,andoneofthetenlargestworldproducersofgrapes,apples,kiwi,peaches,plumsandhazelnuts,focusingonexportinghigh-valuefruits; Colombiaisoneofthefivelargestproducersintheworldofcoffee,avocadosandpalmoil,andoneofthetenlargestproducersintheworldofsugarcane,bananas,pineapplesandcocoa; Peruistheworld'slargestproducerofquinoa;isoneofthefivelargestproducersofavocados,blueberry,artichokesandasparagus;oneofthetenlargestproducersintheworldofcoffeeandcocoa;oneofthe15largestproducersintheworldofpotatoesandpineapples,andalsohasalargeproductionofgrapes,sugarcane,rice,bananas,maizeandcassava;itsagricultureisconsiderablydiversified; Paraguayiscurrentlythe6thlargestproducerofsoyintheworldandenteringthelistofthe20largestproducersofmaizeandsugarcane.[233] InCentralAmerica,thefollowingstandout: Guatemalaisoneofthetenlargestproducersintheworldofcoffee,sugarcane,melonsandnaturalrubber,andoneoftheworld's15largestproducersofbananasandpalmoil; Hondurasisoneofthefivelargestproducersofcoffeeintheworld,andoneofthetenlargestproducersofpalmoil; CostaRicaistheworld'slargestproducerofpineapples; DominicanRepublicisoneoftheworld'stopfiveproducersofpapayasandavocados,andoneofthetenlargestproducersofcocoa. Mexicoistheworld'slargestproducerofavocados,oneoftheworld'stopfiveproducersofChile,lemons,oranges,mangos,papayas,strawberries,grapefruit,pumpkinsandasparagus,andoneoftheworld's10largestproducersofsugarcane,maize,sorghum,beans,tomatoes,coconuts,pineapple,melonsandblueberries. TruckofameatcompanyinBrazil.LatinAmericaproduces25%oftheworld'sbeefandchickenmeat. Brazilistheworld'slargestexporterofchickenmeat:3.77 milliontonsin2019.[234][235]Thecountryhadthesecondlargestherdofcattleintheworld,22.2%oftheworldherd.Thecountrywasthesecondlargestproducerofbeefin2019,responsiblefor15.4%ofglobalproduction.[236]Itwasalsothethirdlargestworldproducerofmilkin2018.Thisyear[when?],thecountryproduced35.1 billionliters.[237]In2019,Brazilwasthefourthlargestporkproducerintheworld,withalmostfourmilliontons.[238] In2018,Argentinawasthefourthlargestproducerofbeefintheworld,withaproductionof3milliontons(behindonlyUSA,BrazilandChina).Uruguayisalsoamajormeatproducer.In2018,itproduced589thousandtonsofbeef.[239] Intheproductionofchickenmeat,Mexicoisamongthetenlargestproducersintheworld,Argentinaamongthe15largestandPeruandColombiaamongthe20largest.Inbeefproduction,MexicoisoneofthetenlargestproducersintheworldandColombiaisoneofthe20largestproducers.Intheproductionofpork,Mexicoisamongthe15largestproducersintheworld.Intheproductionofhoney,Argentinaisamongthefivelargestproducersintheworld,MexicoamongthetenlargestandBrazilamongthe15largest.Intermsofcow'smilkproduction,Mexicoisamongthe15largestproducersintheworldandArgentinaamongthe20largest.[240] Miningandpetroleum[edit] CerroRico,Potosi,Bolivia,stillamajorsilvermine AmethystmineinAmetistadoSul.LatinAmericaisamajorproducerofgemssuchasamethyst,topaz,emeralds,aquamarineandtourmaline IronmineinMinasGerais.Brazilistheworld'ssecondlargestironoreexporter. MiningisoneofthemostimportanteconomicsectorsinLatinAmerica,especiallyforChile,PeruandBolivia,whoseeconomiesarehighlydependentonthissector.Thecontinenthaslargeproductionsof: gold(mainlyinPeru,Mexico,BrazilandArgentina);[241] silver(mainlyinMexico,Peru,Chile,BoliviaandArgentina);[242] copper(mainlyinChile,Peru,MexicoandBrazil);[243] ironore(Brazil,PeruandChile);[244] zinc(Peru,Mexico,BoliviaandBrazil);[245] molybdenum(Chile,PeruandMexico);[246] lithium(Chile,ArgentinaandBrazil);[247] lead(Peru,MexicoandBolivia);[248] bauxite(BrazilandJamaica);[249] tin(Peru,BoliviaandBrazil);[250] manganese(BrazilandMexico);[251] antimony(Bolivia,Mexico,GuatemalaandEcuador);[252] nickel(Brazil,DominicanRepublicandCuba);[253] niobium(Brazil);[254] rhenium(Chile);[255] iodine(Chile),[256] Brazilstandsoutintheextractionof ironore(whereitisthe2ndlargestproducerandexporterintheworld—ironoreisusuallyoneofthethreeexportproductsthatgeneratethegreatestvalueinthecountry'stradebalance) copper gold bauxite(oneofthefivelargestproducersintheworld) manganese(oneofthefivelargestproducersintheworld) tin(oneofthelargestproducersintheworld) niobium(98%ofknownworldreserves)and nickel Intermsofgemstones,Brazilistheworld'slargestproducerofamethysts,topaz,andagatesandoneofthemainproducersoftourmaline,emeralds,aquamarines,garnetsandopals.[257][258][259][260][261][262] Chilecontributesaboutathirdoftheworld'scopperproduction.[263]Inaddition,Chilewas,in2019,theworld'slargestproducerofiodine[264]andrhenium,[265]thesecondlargestproduceroflithium[266]andmolybdenum,[246]thesixthlargestproducerofsilver,[267]theseventhlargestproducerofsalt,[268]theeighthlargestproducerofpotash,[269]thethirteenth-largestproducerofsulfur[270]andthethirteenthlargestproducerofironore[271]intheworld. In2019,Peruwasthesecondlargestworldproducerofcopper[272]andsilver,[267]8thlargestworldproducerofgold,[273]thirdlargestworldproduceroflead,[248]secondlargestworldproducerofzinc,[274]fourthlargestworldproduceroftin,[275]fifthlargestworldproducerofboron,[276]andfourthlargestworldproducerofmolybdenum.[246] In2019,Boliviawastheeighthlargestworldproducerofsilver;[267]fourthlargestworldproducerofboron;[276]fifthlargestworldproducerofantimony;[277]fifthlargestworldproduceroftin;[275]sixthlargestworldproduceroftungsten;[278]seventhlargestproducerofzinc,[279]andtheeighthlargestproduceroflead.[248][280][281] In2019,Mexicowastheworld'slargestproducerofsilver[267](representingalmost23%ofworldproduction,producingmorethan200millionouncesin2019);[282]ninthlargestproducerofgold,[273]theeighthlargestproducerofcopper,[272]theworld'sfifthlargestproduceroflead,[248]theworld'ssixthlargestproducerofzinc,[274]theworld'sfifthlargestproducerofmolybdenum,[246]theworld'sthirdlargestproducerofmercury,[283]theworld'sfifthlargestproducerofbismuth,[284]theworld's13thlargestproducerofmanganese[285]andthe23rdlargestworldproducerofphosphate.[286]Itisalsotheeighthlargestworldproducerofsalt.[268] In2019,Argentinawasthefourthlargestworldproduceroflithium,[266]theninthlargestworldproducerofsilver,[267]the17thlargestworldproducerofgold[273]andtheseventhlargestworldproducerofboron.[276] Colombiaistheworld'slargestproducerofemeralds.[287]Intheproductionofgold,between2006and2017,thecountryproduced15tonsperyearuntil2007,whenitsproductionincreasedsignificantly,breakingarecordof66.1tonsextractedin2012.In2017,itextracted52.2tons.Thecountryisamongthe25largestgoldproducersintheworld.[288]Intheproductionofsilver,in2017thecountryextracted15,5tons.[289] Intheproductionofoil,Brazilwasthetenthlargestoilproducerintheworldin2019,with2.8 millionbarrelsaday.Mexicowasthetwelfthlargest,with2.1 millionbarrelsaday,Colombiain20thplacewith886thousandbarrelsaday,Venezuelawasthetwenty-firstplace,with877thousandbarrelsaday,Ecuadorin28thwith531thousandbarrelsadayandArgentina.29thwith507thousandbarrelsaday.SinceVenezuelaandEcuadorconsumelittleoilandexportmostoftheirproduction,theyarepartofOPEC.Venezuelahadabigdropinproductionafter2015(whenitproduced2.5 millionbarrelsaday),fallingin2016to2.2 million,in2017to2million,in2018to1.4 millionandin2019to877thousand,duetolackofinvestment.[290] Intheproductionofnaturalgas,in2018,Argentinaproduced1,524bcf(billionsofcubicfeet),Mexicoproduced999,Venezuela946,Brazil877,Bolivia617,Peru451,Colombia379.[291] Intheproductionofcoal,thecontinenthadthreeofthe30largestworldproducersin2018:Colombia(12th),Mexico(24th)andBrazil(27th).[292] Manufacturing[edit] Braskem,thelargestBrazilianchemicalindustry EMS,thelargestBrazilianpharmaceuticalindustry TheWorldBankannuallyliststhetopmanufacturingcountriesbytotalmanufacturingvalue.Accordingtothe2019list: Mexicohadthetwelfthmostvaluableindustryintheworld(US$217.8 billion) Brazilthethirteenthlargest(US$173.6 billion) Venezuelathethirtiethlargest(US$58.2 billion,however,itdependsonoiltoreachthisvalue) Argentinathe31stlargest(US$57.7 billion) Colombiathe46thlargest(US$35.4 billion) Peruthe50thlargest(US$28.7 billion) Chilethe51stlargest(US$28.3 billion).[293] InLatinAmerica,fewcountriesstandoutinindustrialactivity:Brazil,Argentina,Mexicoand,lessprominently,Chile.Begunlate,theindustrializationofthesecountriesreceivedagreatboostfromWorldWarII:thispreventedthecountriesatwarfrombuyingtheproductstheywereusedtoimportingandexportingwhattheyproduced.Atthattime,benefitingfromtheabundantlocalrawmaterial,thelowwagespaidtothelaborforceandacertainspecializationbroughtbyimmigrants,countriessuchasBrazil,MexicoandArgentina,aswellasVenezuela,Chile,ColombiaandPeru,wereabletoimplementimportantindustrialparks.Ingeneral,inthesecountriesthereareindustriesthatrequirelittlecapitalandsimpletechnologyfortheirinstallation,suchasthefoodprocessingandtextileindustries.Thebasicindustries(steel,etc.)alsostandout,aswellasthemetallurgicalandmechanicalindustries. TheindustrialparksofBrazil,Mexico,ArgentinaandChile,however,presentmuchgreaterdiversityandsophistication,producingadvancedtechnologyitems.IntherestofLatinAmericancountries,mainlyinCentralAmerica,theprocessingindustriesofprimaryproductsforexportpredominate. Inthefoodindustry,in2019,Brazilwasthesecondlargestexporterofprocessedfoodsintheworld.[294][295][296]In2016,thecountrywasthesecondlargestproducerofpulpintheworldandtheeighthlargestproducerofpaper.[297][298][299]Inthefootwearindustry,in2019,Brazilrankedfourthamongworldproducers.[300][301][302][303]In2019,thecountrywastheeighthlargestproducerofvehiclesandtheninthlargestproducerofsteelintheworld.[304][305][306]In2018,thechemicalindustryofBrazilwastheeighthlargestintheworld.[307][308][309]Inthetextileindustry,Brazil,althoughitwasamongthefivelargestworldproducersin2013,isverylittleintegratedintoworldtrade.[310]Intheaviationsector,BrazilhasEmbraer,thethirdlargestaircraftmanufacturerintheworld,behindBoeingandAirbus. Infrastructure[edit] PanamaCanalexpansionproject;NewAguaClaralocks(Atlanticside) RodoviadosBandeirantes,Brazil Ruta9/14,inZarate,Argentina GeneralRafaelUrdanetaBridge TransportinLatinAmericaisbasicallycarriedoutusingtheroadmode,themostdevelopedintheregion.Thereisalsoaconsiderableinfrastructureofportsandairports.Therailwayandfluvialsector,althoughithaspotential,isusuallytreatedinasecondaryway. Brazilhasmorethan1.7 millionkmofroads,ofwhich215,000 kmarepaved,andabout14,000 kmaredividedhighways.ThetwomostimportanthighwaysinthecountryareBR-101andBR-116.[311]Argentinahasmorethan600,000 kmofroads,ofwhichabout70,000 kmarepaved,andabout2,500 kmaredividedhighways.ThethreemostimportanthighwaysinthecountryareRoute9,Route7andRoute14.[311]Colombiahasabout210,000 kmofroads,andabout2,300 kmaredividedhighways.[312]Chilehasabout82,000 kmofroads,20,000 kmofwhicharepaved,andabout2,000 kmaredividedhighways.ThemostimportanthighwayinthecountryistheRoute5(Pan-AmericanHighway)[313]These4countriesaretheoneswiththebestroadinfrastructureandwiththelargestnumberofdouble-lanehighways,inSouthAmerica. TheroadwaynetworkinMexicohasanextentof366,095 km(227,481 mi),[314]ofwhich116,802 km(72,577 mi)arepaved,[315][316]Ofthese,10,474 km(6,508 mi)aremulti-laneexpressways:9,544 km(5,930 mi)arefour-lanehighwaysandtheresthave6ormorelanes.[315] DuetotheAndesMountains,AmazonRiverandAmazonForest,therehavealwaysbeendifficultiesinimplementingtranscontinentalorbioceanichighways.PracticallytheonlyroutethatexistedwastheonethatconnectedBraziltoBuenosAires,inArgentinaandlatertoSantiago,inChile.However,inrecentyears,withthecombinedeffortofcountries,newrouteshavestartedtoemerge,suchasBrazil-Peru(InteroceanicHighway),andanewhighwaybetweenBrazil,Paraguay,northernArgentinaandnorthernChile(BioceanicCorridor). MexicoCityInternationalAirport PortofItajaí,SantaCatarina,Brazil Therearemorethan2,000airportsinBrazil.Thecountryhasthesecondlargestnumberofairportsintheworld,behindonlytheUnitedStates.SãoPauloInternationalAirport,locatedintheMetropolitanRegionofSãoPaulo,isthelargestandbusiestinthecountry–theairportconnectsSãoPaulotopracticallyallmajorcitiesaroundtheworld.Brazilhas44internationalairports,suchasthoseinRiodeJaneiro,Brasília,BeloHorizonte,PortoAlegre,Florianópolis,Cuiabá,Salvador,Recife,Fortaleza,BelémandManaus,amongothers.ArgentinahasimportantinternationalairportssuchasBuenosAires,Cordoba,Bariloche,Mendoza,Salta,PuertoIguazú,NeuquénandUsuhaia,amongothers.ChilehasimportantinternationalairportssuchasSantiago,Antofagasta,PuertoMontt,PuntaArenasandIquique,amongothers.ColombiahasimportantinternationalairportssuchasBogotá,Medellín,Cartagena,CaliandBarranquilla,amongothers.PeruhasimportantinternationalairportssuchasLima,CuzcoandArequipa.OtherimportantairportsarethoseinthecapitalsofUruguay(Montevideo),Paraguay(Asunción),Bolivia(LaPaz)andEcuador(Quito).The10busiestairportsinSouthAmericain2017were:SãoPaulo-Guarulhos(Brazil),Bogotá(Colombia),SãoPaulo-Congonhas(Brazil),Santiago(Chile),Lima(Peru),Brasília(Brazil),RiodeJaneiro(Brazil),BuenosAires-Aeroparque(Argentina),BuenosAires-Ezeiza(Argentina),andMinasGerais(Brazil).[317] Thereare1,834airportsinMexico,thethird-largestnumberofairportsbycountryintheworld.[318]Thesevenlargestairports—whichabsorb90%ofairtravel—are(inorderofairtraffic):MexicoCity,Cancún,Guadalajara,Monterrey,Tijuana,Acapulco,andPuertoVallarta.[319]ConsideringallofLatinAmerica,the10busiestairportsin2017were:MexicoCity(Mexico),SãoPaulo-Guarulhos(Brazil),Bogotá(Colombia),Cancún(Mexico),SãoPaulo-Congonhas(Brazil),Santiago(Chile),Lima(Peru),Brasilia(Brazil),RiodeJaneiro(Brazil)andTocumen(Panama).[317] Aboutports,BrazilhassomeofthebusiestportsinSouthAmerica,suchasPortofSantos,PortofRiodeJaneiro,PortofParanaguá,PortofItajaí,PortofRioGrande,PortofSãoFranciscodoSulandSuapePort.ArgentinahasportssuchasPortofBuenosAiresandPortofRosario.ChilehasimportantportsinValparaíso,Caldera,Mejillones,Antofagasta,Iquique,AricaandPuertoMontt.ColombiahasimportantportssuchasBuenaventura,CartagenaContainerTerminalandPuertoBolivar.PeruhasimportantportsinCallao,IloandMatarani.The15busiestportsinSouthAmericaare:PortofSantos(Brazil),PortofBahiadeCartagena(Colombia),Callao(Peru),Guayaquil(Ecuador),BuenosAires(Argentina),SanAntonio(Chile),Buenaventura(Colombia),Itajaí(Brazil),Valparaíso(Chile),Montevideo(Uruguay),Paranaguá(Brazil),RioGrande(Brazil),SãoFranciscodoSul(Brazil),Manaus(Brazil)andCoronel(Chile).[320] Thefourmajorseaportsconcentratingaround60%ofthemerchandisetrafficinMexicoareAltamiraandVeracruzintheGulfofMexico,andManzanilloandLázaroCárdenasinthePacificOcean.ConsideringallofLatinAmerica,the10largestportsintermsofmovementare:Colon(Panama),Santos(Brazil),Manzanillo(Mexico),BahiadeCartagena(Colombia),Pacifico(Panama),Callao(Peru),Guayaquil(Ecuador),BuenosAires(Argentina),SanAntonio(Chile)andBuenaventura(Colombia).[320] TheBrazilianrailwaynetworkhasanextensionofabout30,000kilometers.Itisbasicallyusedfortransportingores.[321]TheArgentinerailnetwork,with47,000 kmoftracks,wasoneofthelargestintheworldandcontinuestobethemostextensiveinLatinAmerica.Itcametohaveabout100,000 kmofrails,buttheliftingoftracksandtheemphasisplacedonmotortransportgraduallyreducedit.IthasfourdifferenttrailsandinternationalconnectionswithParaguay,Bolivia,Chile,BrazilandUruguay.Chilehasalmost7,000 kmofrailways,withconnectionstoArgentina,BoliviaandPeru.Colombiahasonlyabout3,500 kmofrailways.[322] AmongthemainBrazilianwaterways,twostandout:HidroviaTietê-Paraná(whichhasalengthof2,400 km,1,600ontheParanáRiverand800 kmontheTietêRiver,drainingagriculturalproductionfromthestatesofMatoGrosso,MatoGrossodoSul,GoiásandpartofRondônia,TocantinsandMinasGeneral)andHidroviadoSolimões-Amazonas(ithastwosections:Solimões,whichextendsfromTabatingatoManaus,withapproximately1600 km,andAmazonas,whichextendsfromManaustoBelém,with1650 km.AlmostentirelypassengertransportfromtheAmazonplainisdonebythiswaterway,inadditiontopracticallyallcargotransportationthatisdirectedtothemajorregionalcentersofBelémandManaus).InBrazil,thistransportisstillunderutilized:themostimportantwaterwaystretches,fromaneconomicpointofview,arefoundintheSoutheastandSouthofthecountry.Itsfullusestilldependsontheconstructionoflocks,majordredgingworksand,mainly,ofportsthatallowintermodalintegration.InArgentina,thewaterwaynetworkismadeupoftheLaPlata,Paraná,ParaguayandUruguayrivers.ThemainriverportsareZárateandCampana.TheportofBuenosAiresishistoricallythefirstinindividualimportance,buttheareaknownasUp-River,whichstretchesalong67 kmoftheSantaFéportionoftheParanáRiver,bringstogether17portsthatconcentrate50%ofthetotalexportsofthecountry. Energy[edit] Brazil[edit] Mainarticles:EnergypolicyofBrazilandRenewableenergyinBrazil ItaipuDaminParaná. WindpowerinParnaíba. AngraNuclearPowerPlantinAngradosReis,RiodeJaneiro PiraporaSolarComplex,thelargestinBrazilandLatinAmericawithacapacityof321MW. TheBraziliangovernmenthasundertakenanambitiousprogramtoreducedependenceonimportedpetroleum.Importspreviouslyaccountedformorethan70%ofthecountry'soilneedsbutBrazilbecameself-sufficientinoilin2006–2007.Brazilwasthe10thlargestoilproducerintheworldin2019,with2.8 millionbarrels/day.Productionmanagestosupplythecountry'sdemand.[290]Inthebeginningof2020,intheproductionofoilandnaturalgas,thecountryexceeded4millionbarrelsofoilequivalentperday,forthefirsttime.InJanuarythisyear,3.168 millionbarrelsofoilperdayand138.753 millioncubicmetersofnaturalgaswereextracted.[323] Brazilisoneofthemainworldproducersofhydroelectricpower.In2019,Brazilhad217hydroelectricplantsinoperation,withaninstalledcapacityof98,581MW,60.16%ofthecountry'senergygeneration.[324]Inthetotalgenerationofelectricity,in2019Brazilreached170,000megawattsofinstalledcapacity,morethan75%fromrenewablesources(themajority,hydroelectric).