Cognitive psychology - Wikipedia

Cognitive psychology is the scientific study of mental processes such as attention, language use, memory, perception, problem solving, creativity, ... Cognitivepsychology FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Subdisciplineofpsychology Forthepeer-reviewedjournal,seeCognitivePsychology(journal). PartofaseriesonPsychology Outline History Subfields Basictypes Abnormal Behavioral Behavioralgenetics Biological Cognitive/Cognitivism Comparative Cross-cultural Cultural Differential Developmental Evolutionary Experimental Mathematical Neuropsychology Personality Positive Psychodynamic Psychometrics Quantitative Social Appliedpsychology Appliedbehavioranalysis Clinical Community Consumer Counseling Critical Educational Environmental Ergonomics Food Forensic Health Humanistic Industrialandorganizational Legal Medical Military Music Occupationalhealth Political Psychometrics Religion School Sport Traffic Lists Disciplines Organizations Psychologists Psychotherapies Researchmethods Theories Timeline Topics  Psychologyportalvte Cognitivepsychology Perception Visualperception Objectrecognition Facerecognition Patternrecognition Attention Memory Agingandmemory Emotionalmemory Learning Long-termmemory Metacognition Language Metalanguage Thinking Cognition Concept Reasoning Decisionmaking Problemsolving Numericalcognition Numerosityadaptationeffect Approximatenumbersystem Parallelindividuationsystem vte Cognitivepsychologyisthescientificstudyofmentalprocessessuchasattention,languageuse,memory,perception,problemsolving,creativity,andreasoning.[1] Cognitivepsychologyoriginatedinthe1960sinabreakfrombehaviorism,whichhadheldfromthe1920sto1950sthatunobservablementalprocesseswereoutsideoftherealmofempiricalscience.Thisbreakcameasresearchersinlinguisticsandcyberneticsaswellasappliedpsychologyusedmodelsofmentalprocessingtoexplainhumanbehavior. Muchoftheworkderivedfromcognitivepsychologyhasbeenintegratedintootherbranchesofpsychologyandvariousothermoderndisciplinessuchascognitivescience,linguistics,andeconomics. Thedomainofcognitivepsychologyoverlapswiththatofcognitivescience,whichtakesamoreinterdisciplinaryapproachandincludesstudiesofnon-humansubjectsandartificialintelligence. Contents 1History 2Cognitiveprocesses 2.1Attention 2.2Memory 2.2.1Workingmemory 2.2.2Long-termmemory 2.3Perception 2.4Language 2.5Metacognition 3Modernperspectives 4Applications 4.1Abnormalpsychology 4.2Socialpsychology 4.3Developmentalpsychology 4.4Educationalpsychology 4.5Personalitypsychology 5Cognitivepsychologyvs.cognitivescience 6Criticisms 6.1Lackofcohesion 7Controversies 8Majorresearchareas 9Influentialcognitivepsychologists 10Seealso 11References 12Furtherreading 13Externallinks History[edit] Philosophically,ruminationsofthehumanmindanditsprocesseshavebeenaroundsincethetimesoftheancientGreeks.In387BCE,Platoisknowntohavesuggestedthatthebrainwastheseatofthementalprocesses.[2]In1637,RenéDescartespositedthathumansarebornwithinnateideas,andforwardedtheideaofmind-bodydualism,whichwouldcometobeknownassubstancedualism(essentiallytheideathatthemindandthebodyaretwoseparatesubstances).[3]Fromthattime,majordebatesensuedthroughthe19thcenturyregardingwhetherhumanthoughtwassolelyexperiential(empiricism),orincludedinnateknowledge(rationalism).SomeofthoseinvolvedinthisdebateincludedGeorgeBerkeleyandJohnLockeonthesideofempiricism,andImmanuelKantonthesideofnativism.[4] Withthephilosophicaldebatecontinuing,themidtolate19thcenturywasacriticaltimeinthedevelopmentofpsychologyasascientificdiscipline.TwodiscoveriesthatwouldlaterplaysubstantialrolesincognitivepsychologywerePaulBroca'sdiscoveryoftheareaofthebrainlargelyresponsibleforlanguageproduction,[3]andCarlWernicke'sdiscoveryofanareathoughttobemostlyresponsibleforcomprehensionoflanguage.