Purity and Impurity, Ritual | Encyclopedia.com

Ritual impurity arises from physical substances and states associated with procreation and death, not in themselves sinful. Ritual impurities are in general ... SkiptomaincontentReligionEncyclopediasalmanacstranscriptsandmapsPurityandImpurity,RitualPurityandImpurity,RitualgaleviewsupdatedPURITYANDIMPURITY,RITUALPURITYANDIMPURITY,RITUAL(Heb.וְטָהֳרָהטֻמְאָה,tumahve-toharah),asymbolicsystemaccordingtowhichapurepersonorobjectisqualifiedforcontactwiththeTempleandrelatedsancta(holyobjectsandspaces)whileanimpurepersonorobjectisdisqualifiedfromsuchcontact.Ritualimpurityarisesfromphysicalsubstancesandstatesassociatedwithprocreationanddeath,notinthemselvessinful.Ritualimpuritiesareingeneralpermitted(ifnotunavoidableorobligatory)andinthistheycanbedistinguishedfrommoralimpurities,whicharisefromprohibitedacts.BothtypesofimpurityaredenotedbyHebrewtermsofdefilement(formsoftame)butcontextandassociatedtermsindicatethatdifferentkindsofimpurityareintended.Ritual,orpermitted,impurityisdistinguishedbythefollowingfeatures:(1)itiscontagious,transferredfromonepersonorobjecttoanotherinavarietyofways,suchasphysicalcontactorsharingspacewithinacoveredarea;(2)impuritycontractedfromasourceofritualimpurityisimpermanentandcanbereducedandremovedbysomecombinationofablutions,time,and/ortheperformanceofspecifiedrituals;(3)ritualimpuritycandefilesanctaandmustbekeptseparatefromit.Moresevereformsofritualimpuritycanalsodefilecommon(non-sacred)objectsaswell,andthusmayrequireisolationorexclusion.Bycontrast,moralimpurityarisesfromthecommissionofcertainheinoussins,specificallyidolatry,bloodshed,andsexualtransgressions.ThesesinsaresaidtogenerateamoralimpuritythatsymbolicallydefilesarangeofsanctaincludingthelandofIsraelitselfandthesanctuary.Inadditiontooriginatinginsin,moralimpuritydiffersfromritualimpurityinthatitisnotcontagious(onedoesnotcontractimpuritybytouchingamurderer),anditisnotgenerallyremovedbyritualsofbathing,laundering,andthelike.Moralimpurityissometimesremovedthroughaprocessofatonement.Insomecases,arepentantsinnermaybringasacrificialofferingtopurgethesanctuaryofthedefilementcausedbyhissins.Inseverecases,however,moralimpurityisabsolvedonlywithpunishmentand/ordeath.TheYomKippurriteisdesignedtopurgethesanctuaryofthedefilementcausedbyunrepentantsinsofthecommunityatlarge.Theconceptofritual–asdistinctfrommoral–purityandimpurityisbynomeansexclusivetotheJewishreligion;indeeditwasacentralandintegralfeatureofmost,ifnotall,ancientreligions(seebelow).Itisgenerallybelievedthatimpurityisaconcurrentofthebeliefinevilspiritsandapartofthetabooconcept.Whateveritsorigins,thesystemofritualpurityandimpurityascraftedinthepriestlywritingsoftheHebrewBiblerepresentsanattemptto"monotheize"thecommunity'spuritypractices.Inthesewritings,impurityisgenerallydivorcedfromanyassociationwithevilspiritsandfunctionsasasymbolofthatwhichisanathematotheholy.IntheBibleThemainsourceforthebiblicallawsofritualpurityandimpurityisLeviticus11–17andNumbers19.OtherspecificpuritylawsarealsofoundinLeviticus5:2–3;Numbers31:19–20,Deuteronomy14:3–21;23:10–15;24:8;26:14.TheritualpuritysystemlimnedinthepriestlywritingsoftheHebrewBibledoesnotreflectaconcernwithhealthorhygiene.Onlyonesetofdiseasesgeneratesritualimpurityandmanysubstanceswidelyconsideredunhygienic,suchashumanandanimalexcrement,arenotdeemedtoberituallyimpure.WhilethereisnotheoreticaldefinitionofpurityandimpurityintheBible,itsfunctionandsymbolismcanbereadilydeducedfromtheantitheticalrelationshipbetweenimpurityandholiness(Lev.11:43–47).OnlyGodisinherentlyholy.Thingsthatarenon-holy,orcommon,mayacquireholinessbybeingbroughtintoGod'srealm(beingsanctifiedorconsecrated).Therealmofthecommonissubjecttotwopossiblestatesconnotingcompatibilityandincompatibilitywithholiness:purityandimpurity.Undernormalcircumstances,commonobjectsarepureandcompatiblewiththeholy.However,contactwithcertainsourcesofritualimpuritywilldefilecommonobjectsandrenderthemincompatiblewiththeholy.Thatwhichisholyisbydefinitionpureandmustnevercomeincontactwiththeimpure.Ifdefiled,asanctumlosesbothitsholiness(becomescommon)anditspurity(becomesrituallyimpure).Tobefullyrestored,itmustfirstbepurified(makingitpurebutcommon)andthenresanctified(makingitholyonceagain).WhatarethesourcesofritualimpuritythatareincompatiblewiththeholinessofGod?Thethreemainsourcesofimpurityare(1)corpsesandcertainanimalcarcasses,(2)ẓara'at–skindiseasesinhumans(adecompositionofthefleshassociatedwithdeath;seeNum.12:12,Job18:13)andfungalgrowthsinfabricsandhouses,and(3)genitaldischarges.Manyscholarshavenotedthatthephysicalsubstancesandstateslabeledimpure,andthusdeemedtobeanathematoGod,areassociatedwithdeathandprocreation.TheGodoftheHebrewBibledoesnotdieanddoesnothavesexualrelations.Thesearecharacteristicofhumans.Tobeeligibletoapproachthesanctuary,God'sresidenceamongtheIsraelites,humansmustseparatefromthatwhichmakesthemleastGod-like:deathandprocreation.TheritualpuritylawsrequiringseparationfromsourcesofimpurityarethusessentialtothefrequentpriestlyexhortationtobelikeGod(imitatiodei)andtostriveforholiness.AccordingtoLeviticus10:10,thepriestsmustteachIsraelthedistinctionbetweenpureandimpureontheonehand,andholyandcommon(orprofane)ontheother,inordertopreventimpermissiblecontactsbetweentheholyandtheimpure.Maintainingarituallypureandholyareainthecommunity(thesanctuarycompound)isessentialifGodistodwellinIsrael'smidst.Duringthewildernessperiod,theentirecampoftheIsraeliteswasakindofholywarcampwiththearkinthecenter;thus,itwassubjecttostricterpurityregulationsthantheordinarysettledhabitation.Thisaccountsfortheexclusionofsevereimpuritybearersfromthecamp(Num.5:2–3and31:13–44),eventhoughsuchpersonsarenotexcludedfromtheircommunitiesinthelawsforordinarysettledhabitation(seebelow).corpsesandcarcassesThemostseveresourceofritualimpurityisthehumancorpse,whichcommunicatestopersonsandobjectsthatcontactitorenteranenclosedspacewithit(Num.19:14ff.)animpuritythatlastssevendaysandcaninturndefileotherswithamilderone-dayimpurity.Humanbonesandgravesalsoconveyritualimpurity.Corpseimpurityissoseverethatsomesourcesexcludethecorpse-defiledfromtheholycampfortheperiodofimpurity(Num.5:2–3,Num.31:13–24).Numbers19,whichreflectsthesituationinsettledcommunitiesgenerally,ratherthantheholycamp,doesnot.Thecorpse-defiledarepurifiedbyaritualprocessthatincludessprinklingwithamixtureofwaterandashesfromarituallyburnedredheiferonthethirdandseventhdays,bathing,launderingandwaitingtillsundown.Corpse-defiledobjectsarepurifiedbyfireorimmersioninwaterasappropriate,thoughdefiledearthenwarecannotbepurifiedandissimplydestroyed.Thecarcassesofalllargelandanimalsandeighttypesofsmallerlandanimals(e.g.,mice,lizards)conveyaone-dayritualimpurity.Onewhotouchesorcarriesthembecomesimpureuntilnightfall(Lev.11:24ff.).Thepuritylawspertainingtoanimalsarecomplicatedbythefactthatmanydefilebyingestion(see*DietaryLaws).Theonlylivingbeingstocontractcorpseimpurityarehumans,bothIsraeliteandnon-Israelite(Num.19:11).Foodmayalsobecomeimpureifithasfirstbeenincontactwithwater(whichmakesit"receptive"toimpurity;Lev.11:34).scale-diseaseor"leprosy""Leprosy"isaconventionalbuterroneousrenderingofHebrewẓara'at.Thetermcoversasetofskinlesionsinhumansthatfeaturescalingoftheskinaswellasfungalgrowthsinclothesandresidentialbuildings;thesearedetailedinLev.13–14.Skinlesionsofhumanbeingsgenerateamostsevereimpurity(defilingtobothsanctaandcommonobjects)andcanbesubdivided:onetypeisimmediatelydeclaredasimpure,anotheraspure(includingacasewherethesymptomsappearoverthewholebody).Athirdtyperequiresisolationforaweekorafortnight,andifthereisnodeteriorationthebearerisconsideredpure.Becausethescale-diseasedpersoncandefileevencommonobjectsandpersons,heiseitherrestrictedwithinorexcludedfromthecommunity(Lev.13:46;Num.12:14–15).Scale-diseaseofclothesandbuildingsalwaysrequiresisolationoftheafflictedentityforaweekorafortnightandonlyfollowingthisperiodisitdecidedwhetheritispureornot.Thepurificationritualforpersonsiscarriedoutbythepriestonlyafterhealingiscomplete(hence,theritualisnotcurative).Itismoreintricateandcomplicatedthanforotherimpurepersons,andbearscertainsimilaritiestotheAzazel(scapegoat)ceremonyontheDayofAtonement(Lev.16:5–11).Impurityisremovedbysprinklingamixofbirdbloodandwater,andthencarriedawaybyalivebird.Thepersonbathes,launders,andshaves,waitsaweek,andthenbathes,launders,andshavesagainbeforeofferingaspecialsacrificeatthesanctuary.Housesfromwhichẓara'athasbeenremovedarepurifiedbysprinklinganddispatchofalivebird;fabricsarepurifiedbywashing.InmanynarrativetextsoftheHebrewBible,ẓara'at,likedeath,canbedeployedasadivinepunishmentforsin(Ex.4:6;Num.12:10–15;Deut.28:27,35;iiSam.3:29;iiKings5).Nevertheless,thepriestlydiscussionofscale-diseaseimpuritymakesnomentionofastateofsinfulness,onlyofritualimpuritypreventingcontactwithsancta.Thereisslightevidenceforabiblicalassociationofscale-diseasewithdeath(Num.12:12,Job18:13),supportingtheclaimthatbiblicalimpuritiesarisefromsubstancesandconditionsassociatedwithprocreationanddeath.issuefromthesexualorgansEmissionsofsemen,pus,orbloodfromthegenitalsofeithersexconveyritualimpurity.Emissionsmaybedividedintotwomainclasses:normalemissions(dischargesofsemenfromthemaleandmenstrualbloodfromthefemale)andabnormalemissions(diseaseddischargesofnon-menstrualbloodorpus).Normalemissionsarelesssevere,conveyingimpurityonlyfortheperiodofthedischargeitself:one-dayforanemitterofsemenand(anidealized)seven-daysforamenstruant.Semen(theleastdefilinggenitalflux)defilesclothing,butsinceemittersofsemendonotconveyasecondaryimpurity,thesemen-defiledarerestrictedonlyfromthesphereoftheholy(thesanctuaryareaandholyitemsoutsidethesanctuarysuchassacrificialmeats).Purificationforasemenemitterisachievedbybathing,laundering,andwaitinguntilevening.Sexualintercourseconveysaone-daysemenimpuritytothefemalepartneraswellasthemale.Thisisremovedbybathingandwaitinguntilevening.Theritualimpurityofamenstruant(niddah)isslightlymoresevere,defilingbothpersonsandobjectsforoneday.Thebedandchairofthemenstruantaredefiled(probablyduetothepossibilityofactualcontactwiththeflux)andcanconveyaone-dayimpuritytopersonsorthingsbycontact.Objectsorfurnitureonwhichamenstruantsitsorliescanconveyimpuritybycontact.Sexualintercoursewithamenstruantconveysanequivalentseven-dayimpuritytothemalepartner(Lev.15:24;butLev.18:19prohibitssexwithamenstruant).Purificationfrommenstrualimpuritydoesnotrequireasacrifice;wemaydeducethatthemenstruantbathesandlaundersontheseventhdayandwaitsuntileveningalthoughthisisnotexplicitlystated.Lev.15,whichcontainstheimpurityregulationsforgenitalemissions,normalizesandregularizesmenstruationonanalogytotheemissionofsemen.Theseregulationsdonotbanishthemenstruantfromherhomeandtheycontainnoneoftherhetoricofdisgustformenstruationevidencedinotherbiblicaltexts(suchasIsaiah30:22whichsuggestsapracticeofphysicalexpulsionformenstruants;orEzekiel7:19–20;36:17)andinancientliteraturegenerally(seePliny,TheNaturalHistory,Bookvii,chapter13).Abnormalemissionsconveyamoresevereformofritualimpuritythatresemblesinitseffecttheothersevereimpuritiesofẓara'atandcorpsecontamination.First,theimpuritycontinuesforaperiodofsevendaysbeyondthetimeofthedischargeitself(similartotheweekbetweenhealingandpurificationofscale-disease).Second,thepurificationritual,likethatprescribedforẓara'atandcorpsecontamination,requiressacrificialofferings.Third,thezavandzavah(maleandfemalewithanabnormalemission)areexcludedfromthesanctuarycamp(Num.5:2–3).TheregulationsinLeviticus15,presumablyintendedforsettledhabitation,donotincludeexpulsionfromthecommunity.Thezav/ahconveystoabed,chair,orsaddleonwhichhesitsorliesaone-dayimpuritythatcandefileotherpersonsorthings.Touchingazav/ahorbeingtouchedbyazav/ahwithunwashedhandsleadstoaone-dayimpurity.Thespittleofazavalsoconveysaone-dayimpurity.Purificationfromabnormalgenitalemission,beginningsevendaysaftertheconditionhashealed,involvesbathingin"livingwater"(mayyimḥayyim;(Lev.15:13)),laundering,waitinguntilevening,andbringingaburntofferingandapurificationoffering(ḥattat)ontheeighthday.Lochialdischarge(genitalemissionsattendingandfollowingthebirthingprocess)alsoconveyritualimpurity.Forsevendaysafterthebirthofamaleandfourteendaysafterthebirthofafemale,awomandefileslikeamenstruant.Foranadditional33or66days(foramaleorfemalechildrespectively),themotherbearsalesserimpurityandisrestrictedonlyfromcontactwithsancta,notordinaryobjectsorpersons(presumablysexualintercourseispermitted).Thenew-bornchildisnotconsideredimpure.Purificationfrompost-partumimpurityisnotdetailedandmustbededucedfromcomparableimpurities,butlikelyincludedbathingandlaunderingafterboththefirstandsecondstages.Whenthepurificationperiodisover,thewomanbringsaburnt-offeringsacrificeandapurification(ḥatta't)sacrificetothesanctuary(Lev.12:6–8).Otherpermittedritualdefilementsoccurinthecontextofthecultwhenthoseengagedincertainpurificationritualsabsorborotherwiseincuraone-dayimpurity.purificationfrompermitted(ritual)impuritiesregardingpersonsandobjectsCommontoallpurificationsforritualimpurityisthetimefactor.Onemustwaituntiltheeveningforthelesserdegreesofimpurity(e.g.,Lev.11:24,25,27)andsevendaysforthegreaterdegrees(e.g.,Lev.12:2).Ritualsincreasewiththeseverityoftheimpurity.Thus,ablutions,bathingforpersonsandwashingforobjects,areabasicpurificationriteforallpermittedritualimpuritiesevenwherenotexpresslyspecified.Slightlymoresevereformsofcontactwithasourceofimpurity(carryingratherthanmeretouching)andimpuritieslastinglongerthanone-dayalsorequirelaundering(Lev.11:25,28).Sprinkling,anotherformofcleansing,isprescribedforthesevereimpurities(sprinklingwithwaterandbloodforthescale-diseased,withwaterandtheashesofaredheiferforcorpse-defilement).Themoresevereritualimpuritiesofabnormalgenitalemissionsandscale-diseaserequireaḥattat(purificationoffering)topurifythesanctuary,nottheofferer,ofimpuritygeneratedbyhisorhercondition.(Theofferer'spersonalimpurityhasbeenremovedbythepassageoftimeandbyablutionsfollowingthehealingofhisorhercondition.)Onoccasion,additionalsacrificesareprescribedasappeasementsthatenablethefullreintegrationoftheofferer(e.g.,aburntofferingforthezav/ah,Lev.15:14–15,29–30).Theashamofferingrequiredofthescale-diseasedpersonisnormallybroughtforcasesofsacrilegeandmayreflectanancientideathatscale-diseaseisapunishmentforsacrilege.Objectsdefiledbycontactwithacorpsearepassedthroughfireiftheycanendureit;ifnottheyareimmersedinwater(Num.31:19–24).Earthenwarevesselscannotbepurifiedbutmustbebroken,asmustevenstovesandovens.Variousmodesofdestructionordisposalareprescribedforotherimpuritiesthatcannotberemoved.Forexample,corpsesmustbeburiedoutsidethesettlement,fabricsinfectedbyẓara'atareburnedandẓara'atinfectedbuildingmaterialsaredepositedinanimpureplaceoutsidethecamp.Defiledsanctaarefullyrestoredwithatwo-stepprocessofpurificationfollowedbyreconsecration.Purificationritualsalsoelevatepersonstopositionsofincreasedaccesstothesacred.Priestsundergoablutions(washinghandsandfeet)beforeservinginthesanctuaryandspecialablutionsattendthehighpriest'sperformanceoftheYomKippurritual.Levitesarepurifiedbyshaving,laundering,andsprinklingwith"watersofpurification"(meḥattat;Num.8:6–7,15,21)beforeassistingthepriestsandperformingsanctuarylabors.prohibited(moral)impuritiesandtheirpurificationLeviticus18,20,andrelatedtexts(mostbelongingtoasetofwritingsknownastheHolinessCode)employimpurityterminologyinamoralcontext.