[325][326] In2013,theSoutheastRegionusedabout50%oftheloadoftheNationalIntegratedSystem(SIN),beingthemainenergyconsumingregioninthecountry.Theregion'sinstalledelectricitygenerationcapacitytotaledalmost42,500MW,whichrepresentedaboutathirdofBrazil'sgenerationcapacity.Thehydroelectricgenerationrepresented58%oftheregion'sinstalledcapacity,withtheremaining42%correspondingbasicallytothethermoelectricgeneration.SãoPauloaccountedfor40%ofthiscapacity;MinasGeraisbyabout25%;RiodeJaneiroby13.3%;andEspíritoSantoaccountedfortherest.TheSouthRegionownstheItaipuDam,whichwasthelargesthydroelectricplantintheworldforseveralyears,untiltheinaugurationofThreeGorgesDaminChina.Itremainsthesecondlargestoperatinghydroelectricintheworld.Brazilistheco-owneroftheItaipuPlantwithParaguay:thedamislocatedontheParanáRiver,locatedontheborderbetweencountries.Ithasaninstalledgenerationcapacityof14GWfor20generatingunitsof700MWeach.NorthRegionhaslargehydroelectricplants,suchasBeloMonteDamandTucuruíDam,whichproducemuchofthenationalenergy.Brazil'shydroelectricpotentialhasnotyetbeenfullyexploited,sothecountrystillhasthecapacitytobuildseveralrenewableenergyplantsinitsterritory.[327][328] AsofJanuary 2022,[ref]accordingtoONS,totalinstalledcapacityofwindpowerwas21GW,withaveragecapacityfactorof58%.[329][330]Whiletheworldaveragewindproductioncapacityfactorsis24.7%,thereareareasinNorthernBrazil,speciallyinBahiaState,wheresomewindfarmsrecordwithaveragecapacityfactorsover60%;[331][155]theaveragecapacityfactorintheNortheastRegionis45%inthecoastand49%intheinterior.[332]In2019,windenergyrepresented9%oftheenergygeneratedinthecountry.[333]In2019,itwasestimatedthatthecountryhadanestimatedwindpowergenerationpotentialofaround522GW(this,onlyonshore),enoughenergytomeetthreetimesthecountry'scurrentdemand.[334][335]In2020Brazilwasthe8thcountryintheworldintermsofinstalledwindpower(17.2GW).[336] Nuclearenergyaccountsforabout4%ofBrazil'selectricity.[337]ThenuclearpowergenerationmonopolyisownedbyEletronuclear(EletrobrásEletronuclearS/A),awhollyownedsubsidiaryofEletrobrás.NuclearenergyisproducedbytworeactorsatAngra.ItislocatedattheCentralNuclearAlmiranteÁlvaroAlberto(CNAAA)onthePraiadeItaornainAngradosReis,RiodeJaneiro.Itconsistsoftwopressurizedwaterreactors,AngraI,withcapacityof657MW,connectedtothepowergridin1982,andAngraII,withcapacityof1,350MW,connectedin2000.Athirdreactor,AngraIII,withaprojectedoutputof1,350MW,isplannedtobefinished.[338] AsofMarch 2022,[ref]accordingtoONS,totalinstalledcapacityofphotovoltaicsolarwas14GW,withaveragecapacityfactorof23%.[339][340]SomeofthemostirradiatedBrazilianStatesareMG("MinasGerais"),BA("Bahia")andGO(Goiás),whichhaveindeedworldirradiationlevelrecords.[341][155][342]In2019,solarpowerrepresented1.27%oftheenergygeneratedinthecountry.[333]In2020,Brazilwasthe14thcountryintheworldintermsofinstalledsolarpower(7.8GW).[336] In2020,Brazilwasthe2ndlargestcountryintheworldintheproductionofenergythroughbiomass(energyproductionfromsolidbiofuelsandrenewablewaste),with15,2GWinstalled.[343] Othercountries[edit] AfterBrazil,MexicoisthecountryinLatinAmericathatmoststandsoutinenergyproduction.In2020,thecountrywasthe14thlargestpetroleumproducerintheworld,andin2018itwasthe12thlargestexporter.Innaturalgas,thecountrywas,in2015,the21stlargestproducerintheworld,andin2007itwasthe29thlargestexporter.Mexicowasalsotheworld's24thlargestproducerofcoalin2018.Inrenewableenergies,in2020,thecountryranked14thintheworldintermsofinstalledwindenergy(8.1GW),20thintheworldintermsofinstalledsolarenergy(5.6GW)and19thintheworldintermsofinstalledhydroelectricpower(12.6GW).Inthirdplace,Colombiastandsout:In2020,thecountrywasthe20thlargestpetroleumproducerintheworld,andin2015itwasthe19thlargestexporter.Innaturalgas,thecountrywas,in2015,the40thlargestproducerintheworld.Colombia'sbiggesthighlightisincoal,wherethecountrywas,in2018,theworld's12thlargestproducerandthe5thlargestexporter.Inrenewableenergies,in2020,thecountryranked45thintheworldintermsofinstalledwindenergy(0.5GW),76thintheworldintermsofinstalledsolarenergy(0.1GW)and20thintheworldintermsofinstalledhydroelectricpower(12.6GW).Venezuela,whichwasoneoftheworld'slargestoilproducers(about2.5millionbarrels/dayin2015)andoneofthelargestexporters,duetoitspoliticalproblems,hashaditsproductiondrasticallyreducedinrecentyears:in2016,itdroppedto2.2million,in2017to2million,in2018to1.4millionandin2019to877thousand,reachingonly300,000barrels/dayatagivenpoint.Thecountryalsostandsoutinhydroelectricity,whereitwasthe14thcountryintheworldintermsofinstalledcapacityin2020(16,5GW).Argentinawas,in2017,the18thlargestproducerintheworld,andthelargestproducerinLatinAmerica,ofnaturalgas,inadditiontobeingthe28thlargestoilproducer;althoughthecountryhastheVacaMuertafield,whichholdscloseto16billionbarrelsoftechnicallyrecoverableshaleoil,andisthesecondlargestshalenaturalgasdepositintheworld,thecountrylacksthecapacitytoexploitthedeposit:itisnecessarycapital,technologyandknowledgethatcanonlycomefromoffshoreenergycompanies,whoviewArgentinaanditserraticeconomicpolicieswithconsiderablesuspicion,notwantingtoinvestinthecountry.Inrenewableenergies,in2020,thecountryranked27thintheworldintermsofinstalledwindenergy(2.6GW),42ndintheworldintermsofinstalledsolarenergy(0.7GW)and21stintheworldintermsofinstalledhydroelectricpower(11.3GW).ThecountryhasgreatfuturepotentialfortheproductionofwindenergyinthePatagoniaregion.Chile,althoughcurrentlynotamajorenergyproducer,hasgreatfuturepotentialforsolarenergyproductionintheAtacamaDesertregion.ParaguaystandsouttodayinhydroelectricproductionthankstotheItaipuPowerPlant.TrinidadandTobagoandBoliviastandoutintheproductionofnaturalgas,wheretheywere,respectively,the20thand31stlargestintheworldin2015.Ecuador,becauseitconsumeslittleenergy,ispartofOPECandwasthe27thlargestoilproducerintheworldin2020,beingthe22ndlargestexporterin2014.[344][345][346][292][336] Tradeblocs[edit] NativeNewWorldcropsexchangedglobally:maize,tomato,potato,vanilla,rubber,cocoa,tobacco RafaelCorrea,EvoMorales,NéstorKirchner,CristinaFernández,LuizInácioLuladaSilva,NicanorDuarte,andHugoChávezatthesigningofthefoundingcharteroftheBankoftheSouth Themajortradeblocs(oragreements)intheregionarethePacificAllianceandMercosur.MinorblocsortradeagreementsaretheG3FreeTradeAgreement,theDominicanRepublic–CentralAmericaFreeTradeAgreement(DR-CAFTA),theCaribbeanCommunity(CARICOM)andtheAndeanCommunityofNations(CAN).However,majorreconfigurationsaretakingplacealongopposingapproachestointegrationandtrade;VenezuelahasofficiallywithdrawnfromboththeCANandG3andithasbeenformallyadmittedintotheMercosur(pendingratificationfromtheParaguayanlegislature).[when?]Thepresident-electofEcuadorhasmanifestedhisintentionsoffollowingthesamepath.ThisblocnominallyopposesanyFreeTradeAgreement(FTA)withtheUnitedStates,althoughUruguayhasmanifesteditsintentionotherwise.Chile,Peru,ColombiaandMexicoaretheonlyfourLatinAmericannationsthathaveanFTAwiththeUnitedStatesandCanada,bothmembersoftheNorthAmericanFreeTradeAgreement(NAFTA). Tourism[edit] AerialviewofCancún.MexicoisthemostvisitedcountryinLatinAmericaand6thintheworld. IncomefromtourismiskeytotheeconomyofseveralLatinAmericancountries.[347]MexicoistheonlyLatinAmericancountrytoberankedinthetop10worldwideinthenumberoftouristvisits.Itreceivedbyfarthelargestnumberofinternationaltourists,with39.3 millionvisitorsin2017,followedbyArgentina,with6.7 million;thenBrazil,with6.6 million;Chile,with6.5 million;DominicanRepublic,with6.2 million;Cubawith4.3 million;PeruandColombiawith4.0 million.TheWorldTourismOrganizationreportsthefollowingdestinationsasthetopsixtourismearnersfortheyear2017:Mexico,withUS$21,333 million;theDominicanRepublic,withUS$7,178 million;Brazil,withUS$6,024 million;Colombia,withUS$4,773 million;Argentina,withUS$4,687 million;andPanama,withUS$4,258 million.[348] PlacessuchasCancún,RivieraMaya,GalápagosIslands,PuntaCana,ChichenItza,CartagenadeIndias,CaboSanLucas,MexicoCity,MachuPicchu,MargaritaIsland,Acapulco,SanIgnacioMiní,SantoDomingo,BuenosAires,SalardeUyuni,RiodeJaneiro,Florianópolis,PuntadelEste,Labadee,SanJuan,SãoPaulo,Havana,PanamaCity,IguazúFalls,PuertoVallarta,PoásVolcanoNationalPark,ViñadelMar,GuanajuatoCity,Bogotá,SantaMarta,SanAndrés,SanMigueldeAllende,Lima,Guadalajara,Cuzco,PonceandPeritoMorenoGlacierarepopularamonginternationalvisitorsintheregion.[citationneeded] PerformanceindicatorsforinternationaltourisminLatinAmerica Country Internationaltouristarrivals[349](2017)(1000s) Internationaltourismreceipts[349](2017)(MillionsofUS$) Tourismreceipts(2011)(US$perarrival) Tourismreceipts(2011)(US$percapita) Tourismreceipts[350](2003)(as %ofexports) Tourismreceipts[351](2003)(as %ofGDP) Directandindirectemployment[352]intourism(2005)(%) Tourismcompetitiveness[353](2011)(TTCI)  Argentina 6,705 5,060 945 133 7.4 1.8 9.1 4.20  Bolivia 959* 784 31 9.4 2.2 7.6 3.35  Brazil 6,589 5,809 1,207 34 3.2 0.5 7.0 4.36  Chile 6,450 3,634 596 107 5.3 1.9 6.8 4.27  Colombia 4,027 4,773 873 45 6.6 1.4 5.9 3.94  CostaRica 2,910 3,876 982 459 17.5 8.1 13.3 4.43  Cuba 4,297 3,045 872 194 N/A N/A N/A N/A  DominicanRepublic 6,188 7,178 1,011 440 36.2 18.8 19.8 3.99  Ecuador 1,608 1,657 734 58 6.3 1.5 7.4 3.79  ElSalvador 1,556 873 351 67 12.9 3.4 6.8 3.68  Guatemala 1,660 1,550 1,102 94 16.0 2.6 6.0 3.82  Haiti 516* 504 655 17 19.4 3.2 4.7 N/A  Honduras 908 686 753 92 13.5 5.0 8.5 3.79  Mexico 39,298 21,333 507 105 5.7 1.6 14.2 4.43  Nicaragua 1,787 841 356 65 15.5 3.7 5.6 3.56  Panama 1,843 4,452 1,308 550 10.6 6.3 12.9 4.30  Paraguay 1,537 603 460 37 4.2 1.3 6.4 3.26  Peru 4,032 3,710 908 81 9.0 1.6 7.6 4.04  Uruguay 3,674 2,540 765 643 14.2 3.6 10.7 4.24  Venezuela 789* 575* 1,449 25 1.3 0.4 8.1 3.46 (*)Datafor2015ratherthan2017,asthenewestdataiscurrentlyunavailable. Culture[edit] Mainarticle:LatinAmericanculture RomanCatholicEasterprocessioninComayagua,Honduras NicaraguanwomenwearingtheMestizajecostume,whichisatraditionalcostumeworntodancetheMestizajedance.ThecostumedemonstratestheSpanishinfluenceuponNicaraguanclothing.