[5]Bothareasweresubsequentlyformallynamedfortheirfounders,anddisruptionsofanindividual'slanguageproductionorcomprehensionduetotraumaormalformationintheseareashavecometocommonlybeknownasBroca'saphasiaandWernicke'saphasia. Fromthe1920stothe1950s,themainapproachtopsychologywasbehaviorism.Initially,itsadherentsviewedmentaleventssuchasthoughts,ideas,attention,andconsciousnessasunobservables,henceoutsidetherealmofascienceofpsychology.Onepioneerofcognitivepsychology,whoworkedoutsidetheboundaries(bothintellectualandgeographical)ofbehaviorismwasJeanPiaget.From1926tothe1950sandintothe1980s,hestudiedthethoughts,language,andintelligenceofchildrenandadults.[6] Inthemid-20thcentury,threemaininfluencesarosethatwouldinspireandshapecognitivepsychologyasaformalschoolofthought: WiththedevelopmentofnewwarfaretechnologyduringWWII,theneedforagreaterunderstandingofhumanperformancecametoprominence.Problemssuchashowtobesttrainsoldierstousenewtechnologyandhowtodealwithmattersofattentionwhileunderduressbecameareasofneedformilitarypersonnel.BehaviorismprovidedlittleifanyinsightintothesemattersanditwastheworkofDonaldBroadbent,integratingconceptsfromhumanperformanceresearchandtherecentlydevelopedinformationtheory,thatforgedthewayinthisarea.[4] Developmentsincomputersciencewouldleadtoparallelsbeingdrawnbetweenhumanthoughtandthecomputationalfunctionalityofcomputers,openingentirelynewareasofpsychologicalthought.AllenNewellandHerbertSimonspentyearsdevelopingtheconceptofartificialintelligence(AI)andlaterworkedwithcognitivepsychologistsregardingtheimplicationsofAI.Thisencouragedaconceptualizationofmentalfunctionspatternedonthewaythatcomputershandledsuchthingsasmemorystorageandretrieval,[4]anditopenedanimportantdoorwayforcognitivism. NoamChomsky's1959critique[7]ofbehaviorism,andempiricismmoregenerally,initiatedwhatwouldcometobeknownasthe"cognitiverevolution".Insidepsychology,incriticismofbehaviorism,J.S.Bruner,J.J.Goodnow&G.A.Austinwrote"astudyofthinking"in1956.In1960,G.A.Miller,E.GalanterandK.Pribramwrotetheirfamous"PlansandtheStructureofBehavior".Thesameyear,BrunerandMillerfoundedtheHarvardCenterforCognitiveStudies,whichinstitutionalizedtherevolutionandlaunchedthefieldofcognitivescience. FormalrecognitionofthefieldinvolvedtheestablishmentofresearchinstitutionssuchasGeorgeMandler'sCenterforHumanInformationProcessingin1964.Mandlerdescribedtheoriginsofcognitivepsychologyina2002articleintheJournaloftheHistoryoftheBehavioralSciences[8] UlricNeisserputtheterm"cognitivepsychology"intocommonusethroughhisbookCognitivePsychology,publishedin1967.[9][10]Neisser'sdefinitionof"cognition"illustratesthethen-progressiveconceptofcognitiveprocesses: Theterm"cognition"referstoallprocessesbywhichthesensoryinputistransformed,reduced,elaborated,stored,recovered,andused.Itisconcernedwiththeseprocessesevenwhentheyoperateintheabsenceofrelevantstimulation,asinimagesandhallucinations....Givensuchasweepingdefinition,itisapparentthatcognitionisinvolvedineverythingahumanbeingmightpossiblydo;thateverypsychologicalphenomenonisacognitivephenomenon.Butalthoughcognitivepsychologyisconcernedwithallhumanactivityratherthansomefractionofit,theconcernisfromaparticularpointofview.Otherviewpointsareequallylegitimateandnecessary.Dynamicpsychology,whichbeginswithmotivesratherthanwithsensoryinput,isacaseinpoint.Insteadofaskinghowaman'sactionsandexperiencesresultfromwhathesaw,remembered,orbelieved,thedynamicpsychologistaskshowtheyfollowfromthesubject'sgoals,needs,orinstincts.[9] Cognitiveprocesses[edit] Seealso:Cognitivecontrol Themainfocusofcognitivepsychologistsisonthementalprocessesthataffectbehavior.Thoseprocessesinclude,butarenotlimitedto,thefollowingthreestagesofmemory: Sensorymemorystorage:holdssensoryinformation Short-termmemorystorage:holdsinformationtemporarilyforanalysisandretrievesinformationfromtheLong-termmemory. Long-termmemory:holdsinformationoveranextendedperiodoftimewhichreceivesinformationfromtheshort-termmemory. Attention[edit] Mainarticle:Attention Thepsychologicaldefinitionofattentionis"astateoffocusedawarenessonasubsetoftheavailableperceptualinformation".