(Inadditiontothetermtame,thetermsto'evahandḥanafareusedinreferencetomoral,andnotritual,impurity.)Accordingtothesetexts,moralimpurityarisesfromthecommissionofsinanddefilesthesinnerhimself(withanon-removabledegradation)andthesanctuary.Unlikeritualimpurity,moralimpurityisnotconveyedtoothers;itisnotsubjecttoritesofpurification(suchasablutions).Moralpurityofpersonscanbeachievedonlybypunishmentforheinoussins(suchaskaret,thedivinepenaltyof"cutting-off"),atonementforlessersins,orabstentionfromdefilingimmoralactsinthefirstinstance.Whereritualimpuritydefilespersons,someobjects,andtheouteraltarofthesanctuary,severemoralimpuritydefilestheinnermostareasofthesanctuaryaswellastheland.Landthatisrepeatedlydefiledbysexualtransgressionswilleventually"vomitout"thosewhodwelluponit,areferencetoexile(seeLev.18:25,28).Threeclassesofheinousmoraltransgressionaresingledoutassourcesofamoralimpuritythatdefilestheland.Thesetransgressions,whichincurseverepunishment,includevarioussexualsins,homicide,andidolatry.AccordingtoLeviticus18and20,sexualsinssuchasincest(18:6–18),adultery(18:20),homosexuality(18:22),bestiality(18:23),andintercoursewithamenstruant(18:19,20:18),resultinkaretfortheoffenderanddefilementoftheland(exposingthecommunitytothedangerofexpulsion).Inothertexts,victimsofsexualviolationsincurapersonalmoraldefilement(anon-contagiousconditionofdegradation),asinthecaseofrape(Gen.34:5,13,27)andincest(Ezek.22:11).So,too,dothosewhoremarryafteraninterveningunion(Deut.24:1–4).Illicit(i.e.,non-judicial,non-military)homicide,whetherintentionalorunintentional,alsodefilestheland(Num.35:33–34).Themanslayerbears"bloodguilt,"akindofmoralimpurity,andhislifeisforfeit.Incasesofmurder,thepersonaldefilementofthemurdererandthedefilementofthelandareremovedonlybythedeathofthemurderer.Ininstancesofaccidentalhomicide,thedeathoftheperpetratoratthehandsofthevictim'sbloodavengeralsoremovesbloodguiltandimpurityfromtheland.However,theaccidentalmanslayermaytakerefugeinoneoffivecitiesdesignatedforthispurposeuntilthedeathofthehighpriest,whichservestoremovetheimpurityofthehomicide.TwoidolatrousactionsaredescribedasdefilinginLeviticus(offeringachildtoMolechinLeviticus20:2–5andconsultingthedeadinLev.19:31).However,numerousbiblicaltextsspeakofidolatry,idols,andidolatrousutensilsmorebroadlyasdefilingtheworshipper(e.g.,Josh.22:17,Jer.2:23,Ezek.20:7,18,26,31),thesanctuary(Jer.7:30,Ezek.5:11),andtheland(Jer.2:7–9;Ezek.36:17–18).Offendersaresubjecttostoningandthedivinepenaltyofkaret(cuttingoff).Inmanypassages,idolsandtheirculticappurtenancesmustbedestroyedordisposedof(forburningseeEx.32:20,Deut.7:5,25,iiKings10:26;forburyingseeGen.35:4).Inadditiontothethreeclassesofheinoussin,lessertransgressionsgenerateamoralimpuritythatdefilesthesanctuary.Thedefilingeffectofthesetransgressionsiscalibratedtothesinner'sintentionality(deliberateorinadvertentsin)andthepresenceorabsenceofrepentance.Thesanctuarydefilementofinadvertentsinsispurgedbybringingaḥattatsacrifice.Repentancereducesdeliberatesinstoastatusequaltothatofunintentionalsin,allowingtheremovalofsanctuarydefilementbyḥattatalso.Brazen,unrepentedsinsandunintentionalsinsofwhichtheperpetratorisunawareremainun-remedied.Thus,Leviticus16describesanannualritualprocessdesignedtopurifythesanctuaryfromtheaccumulateddefilementsaccruingtoitasaresultofthesetrespasses.OntheDayofAtonement(orYomKippur)aḥattatsacrificeisbroughtonbehalfofthecommunity.ThehighpriestconfessesallofthesinsoftheIsraelitesovertheheadofagoatwhichisthendispatchedintothewilderness.Althoughritualimpuritiesarenotsinful,failuretopurifyoneselffromapermittedritualimpurity(e.g.,corpse-defilement)issinfulanddefilesthesanctuarywithamoralimpurity.Ifinadvertent,thesituationcanberectifiedbybringingaḥattat(purificationoffering)inadditiontothenormalpurificationproceduresfortheritualimpurity.Ifdeliberateandunrepented,thepunishmentiskaret.ThepurityrequirementsforNaziritesandpriestsarehigherthanthoseforordinaryIsraelitesbecauseofthegreaterholinessoftheformer.Thus,whileIsraelitesmaybecomeimpurefromanycorpse,priestsmaynotdefilethemselvesbyanycorpsebutthatofclosekin.ThehighpriestandNaziritemustavoidcorpse-defilementaltogether.Naziritecontactwithacorpseisasinthatdefilesthesanctuary.Ifdoneinadvertently,aḥattatmustbeofferedtopurifythesanctuary,butifdonedeliberatelytheNaziriteispunishedwithkaret.Bothritualandmoralimpurityappearinbiblicalsourcesasrealandpotentforces.Whiletheirsourcesandmodesoftransferdiffer,theyaredeemedtohavereal(albeitdifferent)effectsintheworld.Thereare,however,secondarynon-literalapplicationsoftermsofimpuritythatshouldbeunderstoodasmeremetaphor.Forexample,"apureheart"(Jer.4:14,Ps.24:4,51:12,73:1)and"purehands"(Gen.20:5,IISam.22:21,Ps.18:21,25)areclearlymetaphorsforrighteousnesswhile"im-purelips"(Isa.6:5)isametaphorforimpiousspeech.generalSeveralscholarshavestressedthesimilaritybetweenthelawsofpurityandimpurityintheBibleandthoseoftheancientNearEast,includingEgypt,Mesopotamia,andtheancientHittites.AccordingtoHerodotus(1,198),itwascustomaryinBabylontobatheinwateraftercohabitationanditwasforbiddentotouchanyutensilpriortothis.AccordingtoanancientBabyloniantext,amantouchingamenstruatingwomanwasuncleanforsixdays.Thepigwasconsideredunclean,althoughitwasnotconsideredforbiddenfood.InEgyptitwasforbiddenforamantoenterthetempleaftercohabitationunlesshefirstbathed,andthepriestsbathedtwicedailyandtwicenightly.ThekingofEgyptpurifiedhimselfeverymorning(cf.Ex.7:15).AmongtheHittitesacorpsewasconsideredimpureandthereisevidenceofadetailedritualforthepurificationofamotheraftergivingbirth.Despitethesesignificantsimilaritiesandtheancient,pre-monotheisticrootsformanyIsraelitepuritypractices,anyefforttounderstandthepurposeandmeaningofthesepracticesassystematizedbythemonotheizingpriestlywritingsinLev.12–16mustattendtothelargersymbolismofimpurityandholinessinthosewritings.Thus,althoughBabylonianpurityritesareaccompaniedbyhealingincantations,itcannotbeassumedthatbiblicalpurificationritesascraftedbythepriestlywritersaredesignedtoheal,sincetheyoccuronlyafterthediseasedcondition(abnormalgenitalemission,ẓara'at)hasalreadyceased.Insomeculturespurityregulationsserveastoolsofsubordination.ThereislittleevidencetosuggestthatIsraelitepurityregulationsservedthisfunction.Ritualimpurityisnotapermanentorlong-lastingstigmaappliedtocertaingroupsselectively.ThebiblicalsystemofritualimpurityisimpermanentandappliestoallIsraelites–priestsandlayIsraelites,menandwomen.IntheHalakhahAgeneralconcernforritualpurityisattestedintheSecondTemplePeriod.Ritualpuritywasimportantwhenhandlingconsecratedfoodorobjectsandimpurityhadrestrictiveconsequences,suchasdisqualificationfromeatingsacrificialfood,orparticipatinginthePassovercelebration.Purityobservance,however,wasimportantforreasonsthatextendedbeyondculticpracticeandaccess.Forexample,groupsliketheEssenesandPhariseesvoluntarilyadoptedthepurityregulationsofpriests,strivingtoeattheirfoodinastateofpurity,aspartoftheirquestforholiness.Moreover,strongbiblicalsanctionsattendedthefailuretopurifyfromsevereimpurities(e.g.,Num.19:13threatensthosewhodonotpurifyfromcorpseimpuritywithkaretor"cuttingoff").Finally,thelargerHellenisticmilieuwasoneinwhichcorpseimpuritywasfearedandavoided.InGreektradition,priestscouldnotattendfuneralsandweredefiledbyevenlookingatacorpse.Housesofthedeadcontractedimpurityandweretobecleansedwithseawater.Tombs,bones,anduncoveredgravesweretobeavoided.AccordingtoRomanlaw,corpseimpuritytraveledalongbloodlinessothatrelativesofthedeadweredefiledevenifphysicallydistant.ForJewstoobservetheirownritualpuritylawsinsuchanenvironmentwouldberatherunremarkable,asevidencedbypassagesinPhiloandJosephus.Allofthesenon-culticinducementstotheobservanceofpurityregulationswhiletheTemplestillstood,helpexplainrabbinicinterestinthelawsofpurityinapost-Templeworld.Thetannaimcontinuethebiblicaldistinctionbetweenritualimpurityandmoralimpurity,recognizingthatritualimpurityarisesfromnatural,unavoidableandevenobligatorycircumstancesandnotfromsin.Whilethebiblicallawsofritualimpurityandpurityaresystematizedandextendedinrabbinichalakhah(atleast⅓oftheMishnahdealswiththelawsofritualpurityinsomefashion),moralimpurityandtheconsequencesofsinaremattersofmoralinstructionratherthanlegalformulation;theyaretreatedinaggadicratherthanhalakhictexts.