[354] LatinAmericancultureisamixtureofmanydiverseinfluences: IndigenousculturesofthepeoplewhoinhabitedthecontinentpriortoEuropeancolonization.Ancientandveryadvancedcivilizationsdevelopedtheirownpolitical,socialandreligioussystems.TheMaya,theAztecandtheIncaareexamplesofthese.Indigenouslegaciesinmusic,dance,foods,artsandcrafts,clothing,folkcultureandtraditionsareverystronginLatinAmerica.LinguisticeffectsonSpanishandPortuguesearealsomarked,suchasintermslikepampa,taco,tamale,cacique. ThecultureofEurope,wasbroughtmainlybythecolonialpowers –theSpanish,PortugueseandFrench –betweenthe16thand19thcenturies.ThemostenduringEuropeancolonialinfluenceislanguageandCatholicism.Morerecently,additionalculturalinfluencescamefromtheUnitedStatesandEuropeduringthenineteenthandtwentiethcenturies,duetothegrowinginfluenceoftheformerontheworldstageandimmigrationfromthelatter.TheinfluenceoftheUnitedStatesisparticularlystronginnorthernLatinAmerica,especiallyPuertoRico,whichisanAmericanterritory.Priorto1959,Cuba,whichfoughtforitsindependencealongsideAmericansoldiersintheSpanish–AmericanWar,alsohadaclosesocioeconomicrelationwiththeUnitedStates.Inaddition,theUnitedStatesalsohelpedPanamabecomeindependentfromColombiaandbuiltthetwenty-mile-longPanamaCanalZoneinPanamawhichheldfrom1903—thePanamaCanalopenedtotransoceanicfreighttrafficin1914—to1999,whentheTorrijos-CarterTreatiesrestoredPanamaniancontroloftheCanalZone.SouthAmericaexperiencedwavesofimmigrationofEuropeans,especiallyItalians,Spaniards,Portuguese,Germans,Austrians,Poles,Ukrainians,French,Dutch,Russians,Croatians,LithuaniansandAshkenaziJews.Withtheendofcolonialism,FrenchculturealsoexertedadirectinfluenceinLatinAmerica,especiallyintherealmsofhighculture,scienceandmedicine.[355]Thiscanbeseenintheregion'sartistictraditions,includingpainting,literatureandmusic,andintherealmsofscienceandpolitics. DuetotheimpactofEnlightenmentidealsaftertheFrenchrevolution,acertainnumberofIberian-AmericancountriesdecriminalizedhomosexualityafterFranceandFrenchterritoriesintheAmericasdidsoin1791.Someofthecountriesthatabolishedsodomylawsorbannedstateinterferenceinconsensualadultsexualityinthe19thcenturywereDominicanRepublic(1822),Brazil(1824),Peru(1836),Mexico(1871),Paraguay(1880),Argentina(1887),Honduras(1899),GuatemalaandElSalvador.Todaysame-sexmarriageislegalinArgentina,Brazil,Colombia,CostaRica,Ecuador,Uruguay,andFrenchoverseasdepartments,aswellasinseveralstatesofMexico.CivilunionscanbeheldinChile. Africancultures,whosepresencestemsfromalonghistoryoftheAtlanticslavetrade.PeopleofAfricandescenthaveinfluencedtheethno-scapesofLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean.Thisismanifestedforinstanceinmusic,danceandreligion,especiallyincountrieslikeBrazil,PuertoRico,Venezuela,Colombia,Panama,Haiti,CostaRica,DominicanRepublic,andCuba. Asiancultures,whosepartofthepresencederivesfromthelonghistoryofthecoolieswhomostlyarrivedduringthe19thand20thcenturies,mostcommonlyChineseworkersinPeruandVenezuela,butalsofromJapaneseandKoreanimmigration.especiallyheadedtoBrazil.Thishasgreatlyaffectedcuisineandothertraditionsincludingliterature,artandlifestylesandpolitics.AsianinfluenceshaveespeciallyaffectedBrazil,Cuba,PanamaandPeru. Art[edit] Mainarticle:LatinAmericanart Seealso:ListofLatinAmericanartists DiegoRivera'smuraldepictingMexico'shistoryattheNationalPalaceinMexicoCity BeyondtherichtraditionofIndigenousart,thedevelopmentofLatinAmericanvisualartowedmuchtotheinfluenceofSpanish,PortugueseandFrenchBaroquepainting,whichinturnoftenfollowedthetrendsoftheItalianmasters.Ingeneral,thisartisticEurocentrismbegantowaneintheearlytwentiethcentury,asLatinAmericansbegantoacknowledgetheuniquenessoftheirconditionandfollowtheirownpath. MuralbySantiagoMartinezDelgadoattheColombianCongress Fromtheearlytwentiethcentury,theartofLatinAmericawasgreatlyinspiredbytheConstructivistMovement.[356]ThemovementrapidlyspreadfromRussiatoEuropeandthenintoLatinAmerica.JoaquínTorresGarcíaandManuelRendónhavebeencreditedwithbringingtheConstructivistMovementintoLatinAmericafromEurope.[357] AnimportantartisticmovementgeneratedinLatinAmericaismuralismrepresentedbyDiegoRivera,DavidAlfaroSiqueiros,JoséClementeOrozcoandRufinoTamayoinMexico,SantiagoMartinezDelgadoandPedroNelGómezinColombiaandAntonioBerniinArgentina.SomeofthemostimpressiveMuralistaworkscanbefoundinMexico,Colombia,NewYorkCity,SanFrancisco,LosAngelesandPhiladelphia. PainterFridaKahlo,oneofthemostfamousMexicanartists,paintedaboutherownlifeandtheMexicancultureinastylecombiningRealism,SymbolismandSurrealism.Kahlo'sworkcommandsthehighestsellingpriceofallLatinAmericanpaintings.[358] TheVenezuelanArmandoReverón,whoseworkbeginstoberecognizedinternationally,isoneofthemostimportantartistsofthe20thcenturyinSouthAmerica;heisaprecursorofArtePoveraandHappening.Inthe60skineticartemergedinVenezuela.ItsmainrepresentativesareJesúsSoto,CarlosCruz-Diez,AlejandroOteroandGego. ColombiansculptorandpainterFernandoBoteroisalsowidelyknown[359][360][361][bywhom?]forhisworkswhich,onfirstexamination,arenotedfortheirexaggeratedproportionsandthecorpulenceofthehumanandanimalfigures. Film[edit] Mainarticle:LatinAmericancinema TheGuadalajaraInternationalFilmFestivalisconsideredthemostprestigiousfilmfestivalinLatinAmerica. LatinAmericanfilmisbothrichanddiverse.Historically,themaincentersofproductionhavebeenMexico,Argentina,Brazil,andCuba.LatinAmericanfilmflourishedaftersoundwasintroducedincinema,whichaddedalinguisticbarriertotheexportofHollywoodfilmsouthoftheborder.[362] In2015,AlejandroGonzálezIñárritubecamethesecondMexicandirectorinarowtowinboththeAcademyAwardforBestDirectorandtheDirectorsGuildofAmericaAwardforBestDirector.HewonhissecondOscarin2016forTheRevenant. Mexicancinemabeganinthesilenterafrom1896to1929andflourishedintheGoldenEraofthe1940s.ItboastedahugeindustrycomparabletoHollywoodatthetime,withstarssuchasMaríaFélix,DoloresdelRío,andPedroInfante.Inthe1970s,Mexicowasthelocationformanyculthorrorandactionmovies.Morerecently,filmssuchasAmoresPerros(2000)andYtumamátambién(2001)enjoyedboxofficeandcriticalacclaimandpropelledAlfonsoCuarónandAlejandroGonzálezIñárritutothefrontrankofHollywooddirectors.Iñárrituin2010directedBiutifulandBirdman(2014),AlfonsoCuaróndirectedHarryPotterandthePrisonerofAzkabanin2004andGravityin2013.Aclosefriendofboth,GuillermodelToro,atoprankHollywooddirectorinHollywoodandSpain,directedPan'sLabyrinth(2006)andproducedElOrfanato(2007).CarlosCarrera(TheCrimeofFatherAmaro),andscreenwriterGuillermoArriagaarealsosomeofthebestknownmodernMexicanfilmmakers.RudoyCursireleasedinDecember(2008)inMexico,wasdirectedbyCarlosCuarón. PresidentCristinaFernándezwiththefilmdirectorJuanJoséCampanellaandthecastofTheSecretinTheirEyes(2009)withtheOscarforBestForeignLanguageFilm Argentinecinemahasalsobeenprominentsincethefirsthalfofthe20thcenturyandtodayaveragesover60full-lengthtitlesyearly.Theindustrysufferedduringthe1976–1983militarydictatorship;butre-emergedtoproducetheAcademyAwardwinnerTheOfficialStoryin1985.AwaveofimportedUSfilmsagaindamagedtheindustryintheearly1990s,thoughitsoonrecovered,thrivingevenduringtheArgentineeconomiccrisisaround2001.ManyArgentinemoviesproducedduringrecentyearshavebeeninternationallyacclaimed,includingNuevereinas(2000),SonoftheBride(2001),Elabrazopartido(2004),Elotro(2007),the2010ForeignLanguageAcademyAwardwinnerElsecretodesusojosandWildTales(2014). InBrazil,theCinemaNovomovementcreatedaparticularwayofmakingmovieswithcriticalandintellectualscreenplays,clearerphotographyrelatedtothelightoftheoutdoorsinatropicallandscape,andapoliticalmessage.ThemodernBrazilianfilmindustryhasbecomemoreprofitableinsidethecountry,andsomeofitsproductionshavereceivedprizesandrecognitioninEuropeandtheUnitedStates,withmoviessuchasCentraldoBrasil(1999),CidadedeDeus(2002)andTropadeElite(2007). PuertoRicancinemahasproducedsomenotablefilms,suchasUnaAventuraLlamadaMenudo,LosDiazdeDorisandCasiCasi.AninfluxofHollywoodfilmsaffectedthelocalfilmindustryinPuertoRicoduringthe1980sand1990s,butseveralPuertoRicanfilmshavebeenproducedsinceandithasbeenrecovering. CubancinemahasenjoyedmuchofficialsupportsincetheCubanrevolutionandimportantfilm-makersincludeTomásGutiérrezAlea. VenezuelantelevisionhasalsohadagreatimpactinLatinAmerica,issaidthatwhilst"Venezuelancinemabegansporadicallyinthe1950s[,it]onlyemergedasanational-culturalmovementinthemid-1970s"whenitgainedstatesupportandauteurscouldproducework.Internationalco-productionswithLatinAmericaandSpaincontinuedintothiseraandbeyond,andVenezuelanfilmsofthistimewerecountedamongtheworksofNewLatinAmericanCinema.ThisperiodisknownasVenezuela'