[11]Akeyfunctionofattentionistoidentifyirrelevantdataandfilteritout,enablingsignificantdatatobedistributedtotheothermentalprocesses.[4]Forexample,thehumanbrainmaysimultaneouslyreceiveauditory,visual,olfactory,taste,andtactileinformation.Thebrainisabletoconsciouslyhandleonlyasmallsubsetofthisinformation,andthisisaccomplishedthroughtheattentionalprocesses.[4] Attentioncanbedividedintotwomajorattentionalsystems:exogenouscontrolandendogenouscontrol.[12]Exogenouscontrolworksinabottom-upmannerandisresponsiblefororientingreflex,andpop-outeffects.[12]Endogenouscontrolworkstop-downandisthemoredeliberateattentionalsystem,responsiblefordividedattentionandconsciousprocessing.[12] Onemajorfocalpointrelatingtoattentionwithinthefieldofcognitivepsychologyistheconceptofdividedattention.Anumberofearlystudiesdealtwiththeabilityofapersonwearingheadphonestodiscernmeaningfulconversationwhenpresentedwithdifferentmessagesintoeachear;thisisknownasthedichoticlisteningtask.[4]Keyfindingsinvolvedanincreasedunderstandingofthemind'sabilitytobothfocusononemessage,whilestillbeingsomewhatawareofinformationbeingtakeninfromtheearnotbeingconsciouslyattendedto.Forexample,participants(wearingearphones)maybetoldthattheywillbehearingseparatemessagesineachearandthattheyareexpectedtoattendonlytoinformationrelatedtobasketball.Whentheexperimentstarts,themessageaboutbasketballwillbepresentedtotheleftearandnon-relevantinformationwillbepresentedtotherightear.Atsomepointthemessagerelatedtobasketballwillswitchtotherightearandthenon-relevantinformationtotheleftear.Whenthishappens,thelistenerisusuallyabletorepeattheentiremessageattheend,havingattendedtotheleftorrightearonlywhenitwasappropriate.[4]Theabilitytoattendtooneconversationinthefaceofmanyisknownasthecocktailpartyeffect. Othermajorfindingsincludethatparticipantscannotcomprehendbothpassageswhenshadowingonepassage,theycannotreportthecontentoftheunattendedmessage,whiletheycanshadowamessagebetterifthepitchesineacheararedifferent.[13]However,whiledeepprocessingdoesnotoccur,earlysensoryprocessingdoes.Subjectsdidnoticeifthepitchoftheunattendedmessagechangedorifitceasedaltogether,andsomeevenorientedtotheunattendedmessageiftheirnamewasmentioned.[13] Memory[edit] Thetwomaintypesofmemoryareshort-termmemoryandlong-termmemory;however,short-termmemoryhasbecomebetterunderstoodtobeworkingmemory.Cognitivepsychologistsoftenstudymemoryintermsofworkingmemory. Workingmemory[edit] Mainarticle:Workingmemory Thoughworkingmemoryisoftenthoughtofasjustshort-termmemory,itismoreclearlydefinedastheabilitytoprocessandmaintaintemporaryinformationinawiderangeofeverydayactivitiesinthefaceofdistraction.Thefamouslyknowncapacityofmemoryof7plusorminus2isacombinationofbothmemoriesinworkingmemoryandlong-termmemory. OneoftheclassicexperimentsisbyEbbinghaus,whofoundtheserialpositioneffectwhereinformationfromthebeginningandendofthelistofrandomwordswerebetterrecalledthanthoseinthecenter.[14]Thisprimacyandrecencyeffectvariesinintensitybasedonlistlength.[14]ItstypicalU-shapedcurvecanbedisruptedbyanattention-grabbingword;thisisknownastheVonRestorffeffect. TheBaddeley&HitchModelofWorkingMemory Manymodelsofworkingmemoryhavebeenmade.OneofthemostregardedistheBaddeleyandHitchmodelofworkingmemory.Ittakesintoaccountbothvisualandauditorystimuli,long-termmemorytouseasareference,andacentralprocessortocombineandunderstanditall. Alargepartofmemoryisforgetting,andthereisalargedebateamongpsychologistsofdecaytheoryversusinterferencetheory. Long-termmemory[edit] Mainarticle:Long-termmemory Modernconceptionsofmemoryareusuallyaboutlong-termmemoryandbreakitdownintothreemainsub-classes.Thesethreeclassesaresomewhathierarchicalinnature,intermsofthelevelofconsciousthoughtrelatedtotheiruse.