Ukrainian language - Wikipedia

Ukrainian is an East Slavic language of the Indo-European language family. It is the native language of about 40 million people and the official state ... Ukrainianlanguage FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch SlaviclanguageintheEastSlavicsubgroup UkrainianУкраїнськамоваPronunciation[ʊkrɐˈjinʲsʲkɐˈmɔʋɐ]Native toUkraineRegionEasternEuropeEthnicityUkrainiansNativespeakers40million(2000)[1]Speakers:around45million(estimated)[2]LanguagefamilyIndo-European Balto-SlavicSlavicEastSlavicUkrainianEarlyformsProto-Indo-European Proto-Balto-Slavic Proto-Slavic OldEastSlavic Ruthenian(OldUkrainian) Dialects Balachka Canadian Motolian Pokuttia-Bukovina Hutsul Amongothers,see:Ukrainiandialects WritingsystemCyrillic(Ukrainianalphabet)UkrainianBrailleOfficialstatusOfficiallanguage in Ukraine Romania(recognized)RepublicofCrimea[note1]Transnistria[note2]Recognisedminoritylanguage in Belarus BosniaandHerzegovina[3] Croatia[3] CzechRepublic[4] Hungary[5] Moldova[6][7][8] Poland[3] Romania[3] Serbia[3] Slovakia[3]Regulated byNationalAcademyofSciencesofUkraine:InstitutefortheUkrainianLanguage,Ukrainianlanguage-informationfund,PotebnyaInstituteofLanguageStudiesLanguagecodesISO639-1ukISO639-2ukrISO639-3ukrGlottologukra1253 UkrainianLinguasphere53-AAA-ed<53-AAA-e(varieties:53-AAA-edato53-AAA-edq)UkrainianlanguageandUkrainianswiththeirneighborsintheearly20thcentury.ThisarticlecontainsIPAphoneticsymbols.Withoutproperrenderingsupport,youmayseequestionmarks,boxes,orothersymbolsinsteadofUnicodecharacters.ForanintroductoryguideonIPAsymbols,seeHelp:IPA. AspeakerofUkrainian,recordedatWikimania2019inStockholm Ukrainian(nativename:украї́нськамо́ва,romanized: ukrainskamova,IPA: [ʊkrɐˈjinʲsʲkɐˈmɔʋɐ])isanEastSlaviclanguageoftheIndo-Europeanlanguagefamily.Itisthenativelanguageofabout40millionpeopleandtheofficialstatelanguageofUkraineinEasternEurope.WrittenUkrainianusestheUkrainianalphabet,avariantoftheCyrillicscript.ThestandardUkrainianlanguageisregulatedbytheNationalAcademyofSciencesofUkraine(NANU;particularlybyitsInstitutefortheUkrainianLanguage),theUkrainianlanguage-informationfund,[citationneeded]andPotebniaInstituteofLinguistics.ComparisonsareoftendrawntoRussian,aprominentSlaviclanguage,butthereismoremutualintelligibilitywithBelarusian,[9]Ukrainian'sclosestrelative. HistoricallinguiststracetheoriginoftheUkrainianlanguagetoOldEastSlavic,alanguageoftheearlymedievalstateofKievanRus'.AfterthefalloftheKievanRus'aswellastheKingdomofRuthenia,thelanguagedevelopedintoaformcalledtheRuthenianlanguage.[10]AlongwithRuthenian,intheterritoryofmodernUkraine,theKyivversion(KyivIzvod)ofChurchSlavonicwasalsousedinliturgicalservices.[11]TheUkrainianlanguagehasbeenincommonusesincethelate17thcentury,associatedwiththeestablishmentoftheCossackHetmanate.From1804untilthe1917–1921UkrainianWarofIndependence,theUkrainianlanguagewasbannedfromschoolsintheRussianEmpire,ofwhichthebiggestpartofUkraine(Central,EasternandSouthern)wasapartatthetime.[12]Throughfolksongs,itinerantmusicians,andprominentauthors,thelanguagehasalwaysmaintainedasufficientbaseinWesternUkraine,wherethelanguagewasneverbanned.[13][14] Contents 1Linguisticdevelopment 1.1Theories 1.2Originsanddevelopmentsduringmedievaltimes 1.3DevelopmentsunderPolandandLithuania 1.4Chronology 2Historyofthespokenlanguage 2.1RusandKingdomofRuthenia 2.2UnderLithuania/Poland,Muscovy/RussiaandAustro-Hungary 2.2.1SpeakersintheRussianEmpire 2.3Sovietera 2.3.1Ukrainianization 2.3.2Persecutionandrussification 2.3.3Khrushchevthaw 2.3.4Shelestperiod 2.3.5Shcherbytskyperiod 2.3.6Gorbachevandperebudova 2.4Independenceinthemodernera 3Literatureandliterarylanguage 4Currentusage 4.1Popularculture 4.1.1Music 4.1.2Cinema 4.1.3Argots 4.2Dialects 4.3Neighbouringcountries 4.4Ukrainiandiaspora 5Languagestructure 5.1Grammar 5.2Phonology 5.3Alphabet 5.3.1Transliteration 5.4Orthography 5.5Vocabulary 5.6FalsecognateswithRussian 6Classification 6.1DifferenceswithotherSlaviclanguages 7Seealso 8Notes 9References 9.1Citations 9.2Sources 10Externallinks Linguisticdevelopment SchematicdepictionaccordingtogeneticstudiesbyAlenaKushniarevich Theories LatestresearchsuggeststhattheprocessofdivergenceofRussianandUkrainian/Belarusiantookplacefromthe5thcenturytothe15thcentury.[15] ThefirsttheoryoftheoriginoftheUkrainianlanguagewassuggestedinImperialRussiainthemiddleofthe18thcenturybyMikhailLomonosov.ThistheorypositstheexistenceofacommonlanguagespokenbyallEastSlavicpeopleinthetimeoftheRus.AccordingtoLomonosov,thedifferencesthatsubsequentlydevelopedbetweenGreatRussianandUkrainian(whichhereferredtoasLittleRussian)couldbeexplainedbytheinfluenceofthePolishandSlovaklanguagesonUkrainianandtheinfluenceofUraliclanguagesonRussianfromthe13thtothe17thcenturies.[16][fullcitationneeded] Anotherpointofviewdevelopedduringthe19thand20thcenturiesbylinguistsofImperialRussiaandtheSovietUnion.LikeLomonosov,theyassumedtheexistenceofacommonlanguagespokenbyEastSlavsinthepast.ButunlikeLomonosov'shypothesis,thistheorydoesnotview"Polonization"oranyotherexternalinfluenceasthemaindrivingforcethatledtotheformationofthreedifferentlanguages(Russian,UkrainianandBelarusian)fromthecommonOldEastSlaviclanguage.Thesupportersofthistheorydisagree,however,aboutthetimewhenthedifferentlanguageswereformed. SovietscholarssetthedivergencebetweenUkrainianandRussianonlyatlatertimeperiods(14ththrough16thcenturies).Accordingtothisview,OldEastSlavicdivergedintoBelarusianandUkrainiantothewest(collectively,theRuthenianlanguageofthe15thto18thcenturies),andOldEastSlavictothenorth-east,afterthepoliticalboundariesoftheKievanRus'wereredrawninthe14thcentury. Someresearchers,whileadmittingthedifferencesbetweenthedialectsspokenbyEastSlavictribesinthe10thand11thcenturies,stillconsiderthemas"regionalmanifestationsofacommonlanguage"(see,forinstance,thearticlebyVasylNimchuk).