sGoldenAgeofcinema,havingmassivepopularityeventhoughitwasatimeofmuchsocialandpoliticalupheaval. OneofthemostfamousVenezuelanfilms,eventodate,isthe1976filmSoyundelincuentebyClementedelaCerda,whichwontheSpecialJuryPrizeatthe1977LocarnoInternationalFilmFestival.Soyundelincuentewasoneofninefilmsforwhichthestategavesubstantialfundingtoproduce,madeintheyearaftertheVenezuelanstatebegangivingfinancialsupporttocinemain1975.Thesupportlikelycamefromincreasedoilwealthintheearly1970s,andthesubsequent1973creditincentivepolicy.Atthetimeofitsproductionthefilmwasthemostpopularfilminthecountry,andtookadecadetobeusurpedfromthisposition,eventhoughitwasonlyoneinastringoffilmsdesignedtotellsocialrealiststoriesofstruggleinthe1950sand'60s.Equallyfamousisthe1977filmElPezqueFuma(RománChalbaud).In1981FONCINE(theVenezuelanFilmFund)wasfounded,andthisyearitprovidedevenmorefundingtoproduceseventeenfeaturefilms.Afewyearslaterin1983withViernesNegro,oilpricesdroppedandVenezuelaenteredadepressionwhichpreventedsuchextravagantfunding,butfilmproductioncontinued;moretransnationalproductionsoccurred,manymorewithSpainduetoLatinAmerica'spooreconomicfortuneingeneral,andtherewassomeinnewcinema,aswell:FinaTorres'1985OrianawontheCamérad'OrPrizeatthe1985CannesFilmFestivalasthebestfirstfeature.Filmproductionpeakedin1984–5,:37with1986consideredVenezuelancinema'smostsuccessfulyearbythestate,thankstoover4millionadmissionstonationalfilms,accordingtoVenezuelanalysis.TheVenezuelancapitalofCaracashostedtheIbero-AmericanForumonCinematographyIntegrationin1989,fromwhichthepan-continentalIBERMEDIAwasformed;aunionwhichprovidesregionalfunding. Literature[edit] Mainarticle:LatinAmericanliterature Seealso:ListofLatinAmericanwriters SorJuanaInésdelaCruzin1772byAndrésdeIslas ArgentineJorgeLuisBorgesinL'Hôtel,Parisin1969 Pre-Columbiancultureswereprimarilyoral,althoughtheAztecsandMaya,forinstance,producedelaboratecodices.OralaccountsofmythologicalandreligiousbeliefswerealsosometimesrecordedafterthearrivalofEuropeancolonizers,aswasthecasewiththePopolVuh.Moreover,atraditionoforalnarrativesurvivestothisday,forinstanceamongtheQuechua-speakingpopulationofPeruandtheQuiché(K'iche')ofGuatemala. FromtheverymomentofEurope'sdiscoveryofthecontinents,earlyexplorersandconquistadoresproducedwrittenaccountsandcrónicasoftheirexperience –suchasColumbus'slettersorBernalDíazdelCastillo'sdescriptionoftheconquestofMexico.Duringthecolonialperiod,writtenculturewasofteninthehandsofthechurch,withinwhichcontextSorJuanaInésdelaCruzwrotememorablepoetryandphilosophicalessays.Towardstheendofthe18thcenturyandthebeginningofthe19th,adistinctivecriolloliterarytraditionemerged,includingthefirstnovelssuchasLizardi'sElPeriquilloSarniento(1816). The19thcenturywasaperiodof"foundationalfictions"incriticDorisSommer'swords,novelsintheRomanticorNaturalisttraditionsthatattemptedtoestablishasenseofnationalidentity,andwhichoftenfocussedontheIndigenousquestionorthedichotomyof"civilizationorbarbarism"(forwhichsee,say,DomingoSarmiento'sFacundo(1845),JuanLeónMera'sCumandá(1879),orEuclidesdaCunha'sOsSertões(1902)).The19thcenturyalsowitnessedtherealistworkofMachadodeAssis,whomadeuseofsurrealdevicesofmetaphorandplayfulnarrativeconstruction,muchadmiredbycriticHaroldBloom. Attheturnofthe20thcentury,modernismoemerged,apoeticmovementwhosefoundingtextwasNicaraguanpoetRubénDarío'sAzul(1888).ThiswasthefirstLatinAmericanliterarymovementtoinfluenceliterarycultureoutsideoftheregion,andwasalsothefirsttrulyLatinAmericanliterature,inthatnationaldifferenceswerenolongersomuchatissue.JoséMartí,forinstance,thoughaCubanpatriot,alsolivedinMexicoandtheUnitedStatesandwroteforjournalsinArgentinaandelsewhere. ChileanpoetGabrielaMistral,firstLatinAmericantowinaNobelPrizeinLiterature,in1945 GarcíaMárquezsigningacopyofOneHundredYearsofSolitude However,whatreallyputLatinAmericanliteratureontheglobalmapwasnodoubttheliteraryboomofthe1960sand1970s,distinguishedbydaringandexperimentalnovels(suchasJulioCortázar'sRayuela(1963))thatwerefrequentlypublishedinSpainandquicklytranslatedintoEnglish.TheBoom'sdefiningnovelwasGabrielGarcíaMárquez'sCienañosdesoledad(1967),whichledtotheassociationofLatinAmericanliteraturewithmagicrealism,thoughotherimportantwritersoftheperiodsuchasthePeruvianMarioVargasLlosaandCarlosFuentesdonotfitsoeasilywithinthisframework.Arguably,theBoom'sculminationwasAugustoRoaBastos'smonumentalYo,elsupremo(1974).InthewakeoftheBoom,influentialprecursorssuchasJuanRulfo,AlejoCarpentier,andaboveallJorgeLuisBorgeswerealsorediscovered. Contemporaryliteratureintheregionisvibrantandvaried,rangingfromthebest-sellingPauloCoelhoandIsabelAllendetothemoreavant-gardeandcriticallyacclaimedworkofwriterssuchasDiamelaEltit,GianninaBraschi,RicardoPiglia,orRobertoBolaño.Therehasalsobeenconsiderableattentionpaidtothegenreoftestimonio,textsproducedincollaborationwithsubalternsubjectssuchasRigobertaMenchú.Finally,anewbreedofchroniclersisrepresentedbythemorejournalisticCarlosMonsiváisandPedroLemebel. TheregionboastssixNobelPrizewinners:inadditiontothetwoChileanpoetsGabrielaMistral(1945)andPabloNeruda(1971),thereisalsotheGuatemalannovelistMiguelAngelAsturias(1967),theColombianwriterGabrielGarcíaMárquez(1982),theMexicanpoetandessayistOctavioPaz(1990),andthePeruviannovelistMarioVargasLlosa(2010). Musicanddance[edit] Seealso:MusicofLatinAmerica,Latinpop,andLatindance SalsadancinginCali,Colombia LatinAmericahasproducedmanysuccessfulworldwideartistsintermsofrecordedglobalmusicsales.AmongthemostsuccessfulhavebeenJuanGabriel(Mexico)onlyLatinAmericanmusiciantohavesoldover200 millionrecordsworldwide,[363]GloriaEstefan(Cuba),CarlosSantana,LuisMiguel(Mexico)ofwhomhavesoldover90 millionrecords,Shakira(Colombia)andVicenteFernández(Mexico)withover50 millionrecordssoldworldwide.EnriqueIglesias,althoughnotaLatinAmerican,hasalsocontributedforthesuccessofLatinmusic. Othernotablesuccessfulmainstreamactsthroughtheyears,includeRBD,CeliaCruz,SodaStereo,Thalía,RickyMartin,Maná,MarcAnthony,RicardoArjona,Selena,andMenudo. LatinCaribbeanmusic,suchasmerengue,bachata,salsa,andmorerecentlyreggaeton,fromsuchcountriesastheDominicanRepublic,PuertoRico,Cuba,andPanama,hasbeenstronglyinfluencedbyAfricanrhythmsandmelodies.Haiti'scompasisagenreofmusicthatisinfluencedbyitsLatinCaribbeancounterparts,alongwithelementsofjazzandmodernsounds.[364][365] TraditionalMexicandanceJarabeTapatío Anotherwell-knownLatinAmericanmusicalgenreincludestheArgentineandUruguayantango(withCarlosGardelasthegreatestexponent),aswellasthedistinctnuevotango,afusionoftango,acousticandelectronicmusicpopularizedbybandoneónvirtuosoÁstorPiazzolla.Samba,NorthAmericanjazz,EuropeanclassicalmusicandchorocombinedtoformbossanovainBrazil,popularizedbyguitaristJoãoGilbertowithsingerAstrudGilbertoandpianistAntonioCarlosJobim. OtherinfluentialLatinAmericansoundsincludetheAntilleansocaandcalypso,theHonduran(Garifuna)punta,theColombiancumbiaandvallenato,theChileancueca,theEcuadorianboleros,androckoleras,theMexicanrancheraandthemariachiwhichistheepitomeofMexicansoul,theNicaraguanpalodeMayo,thePeruvianmarineraandtondero,theUruguayancandombe,theFrenchAntilleanzouk(derivedfromHaitiancompas)andthevariousstylesofmusicfrompre-ColumbiantraditionsthatarewidespreadintheAndeanregion. BraziliansingerCarmenMirandahelpedpopularizesambainternationally. TheclassicalcomposerHeitorVilla-Lobos(1887–1959)workedontherecordingofNativemusicaltraditionswithinhishomelandofBrazil.Thetraditionsofhishomelandheavilyinfluencedhisclassicalworks.[366]AlsonotableistherecentworkoftheCubanLeoBrouwerandguitarworkoftheVenezuelanAntonioLauroandtheParaguayanAgustínBarrios.LatinAmericahasalsoproducedworld-classclassicalperformerssuchastheChileanpianistClaudioArrau,BrazilianpianistNelsonFreireandtheArgentinepianistandconductorDanielBarenboim.BrazilianoperasopranoBiduSayão,oneofBrazil'smostfamousmusicians,wasaleadingartistoftheMetropolitanOperainNewYorkCityfrom1937to1952. Acoupledancestango. Arguably,themaincontributiontomusicenteredthroughfolklore,wherethetruesouloftheLatinAmericanandCaribbeancountriesisexpressed.MusicianssuchasYmaSúmac,ChabucaGranda,AtahualpaYupanqui,VioletaParra,VíctorJara,JorgeCafrune,FacundoCabral,MercedesSosa,JorgeNegrete,LuizGonzaga,CaetanoVeloso,SusanaBaca,ChavelaVargas,SimonDiaz,JulioJaramillo,TotolaMomposina,GilbertoGil,MariaBethânia,NanaCaymmi,NaraLeão,GalCosta,NeyMatogrossoaswellasmusicalensemblessuchasIntiIllimaniandLosKjarkasaremagnificentexamplesoftheheightsthatthissoulcanreach. Latinpop,includingmanyformsofrock,ispopularinLatinAmericatoday(seeSpanishlanguagerockandroll).[367]AfewexamplesareCaféTacuba,SodaStereo,Maná,LosFabulososCadillacs,RitaLee,Mutantes,SecoseMolhadosLegiãoUrbana,Titãs,ParalamasdoSucesso,Cazuza,BarãoVermelho,Skank,Miranda!,CanseideSerSexyorCSS,andBajoFondo. Morerecently,reggaeton,whichblendsJamaicanreggaeanddancehallwithLatinAmericagenressuchasbombaandplena,aswellashiphop,isbecomingmorepopular,inspiteofthecontroversysurroundingitslyrics,dancesteps(Perreo)andmusicvideos.Ithasbecomeverypopularamongpopulationswitha"migrantculture"influence –bothLatinopopulationsintheUnitedStates,suchassouthernFloridaandNewYorkCity,andpartsofLatinAmericawheremigrationtotheUnitedStatesiscommon,suchasTrinidadandTobago,DominicanRepublic,Colombia,Ecuador,ElSalvador,andMexico.