[15] Proceduralmemoryismemoryfortheperformanceofparticulartypesofaction.Itisoftenactivatedonasubconsciouslevel,oratmostrequiresaminimalamountofconsciouseffort.[16]Proceduralmemoryincludesstimulus-response-typeinformation,whichisactivatedthroughassociationwithparticulartasks,routines,etc.Apersonisusingproceduralknowledgewhentheyseemingly"automatically"respondinaparticularmannertoaparticularsituationorprocess.[15]Anexampleisdrivingacar. Semanticmemoryistheencyclopedicknowledgethatapersonpossesses.KnowledgelikewhattheEiffelTowerlookslike,orthenameofafriendfromsixthgrade,representsemanticmemory.Accessofsemanticmemoryrangesfromslightlytoextremelyeffortful,dependingonanumberofvariablesincludingbutnotlimitedtorecencyofencodingoftheinformation,numberofassociationsithastootherinformation,frequencyofaccess,andlevelsofmeaning(howdeeplyitwasprocessedwhenitwasencoded).[15] Episodicmemoryisthememoryofautobiographicaleventsthatcanbeexplicitlystated.Itcontainsallmemoriesthataretemporalinnature,suchaswhenonelastbrushedone'steethorwhereonewaswhenoneheardaboutamajornewsevent.Episodicmemorytypicallyrequiresthedeepestlevelofconsciousthought,asitoftenpullstogethersemanticmemoryandtemporalinformationtoformulatetheentirememory.[15] Perception[edit] Perceptioninvolvesboththephysicalsenses(sight,smell,hearing,taste,touch,andproprioception)aswellasthecognitiveprocessesinvolvedininterpretingthosesenses.Essentially,itishowpeoplecometounderstandtheworldaroundthemthroughtheinterpretationofstimuli.[17]EarlypsychologistslikeEdwardB.Titchenerbegantoworkwithperceptionintheirstructuralistapproachtopsychology.Structuralismdealtheavilywithtryingtoreducehumanthought(or"consciousness",asTitchenerwouldhavecalledit)intoitsmostbasicelementsbygaininganunderstandingofhowanindividualperceivesparticularstimuli.[18] Currentperspectivesonperceptionwithincognitivepsychologytendtofocusonparticularwaysinwhichthehumanmindinterpretsstimulifromthesensesandhowtheseinterpretationsaffectbehavior.AnexampleofthewayinwhichmodernpsychologistsapproachthestudyofperceptionistheresearchbeingdoneattheCenterforEcologicalStudyofPerceptionandActionattheUniversityofConnecticut(CESPA).OnestudyatCESPAconcernswaysinwhichindividualsperceivetheirphysicalenvironmentandhowthatinfluencestheirnavigationthroughthatenvironment.[19] Language[edit] Psychologistshavehadaninterestinthecognitiveprocessesinvolvedwithlanguagethatdatesbacktothe1870s,whenCarlWernickeproposedamodelforthementalprocessingoflanguage.[20]Currentworkonlanguagewithinthefieldofcognitivepsychologyvarieswidely.Cognitivepsychologistsmaystudylanguageacquisition,[21]individualcomponentsoflanguageformation(likephonemes),[22]howlanguageuseisinvolvedinmood,ornumerousotherrelatedareas. Broca'sandWernicke'sareasofthebrain,whicharecriticalinlanguage Significantworkhasfocusedonunderstandingthetimingoflanguageacquisitionandhowitcanbeusedtodetermineifachildhas,orisatriskof,developingalearningdisability.Astudyfrom2012,showedthatwhilethiscanbeaneffectivestrategy,itisimportantthatthosemakingevaluationsincludeallrelevantinformationwhenmakingtheirassessments.Factorssuchasindividualvariability,socioeconomicstatus,short-termandlong-termmemorycapacity,andothersmustbeincludedinordertomakevalidassessments.[21] Metacognition[edit] Metacognition,inabroadsense,isthethoughtsthatapersonhasabouttheirownthoughts.Morespecifically,metacognitionincludesthingslike: Howeffectiveapersonisatmonitoringtheirownperformanceonagiventask(self-regulation). Aperson'sunderstandingoftheircapabilitiesonparticularmentaltasks. Theabilitytoapplycognitivestrategies.