[17] Incontrast,AhatanhelKrymskyandAlexeiShakhmatovassumedtheexistenceofthecommonspokenlanguageofEasternSlavsonlyinprehistorictimes.[18]Accordingtotheirpointofview,thediversificationoftheOldEastSlaviclanguagetookplaceinthe8thorearly9thcentury. RussianlinguistAndreyZaliznyakstatedthattheNovgoroddialectdifferedsignificantlyfromthatofotherdialectsofKyivanRusduringthe11th–12thcentury,but startedbecomingmoresimilartothemaround13th–15thcenturies.ThemodernRussianlanguagehencedevelopedfromthefusionofthisNovgoroddialectandthecommondialectspeakbytheotherKyivanRus,whereasthemodernUkrainianandBelarusianlanguagesdevelopedfromthedialectswhichdidnotdifferfromeachotherinasignificantway.[19] SomeUkrainianfeatures[which?]wererecognizableinthesoutherndialectsofOldEastSlavicasfarbackasthelanguagecanbedocumented.[20] UkrainianlinguistStepanSmal-StotskydeniestheexistenceofacommonOldEastSlaviclanguageatanytimeinthepast.[21]SimilarpointsofviewweresharedbyYevhenTymchenko,VsevolodHantsov,OlenaKurylo,IvanOhienkoandothers.Accordingtothistheory,thedialectsofEastSlavictribesevolvedgraduallyfromthecommonProto-Slaviclanguagewithoutanyintermediatestagesduringthe6ththrough9thcenturies.TheUkrainianlanguagewasformedbyconvergenceoftribaldialects,mostlyduetoanintensivemigrationofthepopulationwithintheterritoryoftoday'sUkraineinlaterhistoricalperiods.ThispointofviewwasalsosupportedbyGeorgeShevelov'sphonologicalstudies.[22] Originsanddevelopmentsduringmedievaltimes AsaresultofcloseSlaviccontactswiththeremnantsoftheScythianandSarmatianpopulationnorthoftheBlackSea,lastingintotheearlyMiddleAges,theappearanceofthevoicedfricativeγ/г(romanized"h"),inmodernUkrainianandsomesouthernRussiandialectsisexplainedbytheassumptionthatitinitiallyemergedinScythianandrelatedeasternIraniandialects,fromearliercommonProto-Indo-European*gand*gʰ.[23][24][25] Duringthe13thcentury,whenGermansettlerswereinvitedtoUkrainebytheprincesoftheKingdomofRuthenia,GermanwordsbegantoappearinthelanguagespokeninUkraine.TheirinfluencewouldcontinueunderPolandnotonlythroughGermancolonistsbutalsothroughtheYiddish-speakingJews.Oftensuchwordsinvolvetradeorhandicrafts.ExamplesofwordsofGermanorYiddishoriginspokeninUkraineincludedakh(roof),rura(pipe),rynok(market),kushnir(furrier),andmajster(masterorcraftsman).[26] DevelopmentsunderPolandandLithuania Inthe13thcentury,easternpartsofRus(includingMoscow)cameunderTatarruleuntiltheirunificationundertheTsardomofMuscovy,whereasthesouth-westernareas(includingKyiv)wereincorporatedintotheGrandDuchyofLithuania.Forthefollowingfourcenturies,thelanguageofthetworegionsevolvedinrelativeisolationfromeachother.DirectwrittenevidenceoftheexistenceoftheUkrainianlanguagedatestothelate16thcentury.[27]Bythe16thcentury,apeculiarofficiallanguageformed:amixtureoftheliturgicalstandardisedlanguageofOldChurchSlavonic,RuthenianandPolish.Theinfluenceofthelattergraduallyincreasedrelativetotheformertwo,asthenobilityandrurallarge-landowningclass,knownastheszlachta,waslargelyPolish-speaking.DocumentssoontookonmanyPolishcharacteristicssuperimposedonRuthenianphonetics.[28]PolishruleandeducationalsoinvolvedsignificantexposuretotheLatinlanguage.MuchoftheinfluenceofPolandonthedevelopmentoftheUkrainianlanguagehasbeenattributedtothisperiodandisreflectedinmultiplewordsandconstructionsusedineverydayUkrainianspeechthatweretakenfromPolishorLatin.ExamplesofPolishwordsadoptedfromthisperiodincludezavzhdy(always;takenfromoldPolishwordzawżdy)andobitsiaty(topromise;takenfromPolishobiecać)andfromLatin(viaPolish)raptom(suddenly)andmeta(aimorgoal).[26] SignificantcontactwithTatarsandTurksresultedinmanyTurkicwords,particularlythoseinvolvingmilitarymattersandsteppeindustry,beingadoptedintotheUkrainianlanguage.Examplesincludetorba(bag)andtyutyun(tobacco).[26] DuetoheavyborrowingsfromPolish,German,CzechandLatin,earlymodernvernacularUkrainian(prostamova,"simplespeech")hadmorelexicalsimilaritywithWestSlaviclanguagesthanwithRussianorChurchSlavonic.[29]Bythemid-17thcentury,thelinguisticdivergencebetweentheUkrainianandRussianlanguageshadbecomesosignificantthattherewasaneedfortranslatorsduringnegotiationsfortheTreatyofPereyaslav,betweenBohdanKhmelnytsky,headoftheZaporozhianHost,andtheRussianstate.[30] Chronology TheacceptedchronologyofUkrainiandividesthelanguageintoOld,Middle,andModernUkrainian.[31]GeorgeShevelovexplainsthatmuchofthisisbasedonthecharacterofcontemporarywrittensources,ultimatelyreflectingsocio-historicaldevelopments,andhefurthersubdividestheMUperiodwithEarlyandLatephases.