[368] WorldHeritagesites[edit] ThefollowingisalistofthetencountrieswiththemostUNESCOWorldHeritageSitesinLatinAmerica.[48] Country Naturalsites Culturalsites Mixedsites Totalsites Mexico 6 28 1 35 Brazil 7 14 0 21 Peru 2 8 2 12 Argentina 5 6 0 11 Colombia 2 6 1 9 Cuba 2 7 0 9 Bolivia 1 6 0 7 Chile 0 6 0 6 Ecuador 2 3 0 5 Panama 3 2 0 5 Seealso[edit] LatinAmericaportal NorthAmericaportal SouthAmericaportal Americas(terminology) Amerindians Euro-LatinAmericanParliamentaryAssembly Ibero-America Inter-AmericanTreatyofReciprocalAssistance LatinAmericaandtheCaribbean(region) LatinAmericaandtheLeagueofNations LatinAmerica–UnitedStatesrelations LatinAmericanintegration LatinAmericanstudies LatinAmericanStudiesAssociation LatinAmericans LatinAmericandiaspora LatinoAmericans ListofLatinAmericans Mesoamerica OrganizationofAmericanStates Pan-AmericanConferences Pan-Americanism SpanishAmerica Notes[edit] ^abInthemainLatinAmericanlanguages: Spanish:LatinoaméricaorAméricaLatina French:AmériqueLatine HaitianCreole:AmerikLatin Portuguese:AméricaLatina English:ItisusuallystylizedasLatAminthebusinessworld ^IncludesthepopulationestimatesforSouthAmericanandCentralAmericancountriesexcludingBelize,Guyana,theUnitedStates,andSpanishandFrenchspeakingCaribbeancountriesandterritories,aslistedunder"Sub-regionsandcountries" ^NotincludingAnglophoneorDutch-speakingcountries,suchasBelize,Guyana,Jamaica,SurinameandTrinidadandTobago;seeContemporarydefinitionssection References[edit] ^ab"WorldDevelopmentIndicators:Ruralenvironmentandlanduse".WorldDevelopmentIndicators,TheWorldBank.WorldBank.RetrievedSeptember12,2013. ^abc""WorldPopulationprospects–Populationdivision"".population.un.org.UnitedNationsDepartmentofEconomicandSocialAffairs,PopulationDivision.RetrievedNovember9,2019. ^abc""Overalltotalpopulation"–WorldPopulationProspects:The2019Revision"(xslx).population.un.org(customdataacquiredviawebsite).UnitedNationsDepartmentofEconomicandSocialAffairs,PopulationDivision.RetrievedNovember9,2019. ^"Christians–PewResearchCenter".December18,2012. ^ab"GlobalMetroMonitor2014".BrookingsInstitution.RetrievedJanuary22,2015. ^GeographyDepartmentatLoughboroughUniversity,TheWorldAccordingtoGaWC2012,Table4 ^Dressing,J.David."LatinAmerica"inTheEncyclopediaofLatinAmericanHistoryandCulture",vol.3,p.390.NewYork:CharlesScribner'sSons1996. ^abBilbao,Francisco(June22,1856)."IniciativadelaAmérica.IdeadeunCongresoFederaldelasRepúblicas"(inSpanish).París.RetrievedJuly16,2017–viaProyectoFilosofíaenespañol. ^abJohnA.Britton(2013).Cables,Crises,andthePress:TheGeopoliticsoftheNewInformationSystemintheAmericas,1866–1903.pp. 16–18.ISBN 9780826353986. ^"PopulationofLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean(2020)–Worldometer".worldometers.info.RetrievedMarch3,2020. ^ab"GDPCurrentandPPPestimatesfor2019".IMF.2019.RetrievedFebruary10,2020. ^"WorldEconomicOutlookDatabaseOctober2019".www.imf.org.RetrievedAugust9,2020. ^Meade,TeresaA.(2016).HistoryofModernLatinAmerica:1800tothePresent(2nd ed.).Chichester,UK:JohnWiley&Sons.p. 1.ISBN 978-1-118-77248-5. ^Mignolo,Walter(2005).TheIdeaofLatinAmerica.Oxford:Wiley-Blackwell.pp. 77–80.ISBN 978-1-4051-0086-1. ^JohnLeddyPhelan,"Pan-Latinism,FrenchInterventioninMexico(1861–1867)andtheGenesisoftheIdeaofLatinAmerica,"inJuanA.OrtegayMedina,ed.,Concienciayautenticidadhisto´ricas:EscritosenhomenajeaEdmundoO’Gorman(MexicoCity,1968),279–298. ^McGuiness,Aims(2003)."Searchingfor'LatinAmerica':RaceandSovereigntyintheAmericasinthe1850s"inAppelbaum,NancyP.etal.(eds.).RaceandNationinModernLatinAmerica.ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,87–107.ISBN 978-0-8078-5441-9 ^Ardao,Arturo(1980).GenesisdelaideayelnombredeAméricaLatina(PDF).Caracas,Venezuela:CentrodeEstudiosLatinoamericanosRómuloGallegos. ^RojasMix,Miguel(1986)."BilbaoyelhallazgodeAméricalatina:Unióncontinental,socialistaylibertaria…".Caravelle.Cahiersdumondehispaniqueetluso-brésilien.46(1):35–47.doi:10.3406/carav.1986.2261. ^Gobat,Michel(December1,2013)."TheInventionofLatinAmerica:ATransnationalHistoryofAnti-Imperialism,Democracy,andRace".TheAmericanHistoricalReview.118(5):1345–1375.doi:10.1093/ahr/118.5.1345.ISSN 0002-8762.S2CID 163918139. ^Edward,Shawcross(February6,2018).France,MexicoandinformalempireinLatinAmerica,1820–1867 :equilibriumintheNewWorld.Cham,Switzerland.p. 120.ISBN 9783319704647.OCLC 1022266228. ^Gutierrez,RamonA.(2016)."What'sinaName?".InGutierrez,RamonA.;Almaguer,Tomas(eds.).TheNewLatinoStudiesReader:ATwenty-First-CenturyPerspective.Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.p. 34.ISBN 978-0-520-28484-5.OCLC 1043876740.ThewordlatinoamericanoemergedintheyearsfollowingthewarsofindependenceinSpain'sformercolonies[...]Bythelate1850s,californioswerewritinginnewspapersabouttheirmembershipinAméricalatina(LatinAmerica)andlatinoamerica,callingthemselveslatinosastheshortenednamefortheirhemisphericmembershipinlarazalatina(theLatinrace).Reprintingan1858opinionpiecebyacorrespondentinHavanaonracerelationsintheAmericas,ElClamorPublicoofLosAngelessurmisedthat'tworivalracesarecompetingwitheachother...theAngloSaxonandtheLatinone[larazalatina].'  ^"AméricalatinaoSudamérica?,porLuizAlbertoMonizBandeira,Clarín,16demayode2005".Clarin.com.May16,2005.RetrievedApril23,2013. ^JoséMaríaTorresCaicedo(September26,1856)."LasdosAméricas"(inSpanish).Venice.RetrievedApril23,2013–viaProyectoFilosofíaenespañol. ^Bilbao,Francisco."EmancipacióndelespíritudeAmérica".FranciscoBilbaoBarquín,1823–1865,Chile.RetrievedJuly16,2017. ^Chasteen,JohnCharles(2001)."6.Progress".BorninBloodandFire:AConciseHistoryofLatinAmerica.W.W.Norton&Company.p. 156.ISBN 978-0-393-97613-7.RetrievedJuly4,2010. ^Phelan,J.L.(1968).Pan-latinisms,FrenchInterventioninMexico(1861–1867)andtheGenesisoftheIdeaofLatinAmerica.MexicoCity:UniversidadNacionalAutonónomadeMéxico. ^RAE(2005).DiccionarioPanhispánicodeDudas.Madrid:SantillanaEducación.ISBN 8429406239. ^Rangel,Carlos(1977).TheLatinAmericans:TheirLove-HateRelationshipwiththeUnitedStates.NewYork:HarcourtBraceJovanovich.pp. 3–5.ISBN 978-0-15-148795-0.Skidmore,ThomasE.;PeterH.Smith(2005).ModernLatinAmerica(6th ed.).OxfordandNewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.pp. 1–10.ISBN 978-0-19-517013-9. ^abTorres,George(2013).EncyclopediaofLatinAmericanPopularMusic.ABC-CLIO.p. xvii.ISBN 9780313087943. ^Butland,GilbertJ.(1960).LatinAmerica:ARegionalGeography.NewYork:JohnWileyandSons.pp. 115–188.ISBN 978-0-470-12658-5.Dozer,DonaldMarquand(1962).LatinAmerica:AnInterpretiveHistory.NewYork:McGraw-Hill.pp. 1–15.ISBN 0-87918-049-8.Szulc,Tad(1965).LatinAmerica.NewYorkTimesCompany.pp. 13–17.ISBN 0-689-10266-6.Olien,MichaelD.(1973).LatinAmericans:ContemporaryPeoplesandTheirCulturalTraditions.NewYork:Holt,RinehartandWinston.pp. 1–5.ISBN 978-0-03-086251-9.Black,JanKnippers,ed.(1984).LatinAmerica:ItsProblemsandItsPromise:AMultidisciplinaryIntroduction.Boulder:WestviewPress.pp. 362–378.ISBN 978-0-86531-213-5.Burns,E.Bradford(1986).LatinAmerica:AConciseInterpretiveHistory(4th ed.).NewYork:Prentice-Hall.pp. 224–227.ISBN 978-0-13-524356-5.Skidmore,ThomasE.;PeterH.Smith(2005).ModernLatinAmerica(6th ed.).OxfordandNewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.pp. 351–355.ISBN 978-0-19-517013-9. 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^LockhartandSchwartz,EarlyLatinAmerica,181-83,369-371 ^NizzadeSilva,MariaBeatriz,"PombalineReforms"inEncyclopediaofLatinAmericanHistoryandCulture,v.4,428 ^Bushnell,RobertandNeilMacaulay.TheEmergenceofLatinAmericaintheNineteenthCentury.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress1988,146-7 ^abcWorldHeritageList,UNESCOWorldHeritageSitesofficialsites. ^Stein,StanleyJ.andBarbaraH.Stein,TheColonialHeritageofLatinAmerica.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress1970 ^HalperinDonghi,Tulio,TheContemporaryHistoryofLatinAmerica.Durham:DukeUniversityPress1993,1-42 ^Adelman,Jeremy,ed.ColonialLegacies:TheProblemofPersistenceinLatinAmericanHistory.NewYork:Routledge1999 ^Frei,CherylJiménez."Columbus,Juana,andthePoliticsofthePlaza:BattlesoverMonuments,MemoryandIdentityinBuenosAires,"JournalofLatinAmericanStudies,vol.51,(3)August2019,pp.607–638. ^Knight,FranklinW."OriginsofWealthandtheSugarRevolutioninCuba,1750-1859".HispanicAmericanHistoricalReview57(May1977),231-53. ^MacLeod,MurdoJ."TheHaitianRevolution"inEncyclopediaofLatinAmericanHistoryandCulture,vol.164-66 ^Hamnett,BrianR.TheEndofIberianRuleontheAmericanContinent,1770-1830.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress2017,72-144 ^RodríguezO.,Jaime.TheIndependenceofSpanishAmerica.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress1998,75-106 ^RodríguezO.,TheIndependenceofSpanishAmerica,205-237 ^Hamnett,TheEndofIberianRule,209-234. ^Hamnett,TheEndofIberianRule,254-64 ^Diégues2004,pp. 179–180 ^Lustosa,p. 208 ^Smith,PeterH.DemocracyinLatinAmerica:PoliticalChangeinComparativePerspective.