[23] Muchofthecurrentstudyregardingmetacognitionwithinthefieldofcognitivepsychologydealswithitsapplicationwithintheareaofeducation.Beingabletoincreaseastudent'smetacognitiveabilitieshasbeenshowntohaveasignificantimpactontheirlearningandstudyhabits.[24]Onekeyaspectofthisconceptistheimprovementofstudents'abilitytosetgoalsandself-regulateeffectivelytomeetthosegoals.Asapartofthisprocess,itisalsoimportanttoensurethatstudentsarerealisticallyevaluatingtheirpersonaldegreeofknowledgeandsettingrealisticgoals(anothermetacognitivetask).[25] Commonphenomenarelatedtometacognitioninclude: DéjàVu:feelingofarepeatedexperience Cryptomnesia:generatingthoughtbelievingitisuniquebutitisactuallyamemoryofapastexperience;alsoknownasunconsciousplagiarism. FalseFameEffect:non-famousnamescanbemadetobefamous Validityeffect:statementsseemmorevaliduponrepeatedexposure Imaginationinflation:imagininganeventthatdidnotoccurandhavingincreasedconfidencethatitdidoccur Modernperspectives[edit] Modernperspectivesoncognitivepsychologygenerallyaddresscognitionasadualprocesstheory,expoundeduponbyDanielKahnemanin2011.[26]Kahnemandifferentiatedthetwostylesofprocessingmore,callingthemintuitionandreasoning.Intuition(orsystem1),similartoassociativereasoning,wasdeterminedtobefastandautomatic,usuallywithstrongemotionalbondsincludedinthereasoningprocess.Kahnemansaidthatthiskindofreasoningwasbasedonformedhabitsandverydifficulttochangeormanipulate.Reasoning(orsystem2)wasslowerandmuchmorevolatile,beingsubjecttoconsciousjudgmentsandattitudes.[26] Applications[edit] Abnormalpsychology[edit] Followingthecognitiverevolution,andasaresultofmanyoftheprincipaldiscoveriestocomeoutofthefieldofcognitivepsychology,thedisciplineofcognitivebehaviortherapy(CBT)evolved.AaronT.Beckisgenerallyregardedasthefatherofcognitivetherapy,aparticulartypeofCBTtreatment.[27]Hisworkintheareasofrecognitionandtreatmentofdepressionhasgainedworldwiderecognition.Inhis1987booktitledCognitiveTherapyofDepression,Beckputsforththreesalientpointswithregardtohisreasoningforthetreatmentofdepressionbymeansoftherapyortherapyandantidepressantsversususingapharmacological-onlyapproach: 1.Despitetheprevalentuseofantidepressants,thefactremainsthatnotallpatientsrespondtothem.Beckcites(in1987)thatonly60to65%ofpatientsrespondtoantidepressants,andrecentmeta-analyses(astatisticalbreakdownofmultiplestudies)showverysimilarnumbers.[28]2.Manyofthosewhodorespondtoantidepressantsendupnottakingtheirmedications,forvariousreasons.Theymaydevelopside-effectsorhavesomeformofpersonalobjectiontotakingthedrugs.3.Beckpositsthattheuseofpsychotropicdrugsmayleadtoaneventualbreakdownintheindividual'scopingmechanisms.Histheoryisthatthepersonessentiallybecomesreliantonthemedicationasameansofimprovingmoodandfailstopracticethosecopingtechniquestypicallypracticedbyhealthyindividualstoalleviatetheeffectsofdepressivesymptoms.Byfailingtodoso,oncethepatientisweanedoffoftheantidepressants,theyoftenareunabletocopewithnormallevelsofdepressedmoodandfeeldriventoreinstateuseoftheantidepressants.[29] Socialpsychology[edit] Manyfacetsofmodernsocialpsychologyhaverootsinresearchdonewithinthefieldofcognitivepsychology.[30][31]Socialcognitionisaspecificsub-setofsocialpsychologythatconcentratesonprocessesthathavebeenofparticularfocuswithincognitivepsychology,specificallyappliedtohumaninteractions.GordonB.Moskowitzdefinessocialcognitionas"...thestudyofthementalprocessesinvolvedinperceiving,attendingto,remembering,thinkingabout,andmakingsenseofthepeopleinoursocialworld".[32] Thedevelopmentofmultiplesocialinformationprocessing(SIP)modelshasbeeninfluentialinstudiesinvolvingaggressiveandanti-socialbehavior.KennethDodge'sSIPmodelisoneof,ifnotthemost,empiricallysupportedmodelsrelatingtoaggression.Amonghisresearch,Dodgepositsthatchildrenwhopossessagreaterabilitytoprocesssocialinformationmoreoftendisplayhigherlevelsofsociallyacceptablebehavior;thatthetypeofsocialinteractionthatchildrenhaveaffectstheirrelationships.