[32][33][34][35] Proto-Ukrainian(abbreviatedPU,Ukrainian:protoukrajinsʼkyjperiod,untilthemid-11thcentury),withnoextantwrittensourcesbyspeakersinUkraine.CorrespondingtoaspectsofOldEastSlavic. OldUkrainian(OU,davnʼoukrajinsʼkyjperiodordavnʼoukrajinsʼkamova,mid-11thto14thc.,conventionalenddate1387),elementsofphonologyarededucedfromwrittentextsmainlyinChurchSlavic.PartofbroaderOldEastSlavic. MiddleUkrainian(serednʼoukrajinsʼkyjperiodorstaroukrajinsʼkamova,15thto18thc.),historicallycalledRuthenian. EarlyMiddleUkrainian(EMU,rannʼoserednʼoukrajinsʼkyjperiod,15thtomid-16thc.,1387–1575),analysisfocusesondistinguishingUkrainianandBelarusiantexts. MiddleUkrainian(MU,serednʼoukrajinsʼkyjperiod,mid-16thtoearly18thc.,1575–1720),representedbyseveralvernacularlanguagevarietiesaswellasaversionofChurchSlavic. LateMiddleUkrainian(LMU,piznoserednʼoukrajinsʼkyjperiod,restofthe18thc.,1720–1818),foundinmanymixedUkrainian–RussianandRussian–Ukrainiantexts. ModernUkrainian(MoU,fromtheveryendofthe18thc.,sučasnyjperiodorsučasnaukrajinsʼkamova,from1818),thevernacularrecognizedfirstinliterature,andsubsequentlyallotherwrittengenres. UkraineannuallymarkstheDayofUkrainianWritingandLanguageonNovember9,theEasternOrthodoxfeastdayofNestortheChronicler. Historyofthespokenlanguage Seealso:HistoryofUkraine PercentageofpeoplewithUkrainianastheirnativelanguageaccordingto2001census(byregion). DominiGeorgiRegisRussiae;LordGeorge(Yuri),theKingofRus King'ssealofYuriIofHalych(reign:1301–1308)"S[igillum]DominiGeorgiRegisRusie"(left),"S[igillum]DominiGeorgiDucisLadimerie"(right). "MonetaRvssie"coinedin1382basedongroschen RusandKingdomofRuthenia DuringtheKhazarperiod,theterritoryofUkrainewassettledbyIranian(post-Scythian),Turkic(post-Hunnic,proto-Bulgarian),andUralic(proto-Hungarian)tribesandSlavictribes.Later,theVarangianrulerOlegofNovgorodwouldseizeKyivandestablishthepoliticalentityofKievanRus'. TheeraofKyivanRusisthesubjectofsomelinguisticcontroversy,asthelanguageofmuchoftheliteraturewaspurelyorheavilyOldChurchSlavonic.LiteraryrecordsfromKyivanRustestifytosubstantialdifferencebetweenRussianandRuthenianformoftheUkrainianlanguageasearlyasKyivanRustime. SometheoristsseeanearlyUkrainianstageinlanguagedevelopmenthere,callingitOldRuthenian;otherstermthiseraOldEastSlavic.RussiantheoriststendtoamalgamateRustothemodernnationofRussia,andcallthislinguisticeraOldRussian.However,accordingtoRussianlinguistAndreyZaliznyak,NovgorodpeopledidnotcallthemselvesRusuntilthe14thcentury,callingRusonlyKyiv,PereiaslavandChernihivprincipalities[19](theKyivanRusstateexistedtill1240).Atthesametimeasevidencedbythecontemporarychronicles,therulingprincesofKingdomofRutheniaandKyivcalledthemselves"PeopleofRus"–Ruthenians,andGalicia–VolhyniawascalledtheKingdomofRuthenia. AlsoaccordingtoAndreyZaliznyak,theNovgoroddialectdifferedsignificantlyfromthatofotherdialectsofKyivanRusduringthe11th–12thcentury,but startedbecomingmoresimilartothemaround13th–15thcenturies.ThemodernRussianlanguagehencedevelopedfromthefusionofthisNovgoroddialectandthecommondialectspokenbytheotherKyivanRus,whereasthemodernUkrainianandBelarusianlanguagesdevelopedfromthedialectswhichdidnotdifferfromeachotherinasignificantway.[19] UnderLithuania/Poland,Muscovy/RussiaandAustro-Hungary Furtherinformation:NameofUkraine MiniatureofStLukefromthePeresopnytsiaGospels(1561). AfterthefallofKingdomofRuthenia,UkrainiansmainlyfellundertheruleofLithuaniaandthenPoland.LocalautonomyofbothruleandlanguagewasamarkedfeatureofLithuanianrule.IntheGrandDuchyofLithuania,OldEastSlavicbecamethelanguageofthechancelleryandgraduallyevolvedintotheRuthenianlanguage.Polishrule,whichcamelater,wasaccompaniedbyamoreassimilationistpolicy.Bythe1569UnionofLublinthatformedthePolish–LithuanianCommonwealth,asignificantpartofUkrainianterritorywasmovedfromLithuanianruletoPolishadministration,resultinginculturalPolonizationandvisibleattemptstocolonizeUkrainebythePolishnobility.ManyUkrainiannobleswereforcedtolearnthePolishlanguageandconverttoCatholicismduringthatperiodinordertomaintaintheirloftyaristocraticposition.[36]Lowerclasseswerelessaffectedbecauseliteracywascommononlyintheupperclassandclergy.ThelatterwerealsoundersignificantPolishpressureaftertheUnionwiththeCatholicChurch.MostoftheeducationalsystemwasgraduallyPolonized.InRuthenia,thelanguageofadministrativedocumentsgraduallyshiftedtowardsPolish. ThePolishlanguagehashadheavyinfluencesonUkrainian(particularlyinWesternUkraine).ThesouthwesternUkrainiandialectsaretransitionaltoPolish.[37]AstheUkrainianlanguagedevelopedfurther,someborrowingsfromTatarandTurkishoccurred.Ukrainiancultureandlanguageflourishedinthesixteenthandfirsthalfofthe17thcentury,whenUkrainewaspartofthePolish–LithuanianCommonwealth,albeitinspiteofbeingpartofthePLC,notasaresult.Amongmanyschoolsestablishedinthattime,theKyiv-MohylaCollegium(thepredecessorofthemodernKyiv-MohylaAcademy),foundedbytheMoldavianOrthodoxMetropolitanPeterMogila,wasthemostimportant.Atthattimelanguageswereassociatedmorewithreligions:CatholicsspokePolish,andmembersoftheOrthodoxchurchspokeRuthenian. AftertheTreatyofPereyaslav,Ukrainianhighculturewentintoalongperiodofsteadydecline.Intheaftermath,theKyiv-MohylaAcademywastakenoverbytheRussianEmpireandcloseddownlaterinthe19thcentury.MostoftheremainingUkrainianschoolsalsoswitchedtoPolishorRussianintheterritoriescontrolledbytheserespectivecountries,whichwasfollowedbyanewwaveofPolonizationandRussificationofthenativenobility.GraduallytheofficiallanguageofUkrainianprovincesunderPolandwaschangedtoPolish,whiletheupperclassesintheRussianpartofUkraineusedRussian. Duringthe19thcentury,arevivalofUkrainianself-identificationmanifestedintheliteraryclassesofbothRussian-EmpireDnieperUkraineandAustrianGalicia.TheBrotherhoodofStsCyrilandMethodiusinKyivappliedanoldwordfortheCossackmotherland,Ukrajina,asaself-appellationforthenationofUkrainians,andUkrajins'kamovaforthelanguage.ManywriterspublishedworksintheRomantictraditionofEuropedemonstratingthatUkrainianwasnotmerelyalanguageofthevillagebutsuitableforliterarypursuits. However,intheRussianEmpireexpressionsofUkrainiancultureandespeciallylanguagewererepeatedlypersecutedforfearthataself-awareUkrainiannationwouldthreatentheunityoftheempire.In1804Ukrainianasasubjectandlanguageofinstructionwasbannedfromschools.