(Therabbisexpandonthelistofmorallydefilingtransgressions,asinMekhilta,ba-Ḥodesh9:"anyonewhoisarrogantcausesthelandtobecomeimpure").Thefollowingdiscussionofrabbinicandlaterhalakhicimpurityregulationsfocusesexclusivelyonthetreatmentofritualimpurity.rabbinicsystematizationofbiblicalimpurityregulationsTwelvecompletetractatesintheMishnahandtheTosefta,scoresofmishnayotinothertractates,andmanyberaitotinthehalakhicMidrashimandinthetwoTalmuds,aswellasthestudiesofamoraimconnectedwiththem,aredevotedtothesehalakhot.Therabbinicauthorsassumethatthebiblicalregulationsarenotrandom,butformasystemwhoseprinciplescanbediscernedandextrapolated.Throughexactingexegesis,comparisonofparallelpassagesandlogicalinference,theyfillthegapsinthebiblicalmaterialandproduceafullyelaboratedschemeofritualpurityandimpurity.Forexample,asregardspurification,rabbinicauthorsrealizethat:(1)therequirementofbathingcanbeassumedevenwherenotspecified(supportedbysuchparallelsasLev.11:39–40,Lev.17:15,andLev.22:5–6);(2)ablutionsorimmersionofsomekindareaminimalpurityrequirementforanydefiledpersonorobjectevenwhennotspecified;(3)moreintensecontactwithimpurity(carryingandeatingratherthanmerelytouchingacarcass;lyingdownoreatingratherthanmerelysteppinginaẓara'atafflictedhouse)necessitateslaunderingaswellasbathing(compareLev.11:39–40with17:15;Lev.14:36,46with14:47);(4)sincemoreintensecontactwithimpuritynecessitateslaunderingaswellasbathing,therequirementtolaunderassumestheneedtobatheevenwherenotspecified(supportedbysuchparallelsasNum.19:19andNum.31:24);(5)logicdemandsthatfemaleswithgenitaldischargesofanydescriptionmustbatheevenwherenotspecifiedsince(a)bathingisrequiredofthosetheydefileand(b)thebathingrequirementindicatedinthefirstcaseofgenitaldischargediscussedinLeviticus15(thezav)extendstoallcases,maleandfemale,subsumedthereunder(seeLev.15:33);(6)formoresevereimpuritybearersablutionsremovelayersofimpurity(supportedbyLev.14:8,Lev.15:11),abiblicalideathatgeneratestherabbiniccategoryoftevulyom–onewhohasundergoneimmersionandisawaitingsunsetforcompletepurification.Thetevulyomisnolongerdefilinginthecommonsphere(hencehemayreenterthecamp;cf.Lev.14:8)andisathreatonlytosanctaandfoodthatmustbeeateninpurity,TheCategoriesofImpurityRabbinicsystematizationmayalsobeseeninthecategorizationofthebiblicalimpurities.TheritualimpuritiesmentionedintheTorah(corpses,carcasses,genitalemissions,andscale-disease)areregardedinrabbinictextsas"fathersofimpurity"(avotha-tumah).Impurityaffectspersons,vessels,clothing,food,liquid,and,insomecases,bedsandchairs.Entitiesthatcontractritualimpurityfromafatherofimpurityarecalled"children"(yeladot)or"offspringofimpurity"(toledotha-tumah)andareimpureinthefirstdegree.Theseoffspringofimpurityrenderonlyfoodsandliquidsimpureintheseconddegree(bk2b;Yad,TumatMet5:7).Inthecommonspherethechainofimpurityceasesintheseconddegree,buthands,foodandliquidwhichareimpureintheseconddegreestilltransmitimpuritytodedicatedorsacredproduce.Terumahcontractsathirddegreeimpuritybutdoesnottransmitimpurityfurther.Sacredproduce(kodoshim,dedicatedtoTempleuse)cancontractathirddegreeimpurityandtransmitanimpuritytofoodsandliquidstothefourthdegree(Sot.5:2;Toh.2:3–5;Yad,Avotha-Tumah11:1–4).Theexceptiontothisdescendingseriesisthatwhichcontractsimpurityfromacorpse,which(basedonanambiguityinNum.19:22)isdeemedbytherabbistobeafatherofimpuritywhichisitselfabletodefilebothpersonsandobjects.Inordertodifferentiatethecorpsefromthecorpse-defiled,thecorpseitselfiscalleda"fatheroffathers"(aviavot)ofimpuritybyRashi(Pes.14b,17a,etal.)andothercommentators(R.SamsontoKel.1:1;Oho.1:2).MethodsofContractingImpurityCorpsesandrelatedmatter(bones,graves).Rabbinictextsarecarefultodefineandprescribeminimumspecificationsforcorpsematter,graveyards,andbonesthatconveyimpurityaccordingtoNum.19:16.Theyalsodefinethe"tent"thatconveystheimpurityofacorpsereposingwithinitaccordingtoNum.19:11.Therabbisrecognizethatthepowerofatentinwhichacorpsereposestoconveyimpurityliesinitsoverhanganddeclareotheroverhangscapableofconveyingimpurity(atreeorawningforexample).Impuritybyovershadowing(Kel.1:4)iscausedwhetherthecorpseorcorpserelateditem(suchasabone)overshadowsthepersonorutensil,theseovershadowthecorpse,orsomethingahandbreadthwideovershadowsboththecorpseandtheobject(Oho.3:1;Naz.53b;Maimonides,Yad,TumatMet1:10).However,significantlimitationsofthecorpseimpuritylawareeffectedbytherabbinicdeterminationsthat(1)corpsesdefileinaverticaldirectiononlyand(2)theonlyitemsinacorpse-defiledhousesusceptibletodefilementareunsealedvessels,foods,andliquids(interpretingNum.19:11inlightofLev11:32andNum.31:20).ThelatterleniencystandsinstarkcontrasttoQumraniclawinwhicheverysingleiteminacorpse-defiledhousecontractsimpurity.ẓara'atImpurityTherabbinicmaterialpertainingtothescale-diseasedperson(meẓora)revealsadesiretoreducetheincidenceofẓara'atasfaraspossible.Therabbinicdefinitionofthediseaseisnarrowedtoexcludecertainpersons(e.g.,residentaliens)andplaces(e.g.,JerusaleminTosef.,Neg.6:1andlaterallofBabyloniainKet.77b).Certificationofameẓoraissubjecttostringentcriteriaconcerningminimalsize,timeofexamination,locationofaffliction,andsoon.Ẓara'atforgarmentsislimitedbyexcludingallnaturallycoloredordyedfabrics,andhousesaresusceptibletoẓara'atonlyiftheoriginalstoneorwoodisaffected(Sifra,Neg.5:3).Anextraweekisaddedtothequarantineperiodforẓara'at,anddoubtfulcasesmustbedecidedleniently(inoppositiontothegeneralrulethatdoubtsinmattersofTorahlawaredecidedstringently;cf.Neg7:14).Thatthepurposeoftheserulesistoreducetheincidenceofẓara'atimpuritiesisattestedbythepronouncementinTosefta,Nega'im6:1that"thereneverwasandneverwillbeacaseofaẓara'atinfectedhouse."Atthesametime,theactualimpurityofameẓoraiselaboratedinarelativelystringentmannerinrabbinichalakhah.Thebiblicaltextoffersverylittleontheconveyanceofimpuritybyameẓora,andtherabbisfillinthisgapbycomparativeexegesis.Thusthemeẓoraissaidtodefileotherspresentinthesamehouseonanalogywiththeẓara'ataffectedhouse,whichdefilesitscontents.Themeẓora'sdefilementbyoverhangisanalogizedtothatofacorpse.Sincethespittleandshifting(seebelow)ofthelessseverelydefiledzavconveysimpurity,therabbisrulethatthespittleandshiftingofthemoreseverelydefiledscale-diseasedpersonmustalsoconveyimpurity.Thusameẓoradefilesothersbytouching,shifting,carryingwithoutcontact,spitting,andaccordingtoZav5:6,breathing.AccordingtoNiddah34,allfluidsofameẓoraareimpure.Rabbinicsourcesalsodefinelegalminimafortheconveyanceofimpurity.Forexample,ascale-diseasedpersonmustputhisheadandthegreaterpartofhisbodyintoahouseinordertodefilebyoverhang;apersonmustputhisheadandthegreaterpartofhisbodyintoahouseafflictedwithẓara'atinordertocontractimpurityfromit;aẓara'atdiseasedgarmentmustbethesizeofanoliveormoretodefileahouseinwhichitisput(Neg.13:8);buildingmaterialsfromahouseafflictedbyẓara'atmustbethesizeofanoliveormoretoconveyimpuritytohumansandvesselsbycontact,carrying,andoverhang(Neg.13:6;Tosef.,Neg.6:11;Yad,Tumatẓara'at16:1).Themeẓoraissubjecttosomerestrictions.Heisnotallowedwithinwalledcities,andtheMishnahstatesthatapartition10handbreadthshighandfourcubitswidewasmadeinthesynagoguetosegregatethemeẓorafromothercongregants,andhewasrequiredtoenterfirstandexitlast(Neg.13:12).TheMishnahshowsgreaterstringencyinitstreatmentofthemeẓorathantheSifraortheBabylonianTalmud(thelatterdeclaringthatthereisnoẓara'atinBabyloniaatall).Someaggadictraditionsexpresstheolderviewthatẓara'atisadivinepunishmentfortransgression(LevR.15:5,16:1,17:3).GenitalEmissionsTherabbinicsystematizationofimpuregenitalemissionsiscomplexandtherearedifferencesamongthesources.Ingeneral,thesemenemitterisdistinguishedfromotherdischargersinthattheformerconveysimpuritytopersonsonlythroughsexualintercourseandnotbycontact.Thisisbecausethesemen,andnotthesemenemitter,isanavtumah(thesemenemitterbeingimpureinthefirstdegree).Theotherdischargersareanalogizedbyvirtueoftheirhavingaflux.Whilerabbinictextsrecognizeahierarchyamongthezav,zavah,niddah,andfirst-stageyoledet,theyneverthelessequatetheirpotentialtodefiletoalargedegree.Auniquefeatureofdischargeimpurityistheabilityofitsbearerstodefilebypressure(midras),basedontheattentioninLev.15totheimpurityofitemsuponwhichthesepersonshavesatorlain.BecauseLev.15specificallymentionsseatsandbeds,therabbislimitmidrasimpuritytoitemsusedforsittingorlying(Nid.49b).However,Lev.15:10attributesimpurityto"allthatisunder"(thezav),andnotmerelybedsandseats.Therabbischoosetoreadthisverseasattributingimpurityto"allthat[thezav]isunder"(agrammaticallypossiblereading),generatingtheconceptof"maddaf"(impurityofitemslocatedabovethezav.Althoughitisnotclearwhattheseitemsareintannaitictexts,theBabylonianTalmudlimitsmaddaftothebedcoveringoftheniddah.Maddafuncleannessisunderstoodtobeofrabbinicoriginandisconsideredalightimpurity.Personswithagenitaldischargealsodefilebyshiftingorbeingshifted(hesset).Hessetiswhenanobjectissupportedorcarriedbyonewithaflowwithoutdirectcontact.Whilerabbinichalakhahextendsthedefilingpowerofbodilydischargesbysystematicanalogizing,thereisevidenceofasimultaneousdesiretolimitimpurity.Susceptibilitytomidrasimpuritybyflux-bearersislimitedtobedsandseats.Earthenwareanditemsthatcannotbepurifiedarenotconsideredsusceptibletodefilementbyflux-bearers.Inaddition,comparisonwithQumranicexegesisofthesamebiblicallawsrevealsalenienttendencyonthepartoftherabbis.AtQumran,allwomen,notmerelymenstruants,areexcludedfromJerusalem;excrementisalsoviewedasadefilingdischarge,andsemen-emitterscontractathree-dayimpurity.Althoughthereferenceto"placesofimpurity"inMishnahNiddah7:4maypointtoacustomintannaitictimesofisolatingmenstruantsinspecialplaces,thepracticeisnotrobustlyattestedinrabbinichalakhah.Ingeneral,whilesectarianexegetesfillscripturalgapsinastringentmanner,creatingapuritysystemthatultimatelyrequiresseparationandisolationinadesertcommunity,therabbisfillscripturalgapsinalessstringentmanner,enablingobservancetocontinueinthecourseofeverydayexistence.ThingssusceptibletoimpurityareIsraelites,utensils,food,anddrink.Althoughbiblically,ager(gentileresidentalien)cancontractcorpseuncleanness(seeNum.19:10b–14),therabbisunderstandthetermgertorefertoaproselyte,andconcludethatonlyaconvertandnotagentilecontractscorpseimpurity(Naz.61b;Yad,TumatMet1:13).Allhumancorpsesconveyimpurity,butwhetheragentilecorpsedefilesbycontactandcarryingonly(Yev.61a;Maim.ibid.,1:12)oralsobyovershadowing(Oho.18:7)isdisputed.Allutensils,exceptthosemadeofstone,unfiredclay,ordung,aresusceptibletoimpuritynomatterwhattheirshape.Some,however,suchasflatwoodenorboneutensils,contractimpuritybyrabbiniclawonly(Men.69b;Kel.11:1;15:1;Yad,Kelim1:6,10).Glassvesselsarethesubjectofaspecialdecree(Shab.14b,15a,16b;Yad,Kelim1:15).Metalvesselsthatcontactacorpsetakeonitsdegreeofimpurity(basedonexegesisofNum.19:16).Utensilscancontractimpurityonlywhentheyarecompletedandthesagesdefinedwhatstageofmanufacturemarkscompletionforthedifferenttypesofvessels.Brokenvesselslikewisearenotsusceptibletoimpuritybutsome,onbeingrepairedorreassembled,revertbyaspecialrabbinicdecreetotheiroriginalimpurity(Shab.16b).PurificationsAsintheBible,impurityisremovedbysacrifices,immersionsorablutions,waitingforsunset,andinsomecasesspecialculticacts.Anindividualwithagenitaldischargecountssevenpuredaysandthenhastobatheinlivingwaters,i.e.,aspring(Mik.1:8).Ameẓorawhosesignsofimpurityhavedisappearedbringstwobirdsthathavelivedinfreedom,andthepriest(orinanotherview,anyperson)slaughtersoneoveranewearthenwarebowl,thentakescedarwood,hyssop,andscarletwoolandbindsthemtogether.Hethenbringsthetipsofthewingsandthetailofthesecondbirdneartothem,dipstheminthebloodandsprinklesitseventimesonthebackofthehand(andsomesayalsoontheforehead)ofthemeẓora.Aftersendingawaythelivingbirdthepriestshavesthemeẓora.Aftersevendays,duringwhichthemeẓoramayenterwithinthewallofJerusalembutisstillregardedasa"fatherofimpurity,"thepriestshaveshimasecondtimeandthemeẓoramustthenwashhisgarmentsandbathe(Neg.14:1–2;Yad,Tumatẓara'at11:1–2).Hewhocontractsimpurityfromacorpseissprinkledonthethirdandseventhdaysofhisimpuritywithpurification-offeringwater,andafterthesprinklingontheseventhdayisobligedtobathe.Bathingaloneissufficientforallotherswhoareimpureandcanbepurified.Whereverbathingismentionedinconnectionwiththosewhoareimpure,exceptinthecaseofonewithaflux,thebathingtakesplaceina*mikveh.Thepurificationoftheimpureiscompletedatthegoingdownofthesun(Lev.22:6–7).Onthedaytheimpureindividualbathes,heiscalledatevulyom(immersedthatday)andisdisqualifiedfromterumahandhallowedthings.Thebathingofthehandsfor(theeatingof)hallowedthingsalsorequiresamikveh.Otherwisethoseneedingtowashtheirhandsmustpouraquarterlogofwater(aboutaquarterliter)overthehands(see*Ablution).ThepriestwhowastoburntheredheiferandthehighpriestwhowastoserveontheDayofAtonementwereseparatedfromtheirhouseholdssevendaysbeforehandandsprinkledwiththepurification-offeringwater(Par.3:1).ThedutyofeveryIsraelitetopurifyhimselfforthefestival(Sifra,Shemini4;rh16b)isalsobecauseofthepilgrimagetotheTemple(Yad,TumatOkhelim16:10).Immersionsaresometimesrequiredevenoftherituallypuretomarkthetransitiontoasacredcontext:"NonemayentertheTemplecourtfortheservice,eventhoughheispure,untilhehasimmersedhimself"(Yoma3:3;tj,Yoma40b).Certainsectshabituallyimmersedthemselveseventhoughtheywerenotimpure.AccordingtoJosephus(Wars,2,129),theEssenesusedtoimmersetheirbodiesincoldwaterbeforetheircommunalmealsatnoonandintheevening.Theimmersionofthe"morningbathers,"too,wasunconnectedwithseminalimpurity,butwasaregulardailyimmersion.ThePhariseesopposedthiscustom,andrespondedtothecomplaintofthemorningbathersthat"theymentiontheDivineNameinthemorningwithoutimmersion,"totheeffectthat,"IcomplainagainstyoumorningbatherswhomentiontheDivineNameoutofabodyinwhichimpurityresides."FoodAllfoodssetapartforhumanconsumptioncancontractimpurity,oncetheyaredetachedfromthegroundandhavebeenmadesusceptiblethroughbeingmoistened,tothesatisfactionoftheirowners,byoneofthefollowingsevenliquids:water,dew,oil,wine,milk,blood,honey(Uk.3:1;Makhsh.1:1;6:4).Theseliquidsthemselvesalsocontractimpurity(Yad,TumatOkhelim1:4andcommentaries),inanevenstricterdegreethanfoodstuffs(Par.8:7;Toh.2:6,Yad,Avotha