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress2005.pp.20–22 ^Mecham,J.Lloyd.ChurchandStateinLatinAmerica:AHistoryofPolitico-EcclesiasticalRelations,revisededition.ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress1966,60-87 ^Mecham,ChurchandState,268-69;275-77 ^Galasso,N.(2011).HistoriadelaArgentina(Vol.1). ^Hudson,R.,&Meditz,S.(1990).Uruguay:ACountryStudy. ^IbidemFausto1999,pages82–83 ^Lyra(v.1),p. 17 ^Carvalho2007,p. 21 ^IbidemFausto1999,Chapter2,2.1to2.3 ^IbidemFausto1999 ^Bethell,LeslieTheAbolitionoftheBrazilianSlaveTrade:Britain,BrazilandtheSlaveTrade,CambridgeUniversityPress1970,CambridgeLatinAmericanStudies,Chapters9to12.ViewonGoogleBooks ^Scott,Rebeccaandothers,TheAbolitionofSlaveryandtheAftermathofEmancipationinBrazil,DukeUniversityPress1988ISBN 0822308886SeymourDrescher,Chap.2:"BrazilianAbolitioninComparativePerspective" ^Smallman;ShallC.FearinMemoryintheBrazilianArmyandSociety,UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress2002ISBN 0-8078-5359-3Chapter1,"TheOverthrowoftheEmpire,"pp.16–18 ^Salvucci,LindaK.“Adams-OnisTreaty(1819)”.EncyclopediaofLatinAmericanHistoryandCulture(1996),vol.1,12-13 ^Weiner,Richard(January2,2020)."SpecialIssueonExploringLatinAmerica:TraveloguesbyAlexandervonHumboldt,ArchdukeMaximilian,andJamesBryce".TerraeIncognitae.52(1):1–11.doi:10.1080/00822884.2020.1735040.ISSN 0082-2884.S2CID 216379212. ^Leonard,ThomasM.“MonroeDoctrine”.EncyclopediaofLatinAmericanHistoryandCulture(1996),vol.4,97-98 ^Engerman,StanleyL.,andKennethL.Sokoloff."HistoryLessons:Institutions,FactorsEndowments,andPathsofDevelopmentintheNewWorld."TheJournalofEconomicPerspectivesVol.14(3)pp.217–232(2000):pp.217–232.Print.219 ^"LatinAmericanHistoryfrom1800to1914."Woodville.ColegioWoodville,n.d.Web.October24,2013.[1].1–3 ^"LatinAmericanHistoryfrom1800to1914."Woodville.ColegioWoodville,n.d.Web.October24,2013.[2]. ^Donghi,T.(1970).HistoriacontemporáneadeAméricaLatina(2.ed.).Madrid:AlianzaEditorial.148–149 ^Racine,K.(Aug2010)."ThisEnglandandThisNow:BritishCulturalandIntellectualInfluenceintheSpanishAmericanIndependenceEra."HispanicAmericanHistoricalReview,Vol.90(Issue3),p423–454. ^"LatinAmericanHistoryfrom1800to1914."Woodville.ColegioWoodville,n.d.Web.October24,2013.[3].2 ^Leonard,ThomasM.“OstendManifesto”inEncyclopediaofLatinAmericanHistoryandCulture(1996),vol.4,250 ^May,RobertE."WilliamWalker".EncyclopediaofLatinAmericanHistoryandCulture,vol.5,436-37 ^Welch,ThomasL.(1982).TravelaccountsanddescriptionsofLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean,1800-1920 :aselectedbibliography.MyriamFigueras,ColumbusMemorialLibrary.Washington,D.C.:ColumbusMemorialLibrary,OrganizationofAmericanStates.ISBN 0-8270-1548-8.OCLC 9575082. ^Sater,WilliamF.“WarofthePacific”.EncyclopediaofLatinAmericanHistoryandCulture,v.5,438-441 ^Reber,VeraBlinn“WaroftheTripleAlliance”.EncyclopediaofLatinAmericanHistoryandCulture,v.5,443-446 ^Foner,PhilipS.(1989).AntonioMaceo:The"BronzeTitan"ofCuba'sStruggleforIndependence.NYUPress.pp. 20–21. ^"VictimarioHistóricoMilitar". ^Gruhl,Werner(2007).ImperialJapan'sWorldWarTwo:1931–1945.TransactionPublishers.p. 181.ISBN 9780765803528. ^AmericanpressvoicescitedinBlassingame(1969),p.29. ^Katz,Friedrich.TheSecretWarinMexico:Europe,theUnitedStates,andtheMexicanRevolution.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress1981. ^Grieb,KennethJ."ZimmermanTelegram".EncyclopediaofLatinAmericanHistoryandCulture,vol.5,503 ^abGrieb,KennethJ."WorldWarI".EncyclopediaofLatinAmericanHistoryandCulture,vol.5,472 ^"HistoryofLatinAmerica".EncyclopædiaBritannica. ^Kiernan,JamesPatrick,“HavanaConference(1928)”.EncyclopediaofLatinAmericanHistoryandCulture,v.4,270. ^Langley,LesterD.”GoodNeighborPolicy”,EncyclopediaofLatinAmericanHistoryandCulture,v.3,89-90 ^Wilson,LarmanC.“MontevideoConference(1933)”.EncyclopediaofLatinAmericanHistoryandCulture,v.4,271 ^Wilson,LarmanC.“BuenosAiresConference(1936)”.EncyclopediaofLatinAmericanHistoryandCulture,v.4,270. ^Kiernan,JamesPatrick.“PanamaConference(1939)”.EncyclopediaofLatinAmericanHistoryandCulture,v.4,271-72 ^Luster,LesleyR.“RioConference(1942)”.EncyclopediaofLatinAmericanHistoryandCulture,v.4,272. ^ Friedman,MaxPaul.Nazisandgoodneighbors:theUnitedStatescampaignagainsttheGermansofLatinAmericainWorldWarII.CambridgeUniv.Press2005. ^Penteado,CarlosJoesA."HyperWar:TheBrazilianParticipationinWorldWarII".RetrievedMay24,2012. ^KLEIN,CHRISTOPHER."HowSouthAmericaBecameaNaziHaven".{{citeweb}}:CS1maint:url-status(link) ^"HealthinLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean"(PDF).CenterforStrategicandInternationalStudies.RetrievedMay22,2012. ^Helgason,Guðmundur."PotrerodelLlano(steamtanker)".GermanU-boatsofWWII-uboat.net.RetrievedMay29,2019. ^LarsSchoultz(2014).NationalSecurityandUnitedStatesPolicyTowardLatinAmerica.p. 175.ISBN 9781400858491. ^Klemen,L."201stMexicanFighterSquadron".TheNetherlandsEastIndies1941–1942.201stMexicanFighterSquadron ^Navarro,Armando,MexicanopoliticalexperienceinoccupiedAztlán(2005) ^Cline,HowardF.TheUnitedStatesandMexico,revisededition.NewYork:AtheneumPress,1962,184. ^Pruitt,Sarah(September24,2018)."TheSurprisingRoleMexicoPlayedinWorldWarII".History.com.A&ETelevisionNetworks.RetrievedMay30,2019. ^Cline,TheUnitedStatesandMexico1962,286. ^FrankArgote-Freyre.FulgencioBatista:Volume1,FromRevolutionarytoStrongman.RutgersUniversityPress,NewJersey. ^"U.S.PolicyDuringtheHolocaust:TheTragedyofS.S.St.Louis".RetrievedJune12,2013. ^ab"SecondWorldWarandtheCubanAirForce".RetrievedFebruary6,2013. ^Polmar,Norman;ThomasB.Allen.WorldWarII:TheEncyclopediaoftheWarYears1941–1945.p. 230. ^Hague,ArnoldTheAlliedConvoySystem1939–1945NavalInstitutePress2000ISBN 1-55750-019-3p.111 ^"112dominicanoslucharonenlaSegundaGuerraMundial".hoy.com.do.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonMarch8,2012.RetrievedDecember2,2010. ^"CaribbeanSeaandGulfofMexicoCampaigns". ^ThomasM.,JohnF.;Leonard,Bratzel,eds.(2007).LatinAmericaDuringWorldWarII.Rowman&Littlefield.p. 84. ^Goñi,Uki.TheRealOdessa:SmugglingtheNazistoPerón'sArgentina.London:Granta2003. ^HalperínDonghi,Tulio.TheHistoryofContemporaryLatinAmerica,249-51. ^Ebel,RolandH."JuanJoséArévalo".EncyclopediaofLatinAmericanHistoryandCulture,v.1,141-42. ^Ebel,RolandH,"JacoboArbenz".EncyclopediaofLatinAmericanHistoryandCulture,v.1,120-22 ^Schneider,RonaldM.LatinAmericanPoliticalHistory:PatternsandPersonalities.pg274–275 ^Rowlands,DavidT."Guatemala:ThecoupthatradicalisedCheGuevara."GreenLeftWeekly1011(2014):18. ^Liss,SheldonB.“Cubasince1959”.EncyclopediaofLatinAmericanHistoryandCulture,v.1,314-15. ^"U.N.resolutioncondemningtradeembargoofCuba"accessed24June2021 ^Liss,SheldonB.“Cubasince1959”.EncyclopediaofLatinAmericanHistoryandCulture,v.1,315-16. ^Liss,SheldonB.“Cubasince1959”.EncyclopediaofLatinAmericanHistoryandCulture,v.1,316-17. ^Larzelere,Alex.The1980CubanBoatlift.Washington,DC:NationalDefenseUniversityPress1988 ^""TheAssassinationofRafaelTrujillo"". ^"KennedyproposesAllianceforProgress–Mar13,1961".HISTORY.RetrievedSeptember10,2017. ^Parameters:JournaloftheUSArmyWarCollege.U.S.ArmyWarCollege.1977.p. 13. ^"ForeignInterventionbyCuba"(PDF). ^"Castro'sturbulenttieswiththeDominicanRepublic". ^"CubaAirForce".aeroflight.co.uk. ^Bakewell,Peter.AhistoryofLatinAmerica.pg541-542 ^Bushnell,David."CamiloTorresRestrepo".EncyclopediaofLatinAmericanHistoryandCulture,v.5,258-59 ^Gill,AnthonyJ.RenderinguntoCaesar?ReligiouscompetitionandCatholicpoliticalstrategyinLatinAmerica,1962–79.Routledge,2019. ^Stoll,David.IsLatinAmericaturningprotestant?:thepoliticsofevangelicalgrowth.UnivofCaliforniaPress,1990. ^abcHershberg,Eric,andFredRosen,eds.LatinAmericaafterNeoliberalism.NewYork:NorthAmericanCongressonLatinAmerica,2006.Print. ^Escobar,Arturo;Alvarez,SoniaE.,eds.(1992).TheMakingofSocialMovementsinLatinAmerica.Boulder,CO:Westview. ^abcdJohnston,Hank,andPaulAlmeida,eds.LatinAmericanSocialMovements.Lanham:Rowman&Littlefield,2006.Print. ^http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/706770.stmBBCreportonviolenceinCochabamba.Accessed27June2021 ^https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eJ91ku5rJxcYouTubetrailerforCocalero.Accessed27June2021. ^Overmyer-Velázquez,Rebecca."Theanti-quincentenarycampaigninGuerrero,Mexico:Indigenousidentityandthedismantlingofthemythoftherevolution."Berkeleyjournalofsociology(2002):79-112. ^Ospina,Jose(October28,2018)."Istherearight-wingsurgeinSouthAmerica?".DW.RetrievedDecember10,2018. ^JordiZamora."China'sdouble-edgedtradewithLatinAmerica."September3,2011.AFP.https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5ggNqQ5G8UFErmAEw71Y-u51P8_Eg?docId=CNG.e829052752a5436e909ab280ad561af6.671 ^Casey,Nicholas;Zarate,Andrea(February13,2017)."CorruptionScandalsWithBrazilianRootsCascadeAcrossLatinAmerica".TheNewYorkTimes.RetrievedJune16,2017. ^Andreoni,Manuela;Londoño,Ernesto;Darlington,Shasta(April7,2018)."Ex-President'Lula'ofBrazilSurrenderstoServe12-YearJailTerm".TheNewYorkTimes.RetrievedApril7,2018. ^"AnotherformerPeruvianpresidentissenttojail,thistimeaspartofgrowingcorruptionscandal".LosAngelesTimes.July14,2017.RetrievedJuly14,2017. ^Weiffen,Brigitte(December1,2020)."LatinAmericaandCOVID-19:PoliticalRightsandPresidentialLeadershiptotheTest".DemocraticTheory.7(2):61–68.doi:10.3167/dt.2020.070208.ISSN 2332-8894. ^abcdRethinkingEducation:Towardsaglobalcommongood?