[12]In1811bytheOrderoftheRussiangovernment,theKyiv-MohylaAcademywasclosed.Theacademyhadbeenopensince1632andwasthefirstuniversityinEasternEurope.In1847theBrotherhoodofStsCyrilandMethodiuswasterminated.ThesameyearTarasShevchenkowasarrested,exiledfortenyears,andbannedforpoliticalreasonsfromwritingandpainting.In1862PavloChubynskywasexiledforsevenyearstoArkhangelsk.TheUkrainianmagazineOsnovawasdiscontinued.In1863,thetsaristinteriorministerPyotrValuyevproclaimedinhisdecreethat"thereneverhasbeen,isnot,andnevercanbeaseparateLittleRussianlanguage".[38]AfollowingbanonUkrainianbooksledtoAlexanderII'ssecretEmsUkaz,whichprohibitedpublicationandimportationofmostUkrainian-languagebooks,publicperformancesandlectures,andevenbannedtheprintingofUkrainiantextsaccompanyingmusicalscores.[39]Aperiodofleniencyafter1905wasfollowedbyanotherstrictbanin1914,whichalsoaffectedRussian-occupiedGalicia.[40] Formuchofthe19thcenturytheAustrianauthoritiesdemonstratedsomepreferenceforPolishculture,buttheUkrainianswererelativelyfreetopartakeintheirownculturalpursuitsinHalychynaandBukovyna,whereUkrainianwaswidelyusedineducationandofficialdocuments.[41]ThesuppressionbyRussiahamperedtheliterarydevelopmentoftheUkrainianlanguageinDniproUkraine,buttherewasaconstantexchangewithHalychyna,andmanyworkswerepublishedunderAustriaandsmuggledtotheeast. BythetimeoftheRussianRevolutionof1917andthecollapseofAustro-Hungaryin1918,Ukrainianswerereadytoopenlydevelopabodyofnationalliterature,instituteaUkrainian-languageeducationalsystem,andformanindependentstate(theUkrainianPeople'sRepublic,shortlyjoinedbytheWestUkrainianPeople'sRepublic).DuringthisbriefindependentstatehoodthestatureanduseofUkrainiangreatlyimproved.[14] SpeakersintheRussianEmpire UkrainianspeakersintheRussianEmpire(1897) IntheRussianEmpireCensusof1897thefollowingpictureemerged,withUkrainianbeingthesecondmostspokenlanguageoftheRussianEmpire.AccordingtotheImperialcensus'sterminology,theRussianlanguage(Русскій)wassubdividedintoUkrainian(Малорусскій,'LittleRussian'),whatisknownasRussiantoday(Великорусскій,'GreatRussian'),andBelarusian(Бѣлорусскій,'WhiteRussian'). Thefollowingtableshowsthedistributionofsettlementbynativelanguage("породномуязыку")in1897inRussianEmpiregovernorates(guberniyas)thathadmorethan100,000Ukrainianspeakers.[42] Totalpopulation Ukrainianspeakers Russianspeakers Polishspeakers EntireRussianEmpire 125,640,021 22,380,551 55,667,469 7,931,307 Urban 16,828,395 1,256,387 8,825,733 1,455,527 Rural 108,811,626 21,124,164 46,841,736 6,475,780 Regions "EuropeanRussia"incl.Ukraine&Belarus 93,442,864 20,414,866 48,558,721 1,109,934 Vistulanguberniyas 9,402,253 335,337 267,160 6,755,503 Caucasus 9,289,364 1,305,463 1,829,793 25,117 Siberia 5,758,822 223,274 4,423,803 29,177 CentralAsia 7,746,718 101,611 587,992 11,576 Subdivisions Bessarabia 1,935,412 379,698 155,774 11,696 Volyn 2,989,482 2,095,579 104,889 184,161 Voronezh 2,531,253 915,883 1,602,948 1,778 DonHostProvince 2,564,238 719,655 1,712,898 3,316 Yekaterinoslav 2,113,674 1,456,369 364,974 12,365 Kyiv 3,559,229 2,819,145 209,427 68,791 Kursk 2,371,012 527,778 1,832,498 2,862 Podolia 3,018,299 2,442,819 98,984 69,156 Poltava 2,778,151 2,583,133 72,941 3,891 Taurida 1,447,790 611,121 404,463 10,112 Kharkiv 2,492,316 2,009,411 440,936 5,910 Kherson 2,733,612 1,462,039 575,375 30,894 CityofOdessa 403,815 37,925 198,233 17,395 Chernihiv 2,297,854 1,526,072 495,963 3,302 Lublin 1,160,662 196,476 47,912 729,529 Sedletsk 772,146 107,785 19,613 510,621 KubanProvince 1,918,881 908,818 816,734 2,719 Stavropol 873,301 319,817 482,495 961 Brest-Litovskdistrict 218,432 140,561 17,759 8,515 AlthoughintheruralregionsoftheUkrainianprovinces,80%oftheinhabitantssaidthatUkrainianwastheirnativelanguageintheCensusof1897(forwhichtheresultsaregivenabove),intheurbanregionsonly32.5%ofthepopulationclaimedUkrainianastheirnativelanguage.Forexample,inOdessa(thenpartoftheRussianEmpire),atthetimethelargestcityintheterritoryofcurrentUkraine,only5.6%ofthepopulationsaidUkrainianwastheirnativelanguage.[43]Untilthe1920stheurbanpopulationinUkrainegrewfasterthanthenumberofUkrainianspeakers.Thisimpliesthattherewasa(relative)declineintheuseofUkrainianlanguage.Forexample,inKyiv,thenumberofpeoplestatingthatUkrainianwastheirnativelanguagedeclinedfrom30.3%in1874to16.6%in1917.[43] Sovietera TheUkrainiantextinthisSovietposterreads:"ThesocialbaseoftheUSSRisanunbreakableunionoftheworkers,peasantsandintelligentsia". Duringtheseven-decade-longSovietera,theUkrainianlanguageheldtheformalpositionoftheprincipallocallanguageintheUkrainianSSR.[44]However,practicewasoftenadifferentstory:[44]UkrainianalwayshadtocompetewithRussian,andtheattitudesoftheSovietleadershiptowardsUkrainianvariedfromencouragementandtolerancetodefactobanishment. Officially,therewasnostatelanguageintheSovietUnionuntiltheveryendwhenitwasproclaimedin1990thatRussianlanguagewastheall-Unionstatelanguageandthattheconstituentrepublicshadrightstodeclareadditionalstatelanguageswithintheirjurisdictions.