Speech Acts and Conversation

Speech acts are verbal actions that accomplish something: we greet, insult, compliment, plead, flirt, supply information, and get work done. SpeechActsandConversation LanguageUse:FunctionalApproachestoSyntax HandoutforEDUC537 EducationalLinguistics H.Schiffman,Instructor LanguageinUse Havingdescribedvariouskindsofsyntacticstructuresandwhat theymeanweseethatpeopleoftendon'tseemtosaywhat theymean.Theyuselanguagesdifferentlyfromitsapparent meaning;ithasfunctionsaredifferentfromtheapparent structure. Example:CouldIgetyoutoopenthatwindow? How'dyouliketohandmethatwrench? Woulditbetoomuchtroubleformetoaskyouto handmethatwrench? Iknowthisisanimposition,butcouldyoupossiblly openthewindow? insteadofOpenthewindow, Handmethewrench,etc. SentenceStructureandtheFunctionofutterances Weare`usedto'havingquestionsbeingusedtoaskfor information,declarativesentencestostatesomething,andimperative sentencestogiveorders.Butthefollowingmayalsooccur: [Form:request:]CanIaskyoutopleaserefrainfromsmoking? [Function:command:}(=Pleasestopsmoking!) [Form:Statement:]Weaskthatyouextinguishyourcigarettesatthistime,andbring yourtraytablesandseatbackstoanuprightposition. [Function: command:](=Stopsmoking andsitupstraight!) [Form:question]Well,wouldyoulistentothat! [Function:exclamation](=That'sreallysomethingtolistento.) SpeechActs Speechactsareverbalactionsthataccomplishsomething:we greet,insult,compliment,plead,flirt,supplyinformation,andgetwork done. TypesofSpeechActs Representatives:assertions,statements,claims, hypotheses,descriptions,suggestions. Commissives:promises,oaths,pledges,threats, vows. Directives:commands,requests,challenges, invitations,orders,summons,entreaties,dares. Declarations:blessings,firings,baptisms, arrests,marrying,juridialspeechactssuchassentencings,declaringa mistrial,declarings.o.outoforder,etc. Expressives:Speechactsthatmakeassessmentsof psychologicalstatesorattitudes:greetings,apologies, congratulations,condolences,thanksgivings... Verdictives:rankings,assessments,appraising, condoning(combinationssuchasrepresentationaldeclarations:You're out!) LocutionsandIllocutions Locutions:theutteranceact.Sentenceshavea grammaticalstructureandaliterallinguisticmeaning;thebald, literalforceoftheact:whatdidthepersonsay?(Not,what didthepersonmean?) Illocution:thespeaker'sintentionofwhat istobeaccomplishedbythespeechact. Compare: How'dyouliketohandmethatwrench?(locution:a question)hastheillocutionaryforceofacommand: namely:Handmethewrench! CanIgetyoutoopenthewindow?hasa structure(locutionaryforce)andalinguisticmeaning(`willIbeabletobesuccessfulin gettingyourcooperationinopeningthewindow?') butitsillocutionaryforce isdifferent:ithastheforceofapoliteimperative: Pleaseopenthewindow! Everysentencehasbothalocutionaryforceandan illocutionaryforce. Distinguishingamongspeechacts Howdoweknowwhattheforceofaspeechactis?Bythe contextorthesettingandbyusingtheirjudgementand backgroundknowledgeofthelanguageandtheculture.IftheQueenof Hearts(inAliceinWonderland)says`OffwiththeirHeads!'it hasadifferentforcethanifsomeoneelsesaysitinanothersetting. AppropriatenessconditionsandSuccessfulDeclarations Thereareconventionsthattellusthataparticular locutionprobablyhasaparticularforce.Peopledon'tuselanguage inappropriately,ortheygetintotrouble,ortheactmaybeinterpreted asinvalid. utterancemustbeconventionallyassociatedwiththe speechact:Thepreacherorofficiatingjudgesays: Inowpronounceyouhusbandandwifeinsteadof Heybobareebob,youishitched! Contextmustbeconventionallyrecognized Theabovedeclarationmustbeinasettingthatisappropriate, likeinachurchorplaceofreligiousworship,etc.withpeople gatheredforthatpurpose,perhapsevendressedforthepart.Weddings (e.g.)don'thappenspontaneouslyduring,e.g.,abaptismora barmitzvah. Speakermustbesincere: Personpronouncingthewordsmustbelievewhats/heis saying Involvedpartiesintendtocreateamarriagebond; theessentialcondition SuccessfulPromises:(commissive):mustbe recognizedasapromise,mustbesincere,essential;speakermuststate theintentionofhelping.Preparatorycondition:speakerandhearerare saneandresponsible,speakerswishestohelp,hearerwishestobe helped,etc.(Speakercannothavefingerscrossedbehindherback...) TheCooperativePrinciple thereisunspokenagreementthatpeoplewillcooperatein communicatingwitheachother,andspeakersrelyonthisagreement. Grice:Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasis required,atthestageatwhichitoccurs,bytheacceptedpurposeor directionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged. MaximofQuantityGiveasmuchinformationasis necessary,butnotmore.