[33]Hismodelassertsthattherearefivestepsthatanindividualproceedsthroughwhenevaluatinginteractionswithotherindividualsandthathowthepersoninterpretscuesiskeytotheirreactionaryprocess.[34] Developmentalpsychology[edit] Manyoftheprominentnamesinthefieldofdevelopmentalpsychologybasetheirunderstandingofdevelopmentoncognitivemodels.Oneofthemajorparadigmsofdevelopmentalpsychology,theTheoryofMind(ToM),dealsspecificallywiththeabilityofanindividualtoeffectivelyunderstandandattributecognitiontothosearoundthem.Thisconcepttypicallybecomesfullyapparentinchildrenbetweentheagesof4and6.Essentially,beforethechilddevelopsToM,theyareunabletounderstandthatthosearoundthemcanhavedifferentthoughts,ideas,orfeelingsthanthemselves.ThedevelopmentofToMisamatterofmetacognition,orthinkingaboutone'sthoughts.Thechildmustbeabletorecognizethattheyhavetheirownthoughtsandinturn,thatotherspossessthoughtsoftheirown.[35] Oneoftheforemostmindswithregardtodevelopmentalpsychology,JeanPiaget,focusedmuchofhisattentiononcognitivedevelopmentfrombirththroughadulthood.Thoughtherehavebeenconsiderablechallengestopartsofhisstagesofcognitivedevelopment,theyremainastapleintherealmofeducation.Piaget'sconceptsandideaspredatedthecognitiverevolutionbutinspiredawealthofresearchinthefieldofcognitivepsychologyandmanyofhisprincipleshavebeenblendedwithmoderntheorytosynthesizethepredominantviewsoftoday.[36] Educationalpsychology[edit] Moderntheoriesofeducationhaveappliedmanyconceptsthatarefocalpointsofcognitivepsychology.Someofthemostprominentconceptsinclude: Metacognition:Metacognitionisabroadconceptencompassingallmannersofone'sthoughtsandknowledgeabouttheirownthinking.Akeyareaofeducationalfocusinthisrealmisrelatedtoself-monitoring,whichrelateshighlytohowwellstudentsareabletoevaluatetheirpersonalknowledgeandapplystrategiestoimproveknowledgeinareasinwhichtheyarelacking.[37] Declarativeknowledgeandproceduralknowledge:Declarativeknowledgeisapersons'encyclopedic'knowledgebase,whereasproceduralknowledgeisspecificknowledgerelatingtoperformingparticulartasks.Theapplicationofthesecognitiveparadigmstoeducationattemptstoaugmentastudent'sabilitytointegratedeclarativeknowledgeintonewlylearnedproceduresinanefforttofacilitateacceleratedlearning.[37] Knowledgeorganization:Applicationsofcognitivepsychology'sunderstandingofhowknowledgeisorganizedinthebrainhasbeenamajorfocuswithinthefieldofeducationinrecentyears.Thehierarchicalmethodoforganizinginformationandhowthatmapswellontothebrain'smemoryareconceptsthathaveprovenextremelybeneficialinclassrooms.[37] Personalitypsychology[edit] Cognitivetherapeuticapproacheshavereceivedconsiderableattentioninthetreatmentofpersonalitydisordersinrecentyears.Theapproachfocusesontheformationofwhatitbelievestobefaultyschemata,centralizedonjudgmentalbiasesandgeneralcognitiveerrors.[38] Cognitivepsychologyvs.cognitivescience[edit] Thelinebetweencognitivepsychologyandcognitivesciencecanbeblurry.Cognitivepsychologyisbetterunderstoodaspredominantlyconcernedwithappliedpsychologyandtheunderstandingofpsychologicalphenomena.Cognitivepsychologistsareoftenheavilyinvolvedinrunningpsychologicalexperimentsinvolvinghumanparticipants,withthegoalofgatheringinformationrelatedtohowthehumanmindtakesin,processes,andactsuponinputsreceivedfromtheoutsideworld.[39]Theinformationgainedinthisareaisthenoftenusedintheappliedfieldofclinicalpsychology. Cognitivescienceisbetterunderstoodaspredominantlyconcernedwithamuchbroaderscope,withlinkstophilosophy,linguistics,anthropology,neuroscience,andparticularlywithartificialintelligence.Itcouldbesaidthatcognitivescienceprovidesthecorpusofinformationfeedingthetheoriesusedbycognitivepsychologists.