[45]StillitwasimplicitlyunderstoodinthehopesofminoritynationsthatUkrainianwouldbeusedintheUkrainianSSR,UzbekwouldbeusedintheUzbekSSR,andsoon.However,RussianwasusedinallpartsoftheSovietUnionandaspecialterm,"alanguageofinter-ethniccommunication",wascoinedtodenoteitsstatus. SovietlanguagepolicyinUkrainemaybedividedintothefollowingpolicyperiods: Ukrainianizationandtolerance(1921–1932) PersecutionandRussification(1933–1957) Khrushchevthaw(1958–1962) TheShelestperiod:limitedprogress(1963–1972) TheShcherbytskyperiod:gradualsuppression(1973–1989) MikhailGorbachevandperestroika(1990–1991) Ukrainianization FollowingtheRussianRevolution,theRussianEmpirewasbrokenup.Indifferentpartsoftheformerempire,severalnations,includingUkrainians,developedarenewedsenseofnationalidentity.Inthechaoticpost-revolutionaryyearstheUkrainianlanguagegainedsomeusageingovernmentaffairs.Initially,thistrendcontinuedundertheBolshevikgovernmentoftheSovietUnion,whichinapoliticalstruggletoretainitsgripovertheterritoryhadtoencouragethenationalmovementsoftheformerRussianEmpire.Whiletryingtoascertainandconsolidateitspower,theBolshevikgovernmentwasbyfarmoreconcernedaboutmanypoliticaloppositionsconnectedtothepre-revolutionaryorderthanaboutthenationalmovementsinsidetheformerempire,whereitcouldalwaysfindallies. The1921Sovietrecruitmentposter.ItusestraditionalUkrainianimagerywithUkrainian-languagetext:"Son!EnrollintheschoolofRedcommanders,andthedefenseofSovietUkrainewillbeensured." ThewideninguseofUkrainianfurtherdevelopedinthefirstyearsofBolshevikruleintoapolicycalledkorenizatsiya.ThegovernmentpursuedapolicyofUkrainianizationbyliftingabanontheUkrainianlanguage.[citationneeded]ThatledtotheintroductionofanimpressiveeducationprogramwhichallowedUkrainian-taughtclassesandraisedtheliteracyoftheUkrainophonepopulation.ThispolicywasledbyEducationCommissarMykolaSkrypnykandwasdirectedtoapproximatethelanguagetoRussian.[citationneeded]Newlygeneratedacademiceffortsfromtheperiodofindependencewereco-optedbytheBolshevikgovernment.ThepartyandgovernmentapparatuswasmostlyRussian-speakingbutwereencouragedtolearntheUkrainianlanguage.Simultaneously,thenewlyliterateethnicUkrainiansmigratedtothecities,whichbecamerapidlylargelyUkrainianized –inbothpopulationandineducation. ThepolicyevenreachedthoseregionsofsouthernRussianSFSRwheretheethnicUkrainianpopulationwassignificant,particularlytheareasbytheDonRiverandespeciallyKubanintheNorthCaucasus.Ukrainianlanguageteachers,justgraduatedfromexpandedinstitutionsofhighereducationinSovietUkraine,weredispatchedtotheseregionstostaffnewlyopenedUkrainianschoolsortoteachUkrainianasasecondlanguageinRussianschools.AstringoflocalUkrainian-languagepublicationswerestartedanddepartmentsofUkrainianstudieswereopenedincolleges.Overall,thesepolicieswereimplementedinthirty-fiveraions(administrativedistricts)insouthernRussia. Persecutionandrussification Anti-russificationprotest.Thebannerreads"UkrainianschoolforUkrainiankids!". SovietpolicytowardstheUkrainianlanguagechangedabruptlyinlate1932andearly1933,withtheterminationofthepolicyofUkrainianization.InDecember1932,theregionalpartycellsreceivedatelegramsignedbyV.MolotovandStalinwithanordertoimmediatelyreversetheUkrainianizationpolicies.[citationneeded]ThetelegramcondemnedUkrainianizationasill-consideredandharmfulanddemandedto"immediatelyhaltUkrainianizationinraions(districts),switchallUkrainianizednewspapers,booksandpublicationsintoRussianandpreparebyautumnof1933fortheswitchingofschoolsandinstructionintoRussian".[citationneeded] WesternandmostcontemporaryUkrainianhistoriansemphasizethattheculturalrepressionwasappliedearlierandmorefiercelyinUkrainethaninotherpartsoftheSovietUnion,[citationneeded]andwerethereforeanti-Ukrainian;othersassertthatStalin'sgoalwasthegenericcrushingofanydissent,ratherthantargetingtheUkrainiansinparticular. StalinistpoliciesshiftedtodefineRussianasthelanguageof(inter-ethnic)communication.AlthoughUkrainiancontinuedtobeused(inprint,education,radioandlatertelevisionprograms),itlostitsprimaryplaceinadvancedlearningandrepublic-widemedia.Ukrainianwasdemotedtoalanguageofsecondaryimportance,oftenassociatedwiththeriseinUkrainianself-awarenessandnationalismandoftenbranded"politicallyincorrect".[citationneeded]ThenewSovietConstitutionadoptedin1936,however,stipulatedthatteachinginschoolsshouldbeconductedinnativelanguages. Majorrepressionstartedin1929–30,whenalargegroupofUkrainianintelligentsiawasarrestedandmostwereexecuted.InUkrainianhistory,thisgroupisoftenreferredtoas"ExecutedRenaissance"(Ukrainian:розстріляневідродження)."Ukrainianbourgeoisnationalism"wasdeclaredtobetheprimaryprobleminUkraine.[46]Theterrorpeakedin1933,fourtofiveyearsbeforetheSoviet-wide"GreatPurge",which,forUkraine,wasasecondblow.ThevastmajorityofleadingscholarsandculturalleadersofUkrainewereliquidated,aswerethe"Ukrainianized"and"Ukrainianizing"portionsoftheCommunistparty.SovietUkraine'sautonomywascompletelydestroyedbythelate1930s.[citationneeded]Initsplace,theglorificationofRussiaasthefirstnationtothrowoffthecapitalistyokehadbegun,[citationneeded]accompaniedbythemigrationofRussianworkersintopartsofUkrainewhichwereundergoingindustrializationandmandatoryinstructionofclassicRussianlanguageandliterature.Ideologistswarnedofover-glorifyingUkraine'sCossackpast,[citationneeded]andsupportedtheclosingofUkrainianculturalinstitutionsandliterarypublications.[citationneeded]ThesystematicassaultuponUkrainianidentityincultureandeducation,combinedwitheffectsofanartificialfamine(Holodomor)uponthepeasantry—thebackboneofthenation—dealtUkrainianlanguageandidentityacripplingblow.[citationneeded] ThissequenceofpolicychangewasrepeatedinWesternUkrainewhenitwasincorporatedintoSovietUkraine.[citationneeded]In1939,andagaininthelate1940s,apolicyofUkrainianizationwasimplemented.Bytheearly1950s,UkrainianwaspersecutedandacampaignofRussificationbegan.[citationneeded] Khrushchevthaw WhileRussianwasadefactoofficiallanguageoftheSovietUnioninallbutformalname,allnationallanguageswereproclaimedequal.ThenameanddenominationofSovietbanknoteswerelistedinthelanguagesofallfifteenSovietrepublics.Onthis19611 Rblnote,theUkrainianfor"onerouble",одинкарбованець(odynkarbovanets`),directlyfollowstheRussianодинрубль(odinrubl`). AfterthedeathofStalin(1953),ageneralpolicyofrelaxingthelanguagepoliciesofthepastwasimplemented(1958to1963).TheKhrushcheverawhichfollowedsawapolicyofrelativelylenientconcessionstodevelopmentofthelanguagesatthelocalandrepubliclevel,thoughitsresultsinUkrainedidnotgonearlyasfarasthoseoftheSovietpolicyofUkrainianizationinthe1920s.JournalsandencyclopedicpublicationsadvancedintheUkrainianlanguageduringtheKhrushchevera,aswellastransferofCrimeaunderUkrainianSSRjurisdiction. Yet,the1958schoolreformthatallowedparentstochoosethelanguageofprimaryinstructionfortheirchildren,unpopularamongthecirclesofthenationalintelligentsiainpartsoftheUSSR,meantthatnon-RussianlanguageswouldslowlygivewaytoRussianinlightofthepressuresofsurvivalandadvancement.Thegainsofthepast,alreadylargelyreversedbytheStalinera,wereoffsetbytheliberalattitudetowardstherequirementtostudythelocallanguages(therequirementtostudyRussianremained).Parentswereusuallyfreetochoosethelanguageofstudyoftheirchildren(exceptinfewareaswhereattendingtheUkrainianschoolmighthaverequiredalongdailycommute)andtheyoftenchoseRussian,whichreinforcedtheresultingRussification.Inthissense,someanalystsarguethatitwasnotthe"oppression"or"persecution",butratherthelackofprotectionagainsttheexpansionofRussianlanguagethatcontributedtotherelativedeclineofUkrainianinthe1970sand1980s.Accordingtothisview,itwasinevitablethatsuccessfulcareersrequiredagoodcommandofRussian,whileknowledgeofUkrainianwasnotvital,soitwascommonforUkrainianparentstosendtheirchildrentoRussian-languageschools,eventhoughUkrainian-languageschoolswereusuallyavailable.WhileintheRussian-languageschoolswithintherepublic,Ukrainianwassupposedtobelearnedasasecondlanguageatcomparablelevel,theinstructionofothersubjectswasinRussianand,asaresult,studentshadagreatercommandofRussianthanUkrainianongraduation.Additionally,insomeareasoftherepublic,theattitudetowardsteachingandlearningofUkrainianinschoolswasrelaxedanditwas,sometimes,consideredasubjectofsecondaryimportanceandevenawaiverfromstudyingitwassometimesgivenundervarious,everexpanding,circumstances.[citationneeded] ThecompletesuppressionofallexpressionsofseparatismorUkrainiannationalismalsocontributedtolesseninginterestinUkrainian.SomepeoplewhopersistentlyusedUkrainianonadailybasiswereoftenperceivedasthoughtheywereexpressingsympathytowards,orevenbeingmembersof,thepoliticalopposition.[citationneeded]This,combinedwithadvantagesgivenbyRussianfluencyandusage,madeRussiantheprimarylanguageofchoiceformanyUkrainians,whileUkrainianwasmoreofahobby.Inanyevent,themildliberalizationinUkraineandelsewherewasstifledbynewsuppressionoffreedomsattheendoftheKhrushchevera(1963)whenapolicyofgraduallycreepingsuppressionofUkrainianwasre-instituted.[citationneeded] ThenextpartoftheSovietUkrainianlanguagepolicydividesintotwoeras:first,theShelestperiod(early1960stoearly1970s),whichwasrelativelyliberaltowardsthedevelopmentoftheUkrainianlanguage.Thesecondera,thepolicyofShcherbytsky(early1970stoearly1990s),wasoneofgradualsuppressionoftheUkrainianlanguage. Shelestperiod TheCommunistPartyleaderfrom1963to1972,PetroShelest,pursuedapolicyofdefendingUkraine'sinterestswithintheSovietUnion.HeproudlypromotedthebeautyoftheUkrainianlanguageanddevelopedplanstoexpandtheroleofUkrainianinhighereducation.Hewasremoved,however,afteronlyabrieftenure,forbeingtoolenientonUkrainiannationalism. Shcherbytskyperiod Thenewpartybossfrom1972to1989,VolodymyrShcherbytsky,purgedthelocalparty,wasfierceinsuppressingdissent,andinsistedRussianbespokenatallofficialfunctions,evenatlocallevels.HispolicyofRussificationwaslessenedonlyslightlyafter1985. Gorbachevandperebudova ThemanagementofdissentbythelocalUkrainianCommunistPartywasmorefierceandthoroughthaninotherpartsoftheSovietUnion.Asaresult,atthestartoftheMikhailGorbachevreformsperebudovaandhlasnist’(Ukrainianforperestroikaandglasnost),UkraineunderShcherbytskywasslowertoliberalizethanRussiaitself. AlthoughUkrainianstillremainedthenativelanguageforthemajorityinthenationontheeveofUkrainianindependence,asignificantshareofethnicUkrainianswererussified.InDonetsktherewerenoUkrainianlanguageschoolsandinKyivonlyaquarterofchildrenwenttoUkrainianlanguageschools.[47] TheRussianlanguagewasthedominantvehicle,notjustofgovernmentfunction,butofthemedia,commerce,andmodernityitself.ThiswassubstantiallylessthecaseforwesternUkraine,whichescapedtheartificialfamine,GreatPurge,andmostofStalinism.Andthisregionbecamethecenterofahearty,ifonlypartial,renaissanceoftheUkrainianlanguageduringindependence. Independenceinthemodernera FluencyinUkrainian(purplecolumn)andRussian(bluecolumn)in1989and2001 ModernsignsintheKyivMetroareinUkrainian.Theevolutionintheirlanguagefollowedthechangesinthelanguagepoliciesinpost-warUkraine.Originally,allsignsandvoiceannouncementsinthemetrowereinUkrainian,buttheirlanguagewaschangedtoRussianintheearly1980s,attheheightofShcherbytsky'sgradualRussification.Intheperestroikaliberalizationofthelate1980s,thesignswerechangedtobilingual.Thiswasaccompaniedbybilingualvoiceannouncementsinthetrains.Intheearly1990s,bothsignsandvoiceannouncementswerechangedagainfrombilingualtoUkrainian-onlyduringthede-russificationcampaignthatfollowedUkraine'sindependence.Since2012thesignshavebeeninbothUkrainianandEnglish. Since1991,UkrainianhasbeentheofficialstatelanguageinUkraine,andthestateadministrationimplementedgovernmentpoliciestobroadentheuseofUkrainian.TheeducationalsysteminUkrainehasbeentransformedoverthefirstdecadeofindependencefromasystemthatispartlyUkrainiantoonethatisoverwhelminglyso.ThegovernmenthasalsomandatedaprogressivelyincreasedroleforUkrainianinthemediaandcommerce.InsomecasestheabruptchangingofthelanguageofinstructionininstitutionsofsecondaryandhighereducationledtothechargesofUkrainianization,raisedmostlybytheRussian-speakingpopulation.Thistransition,however,lackedmostofthecontroversiesthataroseduringthede-russificationoftheotherformerSovietRepublics. Withtime,mostresidents,includingethnicRussians,peopleofmixedorigin,andRussian-speakingUkrainians,startedtoself-identifyasUkrainiannationals,eventhosewhoremainedRussophone.TheRussianlanguage,however,stilldominatestheprintmediainmostofUkraineandprivateradioandTVbroadcastingintheeastern,southern,and,toalesserdegree,centralregions.Thestate-controlledbroadcastmediahavebecomeexclusivelyUkrainian.TherearefewobstaclestotheusageofRussianincommerceanditisstilloccasionallyusedingovernmentaffairs. Late20th-centuryRussianpoliticianslikeAlexanderLebedandMikhailYuryevstillclaimedthatUkrainianisaRussiandialect.[48] Inthe2001census,67.5%ofthecountry'spopulationnamedUkrainianastheirnativelanguage(a2.8%increasefrom1989),while29.6%namedRussian(a3.2%decrease).[49]FormanyUkrainians(ofvariousethnicorigins),thetermnativelanguagemaynotnecessarilyassociatewiththelanguagetheyusemorefrequently.TheoverwhelmingmajorityofethnicUkrainiansconsidertheUkrainianlanguagenative,includingthosewhooftenspeakRussian.Accordingtotheofficial2001censusdata,92.3%ofKyivregionpopulationresponded"Ukrainian"tothenativelanguage(ridnamova)censusquestion,comparedwith88.4%in1989,and7.2%responded"Russian".[50]Thepartofotherlanguages,specifiedlikemothertonguewas0.5%.[50]Ontheotherhand,whenthequestion"Whatlanguagedoyouuseineverydaylife?"wasaskedinthesociologicalsurvey,theKyivans'answersweredistributedasfollows:"mostlyRussian":52%,"bothRussianandUkrainianinequalmeasure":32%,"mostlyUkrainian":14%,"exclusivelyUkrainian":4.3%.[citationneeded] Ethnicminorities,suchasRomanians,TatarsandJewsusuallyuseRussianastheirlinguafranca.ButtherearetendencieswithintheseminoritygroupstouseUkrainian.TheJewishwriterOlexanderBeydermanfromthemainlyRussian-speakingcityofOdessaisnowwritingmostofhisdramasinUkrainian.TheemotionalrelationshipregardingUkrainianischanginginsouthernandeasternareas. OppositiontoexpansionofUkrainian-languageteachingisamatterofcontentionineasternregionsclosertoRussia –inMay2008,theDonetskcitycouncilprohibitedthecreationofanynewUkrainianschoolsinthecityinwhich80%ofthemareRussian-languageschools.[51] In2019,theLawofUkraine"toensurethefunctioningoftheUkrainianlanguageastheStatelanguage"wasapprovedbytheUkrainianparliament,formalizingrulesgoverningtheusageofUkrainianandintroducingpenaltiesforviolations.[52]ForitsenforcementtheofficeofLanguageombudsmanwasintroduced. Literatureandliterarylanguage Furtherinformation:Ukrainianliterature TheliteraryUkrainianlanguage,whichwasprecededbyOldEastSlavicliterature,maybesubdividedintotwostages:duringthe12thto18thcenturieswhatinUkraineisreferredtoas"OldUkrainian",butelsewhere,andincontemporarysources,isknownastheRuthenianlanguage,andfromtheendofthe18thcenturytothepresentwhatinUkraineisknownas"ModernUkrainian",butelsewhereisknownasjustUkrainian. InfluentialliteraryfiguresinthedevelopmentofmodernUkrainianliteratureincludethephilosopherHryhoriiSkovoroda,IvanKotlyarevsky,MykolaKostomarov,MykhailoKotsiubynsky,TarasShevchenko,IvanFranko,andLesiaUkrainka.TheearliestliteraryworkintheUkrainianlanguagewasrecordedin1798whenIvanKotlyarevsky,aplaywrightfromPoltavainsoutheasternUkraine,publishedhisepicpoem,Eneyida,aburlesqueinUkrainian,basedonVirgil'sAeneid.HisbookwaspublishedinvernacularUkrainianinasatiricalwaytoavoidbeingcensored,andistheearliestknownUkrainianpublishedbooktosurvivethroughImperialand,later,SovietpoliciesontheUkrainianlanguage. Kotlyarevsky'sworkandthatofanotherearlywriterusingtheUkrainianvernacularlanguage,PetroArtemovsky,usedthesoutheasterndialectspokeninthePoltava,KharkivandsouthernKyivenregionsoftheRussianEmpire.ThisdialectwouldserveasthebasisoftheUkrainianliterarylanguagewhenitwasdevelopedbyTarasShevchenkoandPanteleimonKulishinthemid19thcentury.Inordertoraiseitsstatusfromthatofadialecttothatofalanguage,variouselementsfromfolkloreandtraditionalstyleswereaddedtoit.[53] TheUkrainianliterarylanguagedevelopedfurtherwhentheRussianstatebannedtheuseoftheUkrainianlanguage,promptingmanyofitswriterstomovetothewesternUkrainianregionofGaliciawhichwasundermoreliberalAustrianrule;afterthe1860sthemajorityofUkrainianliteraryworkswerepublishedinAustrianGalicia.DuringthisperiodGalicianinfluenceswereadoptedintheUkrainianliterarylanguage,particularlywithrespecttovocabularyinvolvinglaw,government,technology,science,andadministration.[53] Currentusage Furtherinformation:LawofUkraine"toensurethefunctioningoftheUkrainianlanguageastheStatelanguage" UkrainianlanguagetrafficsignfortheIvanFrankoMuseuminKryvorivnia. TheuseoftheUkrainianlanguageisincreasingafteralongperiodofdecline.AlthoughtherearealmostfiftymillionethnicUkrainiansworldwide,including37.5millioninUkrainein2001(77.8%ofthetotalpopulationatthetime),theUkrainianlanguageisprevalentmainlyinwesternandcentralUkraine.InKyiv,bothUkrainianandRussianarespoken,anotableshiftfromtherecentpastwhenthecitywasprimarilyRussian-speaking.TheshiftisbelievedtobecausedmainlybyaninfluxofmigrantsfromwesternregionsofUkrainebutalsobysomeKyivansoptingtousethelanguagetheyspeakathomemorewidelyinpublicsettings.PublicsignsandannouncementsinKyivaredisplayedinUkrainian.InsouthernandeasternUkraine,Russianistheprevalentlanguageinmostlargeandsomesmallcities.AccordingtotheUkrainianCensusof2001,87.8%ofpeoplelivinginUkrainewerefluentinUkrainian.