(PDF).UNESCO.2015.pp. 24,Box1.ISBN 978-92-3-100088-1. ^ReportonWorldSocialSituation2013:InequalityMatters.UnitedNations.2013.ISBN 978-92-1-130322-3. ^ProtecciónsocialinclusivaenAméricaLatina.Unamiradaintegral,unenfoquedederechos[InclusivesocialprotectioninLatinAmerica.Anintegrallook,afocusonrights].Resumen.UnitedNationsEconomicCommissionforLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean(UNECLAC).March2011.ISBN 9789210545556. ^Schaefer,RichardT.(ed.)(2008).EncyclopediaofRace,EthnicityandSociety.Sage.p. 1096.ISBN 978-1-4129-2694-2.Forexample,inmanypartsofLatinAmerica,racialgroupingsarebasedlessonthebiologicalphysicalfeaturesandmoreonanintersectionbetweenphysicalfeaturesandsocialfeaturessuchaseconomicclass,dress,education,andcontext.Thus,amorefluidtreatmentallowsfortheconstructionofraceasanachievedstatusratherthananascribedstatusasisthecaseintheUnitedStates.{{citebook}}:|author=hasgenericname(help) ^Nutini,Hugo;BarryIsaac(2009).SocialStratificationincentralMexico1500–2000.UniversityofTexasPress.p. 55.TherearebasicallyfouroperationalcategoriesthatmaybetermedethnicorevenracialinMexicotoday:(1)güeroorblanco(white),denotingEuropeanandNearEastextraction;(2)criollo(creole),meaninglightmestizointhiscontextbutactuallyofvaryingcomplexion;(3)mestizo,animprecisecategorythatincludesmanyphenotypicvariations;and(4)indio,alsoanimprecisecategory.Thesearenominalcategories,andneithergüero/blanconorcriolloisawidelyusedterm(seeNutini1997:230).Nevertheless,thereisapopularconsensusinMexicotodaythatthesefourcategoriesrepresentmajorsectorsofthenationandthattheycanbearrangedintoaroughhierarchy:whitesandcreolesatthetop,avastpopulationofmestizosinthemiddle,andIndians(perceivedasbotharacialandanethniccomponent)atthebottom.Thispopularhierarchydoesnotconstituteastratificationalsystemorevenasetofsocialclasses,however,becauseitscategoriesareneitherexhaustivenormutuallyexclusive.Whileverylightskinisindeedcharacteristicofthecountry'selite,thereisno"white"(güero)class.Rather,thesuperordinatestratumisdividedintofourrealclasses—aristocracy,plutocracy,politicalclass,andthecrèmeoftheupper-middleclass—or,forsomepurposes,intoruling,political,andprestigeclasses(seeChap.4).Noristhereamestizoclass,asphenotypicalmestizosarefoundinallclasses,thoughonlyrarelyamongthearistocracyandveryfrequentlyinthemiddleandlowerclasses.Finally,thebottomrungsarenotconstitutedmainlyofIndians,exceptinsomelocalizedareas,suchastheSierraNortedePuebla ^Acuña,RodolfoF.(2011),OccupiedAmerica:AHistoryofChicanos(7th ed.),Boston:Longman,pp. 23–24,ISBN 978-0-205-78618-3 ^MacLachlan,Colin;JaimeE.RodríguezO.(1990).TheForgingoftheCosmicRace:AReinterprretationofColonialMexico(Expanded ed.).Berkeley:UniversityofCalifornia.pp. 199,208.ISBN 0-520-04280-8.[I]ntheNewWorldallSpaniards,nomatterhowpoor,claimedhidalgostatus.ThisunprecedentedexpansionoftheprivilegedsegmentofsocietycouldbetoleratedbytheCrownbecauseinMexicotheindigenouspopulationassumedtheburdenofpersonaltribute. ^Gibson,Charles(1964).TheAztecsUnderSpanishRule.Stanford:StanfordUniversity.pp. 154–165.ISBN 0-8047-0912-2. ^SeePassing(racialidentity)foradiscussionofarelatedphenomenon,althoughinalaterandverydifferentculturalandlegalcontext. ^Seed,Patricia(1988).ToLove,Honor,andObeyinColonialMexico:conflictsoverMarriageChoice,1574–1821.Stanford:StanfordUniversity.pp. 21–23.ISBN 0-8047-2159-9. ^DavidCahill(1994)."ColourbyNumbers:RacialandEthnicCategoriesintheViceroyaltyofPeru"(PDF).JournalofLatinAmericanStudies.26:325–346.doi:10.1017/s0022216x00016242.Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)onOctober29,2013.RetrievedAugust11,2013. ^MariaMartinez(2002).TheSpanishconceptofLimpiezadeSangreandtheemergenceoftherace/castesystemintheviceroyaltyofNewSpain,PhDdissertation.UniversityofChicago. ^Bakewell,Peter(1997).AHistoryofLatinAmerica.Malden,Mass.:Blackwell.pp. 160–163.ISBN 0-631-16791-9.TheSpaniardsgenerallyregarded[localIndianlords/caciques]ashidalgos,andusedthehonorific'don'withthemoreeminentofthethem.[…]Broadlyspeaking,SpaniardsintheIndiesinthesixteenthcenturyarrangedthemselvessociallylessandlessbyIberiancriteriaorfrank,andincreasinglybynewAmericanstandards.[…]simplewealthgainedfromusingAmerica'shumanandnaturalresourcessoonbecameastronginfluenceonsocialstanding. ^FraciscoH.Ferreiraetal.InequalityinLatinAmerica:BreakingwithHistory?,TheWorldBank,Washington,D.C.,2004 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Furtherreading[edit] Ardao,Arturo.GénesisdelaideaynombredeAméricaLatina.Caracas:CentrodeEstudiosLatinoamericanosRómuloGallegos,1980. AyalaMora,Enrique."ElorigendelnombreAméricaLatinaylatradicióncatólicadelsigloXIX."AnuarioColombianodeHistoriaSocialydelaCultura40,no.1(2013),213–41. Berryman,Phillip.LatinAmericaat200.Austin:UniversityofTexasPress2016. Bethell,Leslie,TheCambridgeHistoryofLatinAmerica.12volumes.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress1985–2008. Bomfim,Manoel.AAméricalatina:Malesdeorigem.RiodeJaneiro:H.Garnier1905. Braudel,Fernand."Ya-t-iluneAmériquelatine?"AnnalesESC3(1948),467–71. Calderón,FernandoandManuelCastells.TheNewLatinAmerica.Cambridge:PolityPress2020. Coatsworth,JohnH.,andAlanM.Taylor,eds.LatinAmericaandtheWorldEconomySince1800.CambridgeMA:HarvardUniversityPress1998. Edwards,Sebastián.LeftBehind:LatinAmericaandtheFalsePromiseofPopulism.UniversityofChicagoPress,2010. SebastianEdwards;GerardoEsquivel;GracielaMárquez(February15,2009).TheDeclineofLatinAmericanEconomies:Growth,Institutions,andCrises.UniversityofChicagoPress.ISBN 978-0-226-18503-3. Galeano,Eduardo.OpenVeinsofLatinAmerica:FiveCenturiesofthePillageofaContinent.1973 Gobat,Michel,"TheInventionofLatinAmerica:ATransnationalHistoryofAnti-Imperialism,Democracy,andRace,"AmericanHistoricalReviewVol.118,no.3(December2013),pp. 1345–1375. HalperinDonghi,Tulio.TheContemporaryHistoryofLatinAmerica.Durham:DukeUniversityPress1993. Lockhart,JamesandStuartB.Schwartz.EarlyLatinAmerica.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress1982. MartínezEstrada,Ezequiel.DiferenciasysemejanzasentrelospaísesdeAméricaLatina.Mexico"UniversidadNacionalAutónomadeMéxico1962. MaurerQueipo,Isabel(ed.):"DirectoryofWorldCinema:LatinAmerica",intellectbooks,Bristol2013,ISBN 9781841506180 Mazzuca,Sebastián,LatecomerStateFormation:PoliticalGeographyandCapacityFailureinLatinAmerica.NewHaven,CT:YaleUniversityPress,2021. McGinnes,Aims."Searchingfor'LatinAmerica':RaceandSovereigntyintheAmericasinthe1850s."InRaceandNationinModernLatinAmerica,editedbyNancyP.Appelbaum,AnneS.Macpherson,andKarinalejandraRosemblatt.ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress2003,pp,87–107. Mignolo,Walter,TheIdeaofLatinAmerica.Oxford:Wiley-Blackwell2005. Moraña,Mabel,EnriqueDussel,andCarlosA.Jáuregui,eds.ColonialityatLarge:LatinAmericaandthePostcolonialDebate.Durham:DukeUniversityPress2008. Phelan,JohnLeddy.(1968).Pan-latinisms,FrenchInterventioninMexico(1861–1867)andtheGenesisoftheIdeaofLatinAmerica.MexicoCity:UniversidadNacionalAutonónomadeMéxico1968. Tenenbaum,BarbaraA.ed.EncyclopediaofLatinAmericanHistoryandCulture.5vols.NewYork:CharlesScribner'sSons1996 Tenorio-Trillo,Mauricio.LatinAmerica:TheAllureandPowerofanIdea.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress2017. Vasconcelos,José.Indología:Unainterpretacióndelaculturaibero-americana.Barcelona:AgenciaMundialdeLibrería1927. Zea,Leopoldo,ed.Fuentesdelaculturalatinoamericana.2vols.MexicoCity:FondodeCulturaEconómica1993. Externallinks[edit] WikimediaCommonshasmediarelatedto: LatinAmerica(category) Wikiquotehasquotationsrelatedto:LatinAmerica WikivoyagehasatravelguideforLatinAmerica. IDBEducationInitiative LatinAmericanNetworkInformationCenterArchivedDecember24,2007,attheWaybackMachine LatinAmericaDataBaseArchivedJuly19,2019,attheWaybackMachine WashingtonOfficeonLatinAmerica CouncilonHemisphericAffairs CodigosDeBarra Infolatam.InformationandanalysisofLatinAmericaattheLibraryofCongressWebArchives(archivedSeptember8,2008) MapofLandCover:LatinAmericaandCaribbean(FAO) LessonsFromLatinAmericabyBenjaminDangl,TheNation,March4,2009 KeepingLatinAmericaontheWorldNewsAgenda–InterviewwithMichaelReidofTheEconomistattheWaybackMachine(archivedJune24,2010) ColdWarinLatinAmerica,CSUPomonaUniversityatarchive.today(archivedDecember14,2012) LatinAmericaColdWarResources,YaleUniversity LatinAmericaColdWar,HarvardUniversity http://larc.ucalgary.ca/LatinAmericanResearchCentre,UniversityofCalgary ThewaronDemocracy,byJohnPilger vteLatinAmerica articlesHistoryByperiod Spanishcolonization Portuguesecolonization Frenchcolonization Decolonization LatinAmericanintegration GreatDepression 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