-Tumah10:10).Liquidsarethemostpotentconveyersofimpurity.Ifdefiledbyanitem,eveninthethirddegree,theycontractandconveyafirstdegreeimpurity.FathersofImpurityontheAuthorityoftheScribesInadditiontothePentateuchalsourcesofritualimpurity,therabbinicsagesascribedirregularformsofritualimpuritytothebetha-peras("burialarea,"seebelow),togentilecountries,toidolsandrelateditems,andtogentiles.Theseimpuritiesbearthesignsofrabbinicinnovation,includingcontroversyoverthedetails,sporadicenforcement,resolutionofdoubtfulcasesonthesideofleniency,conceptualirregularity,andtheuseofanalogicalformulations("xconveysimpuritylikeamenstruantorlikeacorpse").BurialAreaAburialarea(betha-peras)isdefinedaslandinwhichaploughed-overbone,alostgrave,orburialniches(kukhim)maybepresent.Byrabbinicdecree,suchareasaredeemedtobeimpurebyreasonofthedoubtthatattachestothem.Thesefieldshavespeciallawsforbuilding,sowing,planting,andimpurityremoval(Oho.17:1,18:1–5;Tosef.,Oho.17:1–2).GentileCountriesGentilelandsaredecreedbytherabbistoberituallyimpure(thedecreeisattributedinlatersourcestoYoseb.YoezerandYoseb.Yohanan;seeb.Shab.14b;Tosef.,Par.3:5).IntheMishnahandTosefta,thejuxtapositionoftheimpurityofgentilelandswiththeimpurityofthebetha-perasindicatesthatgentilelandswerelikewisedeemedimpurebecauseofdoubtaboutthepossiblepresenceofbones,corpses,andgraves(Tosef.,Ahilot17:6–7,18:1–5,14–17,Tosef.,Kel.7:1).IntheHebrewBible,landisdefiledmorally,bysinfuldeedssuchasidolatry,butnotritually.Thefewbiblicalversesthatrefertogentilelandsasimpure(Amos7:17andJosh.22:18)shouldbeunderstoodasreferencestomoralimpurity(stemmingfromtheidolatrythatoccursthere).Thus,therabbinicdecreeofritualimpurityisatrueinnovation.Thedegreetowhichandtheprecisemannerinwhichgentilelandsconveyritualimpurityisnotexplicitinthehalakhicsources(seeMaimonides,Yad,TumatMet2:16;Rashi,Shah.14bS.V.Alha-Areẓ).TheconjecturethatthepurposeofthisdecreewastodiscourageemigrationfromEreẓIsraelfollowingthepersecutionsandexterminationsinthetimeofAntiochushasnobasisinthesources.Thedecreedidnotpreventemigration:notonlydowefindscholarsinAlexandria(Joshuab.PerahyaandJudahb.Tabai),buttheMishnahalsoassumesthatpeoplecouldbeinforeigncountrieslegitimately.FrequentcontactwithvariouscountriesandtheexistenceofJewishsettlementsoutsidethelandofIsraelmadetheobservanceofthisdecreeaburdenandinconsequenceitwaslightenedinvariousways(Tosef.,Oho.18:2;Yad,TumatMet11:6).ThepathstakenbythepilgrimsfromBabylonontheirfestivalpilgrimages,eveningentilelands,weredeclaredpure(Tosef.,Oho.18:3;Yad,TumatMet11:12;seeMaim.comm.toOho.18:7).GentiletownswithinthelandofIsrael(Tosef.,ibid.,18:4;Yad.ibid.)werealsodeclaredfreefromimpurity.Similarly,gentiledwellingsaredeclaredtobeimpure,pendinginspection,becauseofdoubtaboutthepossiblepresenceofaburiedfetus(Ohal.18:7–8;seetheTempleScroll,11qt48:11–12,forthesectarianbeliefthatgentilesburytheirdeadindiscriminatelyandeveninthemiddleoftheirhouses).Idols/idolatryIntheBible,idolsandidolatryarestrictlyprohibited.Whileidolsarestronglyassociatedwithmoralimpuritycapableofdefilingpersons,land,andsanctuary,theyarenotamongthebiblicalsourcesofritualimpurity.However,bytherabbinicperiod,idolsandassociateditemsaredeemedtoberituallyimpureandtoconveyritualimpuritytosacredandprofaneplaces,objects,andpersons.RabbinicsourcesexplicitlyassertthattheritualimpurityofidolsandrelateditemsisrabbinicratherthanfromtheTorah,asseenbythelackofconsensusonthenatureanddegreeoftheimpurity,theleniencygoverningtheconstructionoftheselaws(Shab.9:1,11dandb.Shab.83b),andtheuseofanalogiestoexpressthisimpurity.Drawingonbiblicalmetaphors,R.Akivaassertsthat,likeamenstruant,theidoldefilesbycarriage.Thesages,ontheotherhand,assertthatanidoldefilesonlybyphysicalcontact,likeadeadcreepingthing(Shab9:1).Elsewhere,theidolissaidtodefilebyoverhanglikeameẓora(Tosef.,Zav5:5).Thelawthatonepassingunderanasherah(idolatroustree)becomesimpure(Av.Zar.3:8)isexplainedinconformitywiththisview,i.e.,thelikelypresenceofanidolatrousofferingbeneathit(Av.Zar.48b).GentilesAccordingtothebiblicalpuritysystem,allhumansaresubjecttomoralimpurityarisingfromcertainheinoussins,butonlythoseunderthecovenant(Israelitesandgentileswhojointhecovenantcommunity)aresubjecttoritualimpurityfromthephysicalstatesandsubstancesdetailedinLev.12–15.RabbinictextsareconsistentandunanimousinassertingthatbiblicallawexcludesgentilesfromtheritualpuritysystemofLev.12–15(Sifra,Zavim1:1;Sifra,Tazria1:1).Gentilesneithercontractnorcommunicateritualimpuritythroughgenitalemissions(Mik.8:3–4,Zav.2:1,2:3,Nid.4:3,Ed.5:1,cf.Tosef.,Nid.5:5,Nid.7:3);norarethey,theirhousesortheirgarmentssusceptibletoscale-diseaseimpurity(Neg.1:1,3:1,7:1,11:1,12:1).Theconsensusofrabbinictextsisthatgentilesarealsonotsusceptibletocorpseimpurity.Nordogentilesbearanintrinsicritualimpurity,assomescholarshaveargued,asevidencedbythefactthattheymayseparateterumah(Ter.3:9)andmakesacrificialofferingsanddonationstothesanctuary(Sifra,Emor7:2,Shek.7:6,Zev.4:5,Men.5:3,5:6,6:1and9:8).ManyrabbinicpassagesassumecommensalityofJewsandgentileswithoutconcernforritualimpurity(Ber.7:1,Av.Zar.5:5)andothersassumeotherinteractions(Shab.1:9)andevencollaborationintheproductionofwine(aliquidthatisverysusceptibletodefilement;Av.Zar.4:9–12).TheexclusionofgentilesfromtheTemplerampartisnotduetoanallegedintrinsicritualimpuritybuttoahierarchicalgradationofholinessinthesanctuaryprecinctsthatdeterminesdifferentdegreesofaccessevenforthepure(rangingfrompuregentileswhohavetheleastaccesstopureIsraelitewomen,followedbypureIsraelitemen,Levites,priests,andfinallythehighpriestwhohasthemostintimateaccess).Nevertheless,somerabbinicsourcesholdthatgentilesbeararitualimpuritybyrabbinicdecree."Israelitesdefilebyzavandnotgentiles,buttherabbisdecreedconcerningthemthattheydefilelikezavim"(Sifra,Zav1:1).Latersourcessuggestthatthisdecreedatestotheearlyfirstcenturyc.e.Allsourcesagreethattheritualimpurityofgentilesisnotbiblicalbutrabbinic.Doubtfulcasesaredecidedleniently,observanceappearstohavebeensporadic,andtheimpurityitselfisirregular.Specifically,thegentiledoesnotdefilelikeazavineveryrespect.Scatteredtraditionsassumethegentilecanconveyimpuritybycarriage,hesset,ormadras,butinmostinstancesthisstatutoryimpurityisunderstoodtomeanthatthespittleandurineofagentileconveyimpurity(Zav.5:7,Mak.6:6,Shek.8:1,Toh.5:8,Tosef.,Toh.5:4,Mak.2:3,Toh.5:2,andTosef.,Mik.6:7).SomescholarsbelievethattherabbinicdecreeofstatutoryimpurityforgentileswasapoliticaldecreeintendedtosegregatetheJewsfromRomansandneighboringpeoplesduringthetimeofthewar.However,themildimpuritycontractedfromthespittleorurineofagentilewouldnothavebeenamajorinconvenienceandwouldnothavepreventedinteractionbetweenJewsandRomans(asevidencedbymanylawsregulatingeverydaytransactionswithgentiles).Therabbinicpositionseemslenientwhencomparedwiththesectarianruleofbathingafteranycontactwithanalien.ImpurityofHandsTheideathathandsshouldbewashedbeforecontactingsacreditemsisprobablyquiteancient.RabbinictraditionattributesadecreeconcerningtheimpurityofhandstoShammaiandHillel(earlyfirstcenturyc.e.)