[40]Cognitivescientists'researchsometimesinvolvesnon-humansubjects,allowingthemtodelveintoareaswhichwouldcomeunderethicalscrutinyifperformedonhumanparticipants.I.e.,theymaydoresearchimplantingdevicesinthebrainsofratstotrackthefiringofneuronswhiletheratperformsaparticulartask.Cognitivescienceishighlyinvolvedintheareaofartificialintelligenceanditsapplicationtotheunderstandingofmentalprocesses. Criticisms[edit] Lackofcohesion[edit] Someobservershavesuggestedthatascognitivepsychologybecameamovementduringthe1970s,theintricaciesofthephenomenaandprocessesitexaminedmeantitalsobegantolosecohesionasafieldofstudy.InPsychology:PythagorastoPresent,forexample,JohnMalonewrites:"Examinationsoflatetwentieth-centurytextbooksdealingwith"cognitivepsychology","humancognition","cognitivescience"andthelikequicklyrevealthattherearemany,manyvarietiesofcognitivepsychologyandverylittleagreementaboutexactlywhatmaybeitsdomain."[3]Thismisfortuneproducedcompetingmodelsthatquestionedinformation-processingapproachestocognitivefunctioningsuchasDecisionMakingandBehavioralSciences. Controversies[edit] Intheearlyyearsofcognitivepsychology,behavioristcriticsheldthattheempiricismitpursuedwasincompatiblewiththeconceptofinternalmentalstates.However,cognitiveneurosciencecontinuestogatherevidenceofdirectcorrelationsbetweenphysiologicalbrainactivityandmentalstates,endorsingthebasisforcognitivepsychology.[41] Thereishoweverdisagreementbetweenneuropsychologistsandcognitivepsychologists.Cognitivepsychologyhasproducedmodelsofcognitionwhicharenotsupportedbymodernbrainscience.Itisoftenthecasethattheadvocatesofdifferentcognitivemodelsformadialecticrelationshipwithoneanotherthusaffectingempiricalresearch,withresearcherssidingwiththeirfavoritetheory.Forexample,advocatesofmentalmodeltheoryhaveattemptedtofindevidencethatdeductivereasoningisbasedonimagethinking,whiletheadvocatesofmentallogictheoryhavetriedtoprovethatitisbasedonverbalthinking,leadingtoadisorderlypictureofthefindingsfrombrainimagingandbrainlesionstudies.Whentheoreticalclaimsareputaside,theevidenceshowsthatinteractiondependsonthetypeoftasktested,whetherofvisuospatialorlinguisticalorientation;butthatthereisalsoanaspectofreasoningwhichisnotcoveredbyeithertheory.[42] Similarly,neurolinguisticshasfoundthatitiseasiertomakesenseofbrainimagingstudieswhenthetheoriesareleftaside.[43][44]Inthefieldoflanguagecognitionresearch,generativegrammarhastakenthepositionthatlanguageresideswithinitsprivatecognitivemodule,while'CognitiveLinguistics'goestotheoppositeextremebyclaimingthatlanguageisnotanindependentfunction,butoperatesongeneralcognitivecapacitiessuchasvisualprocessingandmotorskills.Consensusinneuropsychologyhowevertakesthemiddlepositionthat,whilelanguageisaspecializedfunction,itoverlapsorinteractswithvisualprocessing.[42][45]Nonetheless,muchoftheresearchinlanguagecognitioncontinuestobedividedalongthelinesofgenerativegrammarandCognitiveLinguistics;andthis,again,affectsadjacentresearchfieldsincludinglanguagedevelopmentandlanguageacquisition.[46] Majorresearchareas[edit] Categorization Inductionandacquisition Judgementandclassification Representationandstructure Similarity Knowledgerepresentation Dual-codingtheories Mediapsychology Mentalimagery Numericalcognition Propositionalencoding Language Languageacquisition Languageprocessing LinguisticsGrammar PhoneticsPhonology Memory Agingandmemory Autobiographicalmemory Childhoodmemory Constructivememory Emotionandmemory Episodicmemory Eyewitnessmemory Falsememories Flashbulbmemory Listofmemorybiases Long-termmemory Semanticmemory Short-termmemory Source-monitoringerror Spacedrepetition Workingmemory Perception Attention Objectrecognition Patternrecognition Perception Formperception Psychophysics Timesensation Thinking Choice (Glasser'stheory) Conceptformation Decisionmaking Logic Psychologyofreasoning Problemsolving Influentialcognitivepsychologists[edit] JohnR.Anderson AlanBaddeley DavidAusubel AlbertBandura FredericBartlett ElizabethBates AaronT.Beck RobertBjork