(Don'toverdoit.) [Mary:]Hi,John,howareya? [John:]Oh,notsogood,Mary.Ijusthadatoothout,then lastweekIhadanepiduralinjectioninmyspine,followedby restorativesurgeryonmylittletoe;youshouldhaveseenit,itwas horrible,andyouwouldn'tbelievewhatthesurgeoncharged,Ijustgot thebill!Ourhealthcaresystemisoutrageous,andthetraffic onthewaytoworktoday!Unbelievable!(etc.etc.etc.) MaximofRelevanceBerelevant;don'toverload theconversationwithsuperfluousorirrelevantmaterial(asinthe previousexchange).Thisrequiresspeakerstoorganizetheirutterances sothattheyarerelevanttotheongoingcontext:Berelevantatthetime oftheutterance. MaximofMannerBeorderlyandclear;avoid ambiguityandobscurity. MaximofQualityBetruthfulandprovide evidenceforstatements: [A:]Lookslikeitmightrain! [B:]Oh,yes,it'sgoingtobeteninchesofrain,followedby snow,atleast20inches,thenhail;thenaplagueoflocusts,andthe sunwillshinefrommidnightuntil2a.m.Thentherewillbesilencein heavenforaboutahalfanhour,andwhentheseventhsealisopened... [A:]Wheredoyougetyourinformation? ViolationsoftheCooperativePrinciples IndirectSpeechActsandsharedknowledge. A:DidPamelapayyoubackthemoney? B:IsthePopecatholic? A:She'shonestasthedayislong! Politenessconventions PositivePolitenessMakingutterancesthatare conventionallypolite,flattering,beingverycooperative,etc. NegativePolitenessAvoidingsayingthingsthat areinappropriate,avoidingexcessiveintrusion,interruption,or inquisitiveness;usingappropriatebodylanguage;avoidingparticular gazes.Nowordsareused,but politenessismaintained. [A:]I'mavegetarian,andIdon'tbelieveinkillingany animalsforanypurpose! (Blooksatherfeettoseeifshe'swearingshoesmadeof leather.) SpeechEvents Therearevariouskindsofeventsatwhichspeechtypically takesplace:political rally,debate,classroomlecture,religiousservice(sermon,prayer, welcoming,singing);governmenthearing; courtroomtrial;allinvolveparticularkindsofspeecheventsthatare appropriatetothatsetting.Couldalsobeinformal:telephone conversation,purchasingaticket,anewspaper,orderingameal. TheOrganizationofConversationThereisacovert structureofconversations,involvinganumberofdifferentelements. Conversationsareaseriesofspeechacts:greetings,inquiries, congratulations,comments,invitations,requests,accusations... Mixingthemuporfailingtoobservethemmakesforuncooperativespeech acts,confusion,otherproblems.Violatesthemaximofcooperation Turntakingandpausing Peopleusuallydon'talltalkatonce;theysignalthattheyare donebyusingcertainphrases,e.g.yaknow?Orsomethin';Idunno; isn'tit?Whatever... etc. AdjacencyPairs Typically,certainkindsofturnshavespecificfollow-ups:aquestion istypicallyfollowedbyananswer;ainvitationbyanacceptanceoran explanationofwhyitcan'tbeaccepted;anassessmentisfollowedby agreementordisagreement;anapologyisfollowedbyacknowledgementof theapology: A:Sorryaboutlastnight! B:Noproblem;wewereallprettytired.butnot: B:*Where'dyougetthoseshoes? OpeningSequences Peopleordinarilybegininconventionalways:greetings,general questionsorcommentsabouttheweather,sports,etc. ClosingSequences Peopleconventionallypreparetoendaconversationsbysumming up,usingotherlocutions(Okay,allrightthen;well,that'saboutit; soumh;fine,then;)followedbyseveralrepetitionsoffarewells:okay, goodbyethen;okaybye;nicetalkin'toyou;seeyasoon;thanksfor calling/droppingby;goodtoseeyou!takecare!alright(y). ConversationalRoutinesOpeningsandclosingsare moreconventionalizedthanareotherpartsoftheconversation,but theremaybesomeotherconventionalthings: Repairs Whenpeopledon'tsaywhattheyintendedto,orneedtoeditaprevious statement,ormisspeakthemselves,orsaysomethingbackwards,theythen needtofixtheutterance,i.e.theymakerepairs Politeness:anorganizationalforceinconversation Theoverridingforceinconversationsispolitenesswhichmeans thatthereareconventionalizedwaysofdoingallofthespeechthatwe recognizeasappropriateandpolite;thisdiffersfromcultureto cultureandsubculturetosubculture.Itmayinvolvevariouskindsof illocutionaryacts,titlesandaddressforms,specialhonorificsuffixes, thepassivevoice,circumlocutions,oranyotherkindsoflocutions. Cross-CulturalCommunication Politenessandalloftheotherspeechactformulaevaryfromcultureto culture;whatispoliteinonemaybeconsideredbrusqueorrude,oron theotherhandtooevasive,tooformal,tooobsequiousinanother.In Americantelephoneconversations,peopleimmediatelybegintochatand visit.InFrenchtelephoneconversations,peoplefirstapologize: J'esperequejevousderangepas? IhopeI'mnotdisturbingyou? InIndonesian,thepassivevoiceismorepoliteand deferential;theactivevoiceisgrammatical,butsoundsbrusqueand blunt,andnotasdeferentialasthepassive: (Signinafurniturestore,onachair:) jangandiduduki!(Nottobesatupon)insteadof jangandudukdisini(Donotsithere!) Thesecondformisgrammatical,butnot consideredaspolite,orsufficientlydeferential. Summary