(tjShab.1:7,3d;Shab.14b).DespitetheBabylonianTalmud'sassertionthatHillelandShammaiweremerelyextendingtoterumahanolderSolomonicregulationrequiringhandwashingbeforecontactwithholythings(inviewofthefactthat"handsarefidgety"andmaybepresumedtocontactimpurethings;Shab.15a),thenatureandextentofthisdecreeisnotclear.Tannaiticsourcesdorefertohandwashingbeforeeatingterumah(SifreiNum.116;Bik.2:1).However,inSecondTempletimes,someJewsstrovenotonlytomaintainthepurityofpriestlyfood,butalsotoeattheirownordinaryfoodinastateofpurity.Josephus(Wars2:129)relatesthattheEsseneswerewonttobathebeforetheirmeal.Innon-sectariancircleshandwashingwasmorecommon.NewTestamentsourcesattesttothePharisaicpracticeofwashinghandsbeforeconsumingordinaryfood(Mark7;Luke11:38;washingthehandsbeforeamealisreferredtoinMatthew15:2asa"traditionoftheelders.").Insometannaitictraditions,theimpurityofhandsisassumedevenforordinarymeals(Ḥag.2:5,cf.tjḤag.78b,Ḥag.18b).ThatBetShammaiandBetHillelaresaidtohavedebatedthetimingofthehandwashingriteatordinarymeals,suggeststheritualwasacceptedpracticeinthefirstcenturyc.e.(Ber.8:2;butcf.Tosef.,ibid.6(5):3,andS.Lieberman,Toseftaki-Feshutah,adloc.).However,othertannaiticsourcesindicatethatonlythepiousconsideredhandstobeimpure,evenforordinaryfood.Thus,onewhoeatsordinaryfoodinpurityiscalledaḥaber,andonewhodoesnotiscalledanamha-areẓ(Tosef.,Av.Zar.3(6):10;Tosef.,Dem.2:2–3;Tosef.,Dem.2:20–22).Byeatingordinaryfoodinthesamestateofpurityrequiredforpriestswhowereeatingsacredfood,Phariseesandḥaverimaspiredtoahigherlevelofholiness.PouringwateroverthehandsbeforeamealmayreflecttheinfluenceofasimilarancientGreekcustom(Yad1:2andTosef.,Yad1:12).Inanumberofcases,thesagesdecreedastatutoryritualimpurityuponthehandsasaprotectivemeasure.Forexample,itwasdecreedthatallsacredwritingsandtefillinwithstrapsrenderhandsimpure(Yad,Avotha-Tumah.,3:3–5:andseeKel.15:6).Thedesiretodiscourage(mis)handlingandstoragenearfoodarecitedasreasons.Ofthesacredwritings,"theirimportanceisthecauseoftheirimpurity,thattheynotbemadeintocoversforanimals"(Tosef.,Yad2:19andcf.Shab.14a).Topreventthelossofsacredmeats,itwassaidthathandsdonotrenderimpureintheTemple(Pes.19a–b,Rashi;Yad,Avotha-Tumah8:6).theconsequencesofimpurityThemostimmediateanddirectconsequencesofritualimpurityattachtotherealmofthesacred.Accordingtorabbinicsources,priestsinSecondTempletimeswereespeciallystrictaboutthepurityoftheTemple.IfadeadreptilewasfoundintheTemple"apriestmayremoveitwithhisgirdleevenontheSabbath"(Er.10:15)."Ifapriestserved[atthealtar]inastateofimpurity,hisfellowpriestsdidnotbringhimtothebetdin,buttheyoungprieststookhimoutsidetheTemplecourtandsplitopenhisbrainwithclubs"(Sanh.9:6;cf.Tosef.,Kel.1:6).InJerusalemitself,precautionsweretakentoguardthehallowedthingsandthepriestsfromimpurity.Noburialswerepermittedthere,andcorpseswerenotallowedtobekeptinthecityovernight.Inconformitywiththisview,thebiblicalrequirementtosendsevereimpuritybearersoutofthecampwasunderstoodasmeaningtheareaofJerusalemandtheTempleMount(Kel.1:8–9;SifreNum.1).Themeẓorawassentoutofwalledcitiesonly(Kel.1:7)but"theymaygothroughouttheland"(SifreiZutato5:2).ImpurepersonswereexpectedtotakecarenottoimpartimpuritytothepeopleofJerusalemandlenientrulingsmadeitpossibleforpilgrimstomaintainpurityduringpilgrimagefestivals(e.g.,Shek.8:1:"anyspittlefoundinJerusalemmaybedeemedfreefromimpurityexceptingwhatisfoundintheuppermarket"frequentedbygentiles).Theverse(Lev.11:8):"oftheirfleshyoushallnoteat,andtheircarcassesyoushallnottouch;theyareimpureforyou,"directedtoallIsrael,isexplainedasreferringonlytothetimeofthefestivals(Sifra,Shemini4,9;rh16b),"sincetheymustbereadytoentertheTempleandeatofthehallowedthings"(Yad,TumatOkhelim16:10).Nevertheless,thereisconsiderableevidencethatimpuritywasdeemedtohaveconsequencesoutsidetheTemplecontext,thoughtowhatextentisunclear.Certainly,theḥaverwasobligedtoundertake"toeat[even]commonfoodinpurity"(Tosef.,Dem.2:2).Thishalakhahmightberegardedasmerelythecustomofindividualswhowerestrictwiththemselves,somethinglikethereportofJohananb.Gudgadathat"healwaysate[evencommonfood]inaccordancewiththepurityofhallowedthings"(Ḥag.2:7;cf.Tosef.,Ḥag.3:2–3).Ontheotherhand,somesourcesteachthehalakhotofcommonfoodpuritywithnodifferentiationbetweenḥaverimandothers(Ḥul.2:5;Tosef.,Ber.6:2–4;etal.).TheprohibitionagainstcausingimpuritytocommonfoodinthelandofIsraelisalsotaughtasincumbentuponallpeople(Tosef.,Maksh.3:7).Inadditiontotheirimpactontheeatingofcommonfood,certainimpuritieshadaneffectinregardtoprayer(Ber.3:4–6;Ter.1:6).Theprohibitionagainstprayingwherethereiscorpseimpurityisinferredfromthebaraita,"IfhewerebusywithadeadbodyinagraveandthetimeofreadingtheShemaarrives,heremoveshimselftoapureplace,putsontefillin,readstheShemaandsayshisprayers"(tj,Bet.2:3,4c).ThepracticeofbathingaftersexualintercourseandbeforeTorahstudymentionedinsomerabbinicsourceshasbeenmistakenlyinterpretedasaritualpurityrequirement.However,thereisnoblanketprohibitionagainststudyingTorahinastateofritualimpurity.Tosef.,Ber.2:13statesexplicitlythatsevereimpuritybearersarenotprohibitedfromTorahstudy:"malesandfemaleswhohaveanabnormalgenitaldischarge,menstruants,andwomenafterchildbirtharepermittedtoreadtheTorah,andtostudyMishnahandMidrash,halakhotandaggadot,butmenwhohavehadanemissionofsemenmaynot"(Tosef.,Ber.2:13).TheprohibitionofthesemenemitterandthePalestinianpracticeofimmersionaftersexandbeforeTorahstudyislinkedtoaperceivedincompatibilitybetweensexualityandholyactivity(tj,Ber.3:4,6c;Ber.22astatesthattherequirementofimmersionistoensurethatscholarsdonotfrequenttheirwiveslikeroosters).SomesagesinthelandofIsraelweresometiculouslycarefultocomplywithbathingbeforetheirlearning,thatḤanina,whocamefromBabylon,ridiculedthemwiththetitle"morningbathers"(tj,ibid.).IntheBabylonianTalmudthepracticeofimmersionaftersexandbeforeTorahstudywasabolished.DuringthegeoniceraitwasconsideredapointofdifferencebetweenEreẓIsraelandBabylon(M.Margalioth,Ha-Ḥillukimshe-BeinAnsheiMizrahu-VeneiEreẓYisrael,pp.78and108ff.).TheviewattributedtoR.JudahbenBathyra,that"thewordsofToraharenotsusceptibletoimpurity,"(b.Ber21b)waseventuallynormativeinthisrespect.Asregardsmenstruants,however,morerestrictiveviewsprevailedandinalaterperiodsomelocalcustomsincludedprohibitionsagainstmenstruantsprayingorenteringthesynagogueorbeingpresentasblessingsarerecited(seethelatesourceBaraitade-MessekhtaNiddah,ed.Horowitzpp.3and17;andsee*Baraitade-Niddah;*Niddah).SuchextensionsofthelawsofimpurityandpuritylikenprayerstoTemplesacrifices,andextendthesanctityofthepriesthoodtoallIsrael.Despitesuchextensions,somemaintainthatthelawsofimpurityandpurityhavenorelevantconsequencesofanysubstanceexceptforpriestsandtheaffairsoftheTempleanditshallowedthings.ThisviewhasbeensummarizedinthewordsofMaimonides(Yad,TumatOkhelim16:8–9):"What-everiswrittenintheTorahandintraditionalteachingaboutthelawsrelatingtothingsimpureandpureisrelevantonlytotheTempleanditshallowedthingsandtoheave-offeringandsecondtithe,foritwarnsthoseimpureagainstenteringtheTempleoreatinganythinghallowed,orheave-offering,ortithe.However,nosuchprohibitionappliestocommonfood,anditispermittedtoeatcommonfoodthatisimpureandtodrinkimpureliquids….Similarly,itispermissibletotouchthingsthatareimpureandtoincurimpurityfromthem,forScripturewarnsnonebutthesonsofAaronandtheNaziriteagainstincurringimpurityfromacorpse,therebyimplyingthatforallothersitispermissible,andthatevenforpriestsandNaziritesitispermissibletoincurimpurityfromotherimpurethings,butnotfromacorpse."reasonsforpurityandimpurityThereisnotagreatdealofdiscussionofthereasonsforpurityandimpurityinrabbinicliterature.Itiscertainthattherabbisdidnotregardtheimpuritiesasinfectiousdiseasesorthelawsofpurificationasquasi-hygienicprinciples.InalatenarrativeJohananb.Zakkaiisdescribedasdenyinganyefficacytoimpurityandritesofpurification:"Byyourlives!Thecorpsedoesnotcauseimpurity,nordothewaterspurify,butitisadecreeoftheSupremeKingofKings"(Pesiktade-RavKahana40a–b).Ritualpurityisareligiousideal.ItissaidofthepatriarchAbrahamthatheatecommonfoodinpurity(bm87a).IndescribingtheidealeraofthetimeofKingHezekiah,IsaacNappahasays,"Searchwasmade…fromGabbattoAntiprisandnoboyorgirl,manorwoman,wasfoundwhowasnotwellversedinthelawsofimpurityandpurity"(Sanh.94b).InAvodahZarah20b,purityislistedasoneofthegradesonthepathtoholiness.ImpurityandPurityatthePresentTime.Thecessationofmostofthelawsofimpurityandpurityinthecontemporaryeraistheconsequenceofaprolongedprocess,whichisonlyinpartconnectedwiththedestructionoftheTemple.Alreadyinrabbinictimes,thelawsofẓara'atinhouseswasweakeningandeveninthelawsconcerningthemeẓoraacleartrendtolimitandlightentheirimpactisnoticeable(Neg.3:1–2;5:1;"Anyconditionofdoubtinleproussignsisdeemedpure,"inoppositiontotherule:"DoubtsinTorahlawaredecidedstringently";cf.7:4).Thelawthatwhenameẓoraentersthesynagogue"theymustmakeforhimapartitiontenhandbreadthshighandfourcubitswide;hemustenterfirstandcomeoutlast"(Neg.13:12andcf.Tosef.,Neg.8:2)isnotdirectedespeciallytotheeraoftheTemple.Thelawsofscale-diseasewerenotinforceinBabyloninthegeonicera,ascanbeinferredfromthesummaryofanunknowngaon:"Nowa-daysifadiscipleorscholarismeẓora,heisnotthrustforthfromthesynagogueorbetmidrash,forthereisnotnowthelawthatthycampshallbeholy"(Sha'areiTeshuvah,no.176andS.Assaf(ed.),Teshuvotha-Ge'onim(1942),123).AlthoughimmersionaftersexandbeforelearningwasabolishedintheBabylonianTalmud,thegeoniminBabylon,undertheinfluenceofMuslimswhowereaccustomedtobathebeforeeveryprayer,werealsostrict"becauseofcleanlinessandinordertosanctifytheNamebeforegentiles"(Sha'areiTeshuvah,no.298).Itbecame"thecommoncustominShinarandSpainthatnonefromwhomsemenissuespraysbeforewashinghiswholebodyinwater"(Yad,Tefillah4:6).ThecustomwasnotfollowedinChristianEurope"andallJewsamongtheuncircumcisedarenotaccustomedtowash"(Teshuvotha-Ramban(Leipzig,1859),no.140;seeTur,OḤ88and613).Somewerestrict,however,eveninthosecountries,andrequiredbathingatleastforthereaderandthepriestrecitingthepriestlyblessing(Resp.,MaharamofRothenberg(Berlin,1841),137).Theḥasidimreintroducedthedutyofbathingforonefromwhomsemenissues(see*Ablution).Forvariousreasons,includingthebiblicalprohibitionagainstintercoursewithamenstruant,halakhicprohibitionsandpracticesdesignedtopreservemenfromcontractingritualimpurityfromtheirmenstruatingandpost-partumwives,havecontinuedintraditionalJudaism(see*Niddah).Thisistheonlyelementofthebiblicalritualpuritysystemthatretainsseriouscontemporaryrelevance.Purificationfromcorpseimpuritywaspossibleaslongaspurification-offeringwaterpreparedfromtheashesofaredheiferwasavailable.MishnahParah3:5claimsthatsomeredheiferswereburntinSecondTempletimes.Someoftheashesoftheredheiferweredistributedtoeachofthepriestlycourses(mishmarot–Par.3:11)andIsraelitesweresprinkledwithit(Tosef.,ibid.,3:14).InGalileetheremayhavebeenpurification-offeringwatereveninthetimeoftheamoraim(Nid.6b;seealsotjBer.6,10a).Withthecessationofpurification-offeringwater,allIsraelareassumedtohaveincurredcorpseimpurity.Priestsareforbiddentocontractcorpseimpurityeventoday(Sh.Ar.,yd369),butevensotheyarenotpure,sincetheycannotguardagainstimpurityfromametalutensilovershadowedbyacorpse(seecomm.SamsonofSenstoḤul.4:8).Thesefactshaveconsequencesalsointhelawsofterumahandḥallah(ibid.;Sh.Ar.,yd322:4),andarethereasonfortheprohibitionagainstenteringtheTempleareaevennowadays(Yere'imha-Shalem,no.297;MagenAvrahamtoSh.Ar.,OḤ561:2).bibliography:H.Harrington,TheImpuritySystemofQumranandtheRabbis(1993);C.Hayes,GentileImpuritiesandJewishIdentities(2002);J.Klawans,"NotionsofGentileImpurityinAncientJudaism,"in:AJSReview,20:2(1995),285–312;idem,ImpurityandSininAncientJudaism(2000);J.Milgrom,Leviticus1–16,AnchorBibleSeries(1991);idem,Leviticus17–22,AnchorBibleSeries(2000).D.Wright,TheDisposalofImpurity(1987).[ChristineHayes(2nded.)]EncyclopaediaJudaica×CitethisarticlePickastylebelow,andcopythetextforyourbibliography.MLAChicagoAPA"PurityandImpurity,Ritual ."EncyclopaediaJudaica..Encyclopedia.com.28Feb.2022."PurityandImpurity,Ritual ."EncyclopaediaJudaica..Encyclopedia.com.(February28,2022).https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/purity-and-impurity-ritual"PurityandImpurity,Ritual ."EncyclopaediaJudaica..RetrievedFebruary28,2022fromEncyclopedia.com:https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/purity-and-impurity-ritualLearnmoreaboutcitationstylesCitationstylesEncyclopedia.comgivesyoutheabilitytocitereferenceentriesandarticlesaccordingtocommonstylesfromtheModernLanguageAssociation(MLA),TheChicagoManualofStyle,andtheAmericanPsychologicalAssociation(APA).Withinthe“Citethisarticle”tool,pickastyletoseehowallavailableinformationlookswhenformattedaccordingtothatstyle.Then,copyandpastethetextintoyourbibliographyorworkscitedlist.Becauseeachstylehasitsownformattingnuancesthatevolveovertimeandnotallinformationisavailableforeveryreferenceentryorarticle,Encyclopedia.comcannotguaranteeeachcitationitgenerates.Therefore,it’sbesttouseEncyclopedia.comcitationsasastartingpointbeforecheckingthestyleagainstyourschoolorpublication’srequirementsandthemost-recentinformationavailableatthesesites:ModernLanguageAssociationhttp://www.mla.org/styleTheChicagoManualofStylehttp://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide.htmlAmericanPsychologicalAssociationhttp://apastyle.apa.org/Notes:Mostonlinereferenceentriesandarticlesdonothavepagenumbers.Therefore,thatinformationisunavailableformostEncyclopedia.comcontent.However,thedateofretrievalisoftenimportant.Refertoeachstyle’sconventionregardingthebestwaytoformatpagenumbersandretrievaldates.InadditiontotheMLA,Chicago,andAPAstyles,yourschool,university,publication,orinstitutionmayhaveitsownrequirementsforcitations.Therefore,besuretorefertothoseguidelineswheneditingyourbibliographyorworkscitedlist.MoreFromencyclopedia.comAblution,ABLUTION(Heb.טְבִילָה;"immersion"),actofwashingperformedtocorrectaconditionofritualimpurityandrestoretheimpuretoastateofritual…Kipper,Kipper KIPPER(Heb.כִּפֵּר). Etymology Thecustomaryrenderingofkipperis"toatonefor,"or"expiate"butinmostcasesthisis,atbest,impreci…Ritual,Ritual CitationsintheOxfordEnglishDictionaryfromthefourteenthcenturyonrevealtwodistincttrendsofcommonusageforthewordsrite(ritua…PublicRitual,Thestudyofritualperformedincommunallifeencompassesthewealthofworldhistoryandcosmology.Yet,fewlinguisticorconceptualcategoriesof…Tears,Tears TEARShavealwaysplayedimportantrolesassymbolsandsignsinreligiouslifearoundtheworld,yettheyhaveonlyrecentlybeguntoattract…Purification,Purification,anditsattendantissuesofpurityandpollution,findexpressioninvirtuallyallreligionsoftheworld.Purificationritualsmovea…AboutthisarticlePurityandImpurity,RitualUpdatedAboutencyclopedia.comcontentPrintArticleYouMightAlsoLikePurification:PurificationinJudaismVedismandBrahmanismHinduAncestorRitualsRitualStudiesBrahma?asBrāhmaṇasandĀraṇHolidaysandPublicRitualsRitualsNEARBYTERMSPuritansandPuritanismpuritanicalPuritanidiScozia,IPuritan-BennettCorporationPuritanTigerBeetlePuritanSectariesPuritanRevolutionpuristicpuristpurinesPurinaMills,Inc.Purims,SpecialPurim-ShpilPurim,FloraPurim,FeastofPurimPlaysPurimMeshullashPurimKatanPurimfrittersPurilPojopurifypurifierPurified-Pleasure-EgopurificatoryPurification:PurificationinJudaismPurityandImpurity,RitualPurkinjecellsPurkinjefibresPurkinje,JohannesEvangelistaPurkiss,DianePurkiss,Diane1961-Purkiss,Diane1961-(TobiasDruitt,ajointpseudonym)Purkiss,Diane1961–Purkyně(Purkinje),JanEvangelistaPurkynecellPurkynefibresPurl,Linda1955-purlerPurlieVictoriouspurlieupurlieuxpurlinpurloinpurloinerPurnaYoga(Journal)Pūrṇa-yogaPurnell,SilasPurohit,SwamiShri(1882-ca.1936)PurohitaPurosPurpleAmole