GordonH.Bower DonaldBroadbent JeromeBruner SusanCarey NoamChomsky FergusCraik AntonioDamasio HermannEbbinghaus AlbertEllis K.AndersEricsson WilliamEstes EugeneGalanter VittorioGallese MichaelGazzaniga DedreGentner VittorioGuidano PhilipJohnson-Laird DanielKahneman NancyKanwisher EricLenneberg AlanLeslie WillemLevelt ElizabethLoftus AlexanderLuria BrianMacWhinney GeorgeMandler JeanMatterMandler EllenMarkman JamesMcClelland GeorgeArmitageMiller UlrichNeisser AllenNewell AllanPaivio SeymourPapert JeanPiaget StevenPinker MichaelPosner KarlH.Pribram GiacomoRizzolatti HenryL.RoedigerIII EleanorRosch DavidRumelhart EleanorSaffran DanielSchacter OttoSelz RogerShepard RichardShiffrin HerbertA.Simon GeorgeSperling RobertSternberg LarrySquire SaulSternberg AnneTreisman EndelTulving AmosTversky LevVygotsky Seealso[edit] Psychologyportal Philosophyportal Cognition Cognitivebiasbiologydescriptiondevelopmentinterventionsmoduleneuropsychologypoeticsrobotics Connectionism Discursivepsychology Ecologicalpsychology Evolutionarypsychology Fuzzy-tracetheory Geneticepistemology Intelligentsystem Intertrialpriming Modelsofabnormality Neurocognitive Perceptualcontroltheory Personalinformationmanagement Psychologicaladaptation Rubiconmodel(psychology) Situatedcognition Socialcognition Water-leveltask References[edit] ^"AmericanPsychologicalAssociation(2013).Glossaryofpsychologicalterms".Apa.org.Retrieved2014-08-13. ^"Mangels,J.Historyofneuroscience".Columbia.edu.Retrieved2014-08-13. ^abcMalone,J.C.(2009).Psychology:PythagorastoPresent.Cambridge,Massachusetts:TheMITPress.(app.143,bpp.293,cpp.491) ^abcdefgAnderson,J.R.(2010).CognitivePsychologyandItsImplications.NewYork,NY:WorthPublishers. ^Eysenck,M.W.(1990).CognitivePsychology:AnInternationalReview.WestSussex,England:JohnWiley&Sons,Ltd.(pp.111) ^Smith,L.(2000).AboutPiaget.Retrievedfromhttp://piaget.org/aboutPiaget.htmlArchived2019-08-24attheWaybackMachine ^Chomsky,N.A.(1959),AReviewofSkinner'sVerbalBehavior ^Mandler,G.(2002).Originsofthecognitive(r)evolution.JournaloftheHistoryoftheBehavioralSciences,38,339–353. ^abNeisser,U.(1967).CognitivePsychology.EnglewoodCliffs,NJ:PrenticeHall.Neisser'sdefinitiononpage4. 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Furtherreading[edit] Groeger,JohnA.(2002)."Traffickingincognition:Applyingcognitivepsychologytodriving".TransportationResearchPartF:TrafficPsychologyandBehaviour.5(4):235–248.doi:10.1016/S1369-8478(03)00006-8. Jacobs,A.M.(2001)."Literacy,CognitivePsychologyof".InternationalEncyclopediaoftheSocial&BehavioralSciences.pp. 8971–8975.doi:10.1016/B0-08-043076-7/01556-4.ISBN 9780080430768. Mansell,Warren(2004)."Cognitivepsychologyandanxiety".Psychiatry.3(4):6–10.doi:10.1383/psyt.3.4.6.32905.S2CID 27321969. PhilipQuinlan,PhilipT.Quinlan,BenDyson.2008.CognitivePsychology.Publisher-Pearson/PrenticeHall.ISBN 0131298100,9780131298101 RobertJ.Sternberg,JeffMio,JefferyScottMio.2009.Publisher-CengageLearning.ISBN 049550629X,9780495506294 NickBraisby,AngusGellatly.2012.CognitivePsychology.Publisher-OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 0199236992,9780199236992 Externallinks[edit] LibraryresourcesaboutCognitivepsychology Resourcesinyourlibrary Resourcesinotherlibraries MediarelatedtoCognitivepsychologyatWikimediaCommons QuotationsrelatedtoCognitivepsychologyatWikiquote CognitivepsychologyarticleinScholarpedia LaboratoryforRationalDecisionMaking vtePsychology History Philosophy Portal Psychologist Basicpsychology Abnormal Affectiveneuroscience Affectivescience Behavioralgenetics Behavioralneuroscience Behaviorism Cognitive/Cognitivism Cognitiveneuroscience Social Comparative Cross-cultural Cultural Developmental Differential Ecological Evolutionary Experimental Gestalt Intelligence Mathematical Moral 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