[54] Popularculture Mainarticles:UkrainianmusicandUkrainiancinema Music UkrainianhasbecomepopularinothercountriesthroughmoviesandsongsperformedintheUkrainianlanguage.ThemostpopularUkrainianrockbands,suchasOkeanElzy,VopliVidopliassova,BoomBoxperformregularlyintoursacrossEurope,Israel,NorthAmericaandespeciallyRussia.IncountrieswithsignificantUkrainianpopulations,bandssingingintheUkrainianlanguagesometimesreachtopplacesonthecharts,suchasEnej(abandfromPoland).OthernotableUkrainian-languagebandsareTheUkrainiansfromtheUnitedKingdom,KloochfromCanada,UkrainianVillageBandfromtheUnitedStates,andtheKubanCossackChoirfromtheKubanregioninRussia. Cinema Thissectionneedstobeupdated.Pleasehelpupdatethisarticletoreflectrecenteventsornewlyavailableinformation.Lastupdate:17November2013(April2017) The2010ssawarevivalofUkrainiancinema.[55]ThetopUkrainian-languagefilms(byIMDbrating)are:[56][better source needed] Name Year Rating Link ІванСила [uk] 2013 8.6 [1] Тінінезабутихпредків [uk] 2013 8.5 [2] Звичайнасправа [uk] 2012 8.1 [3] Тінізабутихпредків 1965 7.9 [4] Ломбард 2013 7.9 [5] Деліріум 2013 7.8 [6] Фучжоу 1993 7.7 [7] Argots OleksaHorbach's1951studyofargotsanalyzedhistoricalprimarysources(argotsofprofessionals,thugs,prisoners,homeless,schoolchildren,etc.)payingspecialattentiontoetymologicalfeaturesofargots,wordformationandborrowingpatternsdependingonthesource-language(ChurchSlavonic,Russian,Czech,Polish,Romani,Greek,Romanian,Hungarian,German).[57] Dialects MapofUkrainiandialectsandsubdialects(2005).  Northerngroup  South-easterngroup  South-westerngroup Mainarticle:Ukrainiandialects SeveralmoderndialectsofUkrainianexist[58][59] Northern(Polissian)dialects:[60] (3)EasternPolissianisspokeninChernihiv(excludingthesoutheasterndistricts),inthenorthernpartofSumy,andinthesoutheasternportionoftheKyivOblastaswellasintheadjacentareasofRussia,whichincludethesouthwesternpartoftheBryanskOblast(theareaaroundStarodub),aswellasinsomeplacesintheKursk,VoronezhandBelgorodOblasts.[61]Nolinguisticbordercanbedefined.ThevocabularyapproachesRussianasthelanguageapproachestheRussianFederation.BothUkrainianandRussiangrammarsetscanbeappliedtothisdialect.[62] (2)CentralPolissianisspokeninthenorthwesternpartoftheKyivOblast,inthenorthernpartofZhytomyrandthenortheasternpartoftheRivneOblast.[63] (1)WestPolissianisspokeninthenorthernpartoftheVolynOblast,thenorthwesternpartoftheRivneOblast,andintheadjacentdistrictsoftheBrestVoblastinBelarus.ThedialectspokeninBelarususesBelarusiangrammarandthusisconsideredbysometobeadialectofBelarusian.[64] Southeasterndialects:[65] (4)MiddleDnieprianisthebasisoftheStandardLiteraryUkrainian.ItisspokeninthecentralpartofUkraine,primarilyinthesouthernandeasternpartoftheKyivOblast.Inaddition,thedialectsspokeninCherkasy,Poltava,andKyivregionsareconsideredtobecloseto"standard"Ukrainian. (5)SlobodanisspokeninKharkiv,Sumy,Luhansk,andthenorthernpartofDonetsk,aswellasintheVoronezhandBelgorodregionsofRussia.[66]ThisdialectisformedfromagradualmixtureofRussianandUkrainian,withprogressivelymoreRussianinthenorthernandeasternpartsoftheregion.Thus,thereisnolinguisticborderbetweenRussianandUkrainian,and,thus,bothgrammarsetscanbeapplied.[62] A(6)SteppedialectisspokeninsouthernandsoutheasternUkraine.ThisdialectwasoriginallythemainlanguageoftheZaporozhianCossacks.[67] AKubandialectrelatedtoorbasedontheSteppedialectisoftenreferredtoasBalachkaandisspokenbytheKubanCossacksintheKubanregioninRussiabythedescendantsoftheZaporozhianCossacks,whosettledinthatareainthelate18thcentury.ItwasformedfromagradualmixtureofRussianintoUkrainian.ThisdialectfeaturestheuseofsomeRussianvocabularyalongwithsomeRussiangrammar.[68]Therearethreemainvariants,whichhavebeengroupedtogetheraccordingtolocation.[69] Southwesterndialects:[70] (13)BoykoisspokenbytheBoykopeopleonthenorthernsideoftheCarpathianMountainsintheLvivandIvano-FrankivskOblasts.ItcanalsobeheardacrosstheborderintheSubcarpathianVoivodeshipofPoland. (12)HutsulisspokenbytheHutsulpeopleonthenorthernslopesoftheCarpathianMountains,intheextremesouthernpartsoftheIvano-FrankivskOblast,andinpartsoftheChernivtsiandTranscarpathianOblasts. LemkoisspokenbytheLemkopeople,whosehomelandrestsoutsidethebordersofUkraineinthePrešovRegionofSlovakiaalongthesouthernsideoftheCarpathianMountains,andinthesoutheastofmodernPoland,alongthenorthernsidesoftheCarpathians. (8)PodillianisspokeninthesouthernpartsoftheVinnytsiaandKhmelnytskyiOblasts,inthenorthernpartoftheOdessaOblast,andintheadjacentdistrictsoftheCherkasyOblast,theKirovohradOblast,andtheMykolaivOblast.[71] (7)VolynianisspokeninRivneandVolyn,aswellasinpartsofZhytomyrandTernopil.ItisalsousedinChełminPoland. (11)Pokuttia(Bukovynian)isspokenintheChernivtsiOblastofUkraine.ThisdialecthassomedistinctvocabularyborrowedfromRomanian. (9)UpperDniestrian(Kresy)isconsideredtobethemainGaliciandialect,spokenintheLviv,Ternopil,andIvano-FrankivskOblasts.ItsdistinguishingcharacteristicsaretheinfluenceofPolishandtheGermanvocabulary,whichisreminiscentoftheAustro-Hungarianrule.Someofthedistinctwordsusedinthisdialectcanbefoundhere.[72] (10)UpperSannianisspokenintheborderareabetweenUkraineandPolandintheSanrivervalley. TheRusynlanguageisconsideredbyUkrainianlinguiststobealsoadialectofUkrainian: DolinianRusynorSubcarpathianRusynisspokenintheTranscarpathianOblast. PannonianorBačkaRusynisspokeninnorthwesternSerbiaandeasternCroatia.RusinlanguageoftheBačkadialectisoneoftheofficiallanguagesoftheSerbianAutonomousProvinceofVojvodina. PryashivRusynistheRusynspokeninthePrešov(inUkrainian:Pryashiv)regionofSlovakia,aswellasbysomeémigrécommunities,primarilyintheUnitedStatesofAmerica. Neighbouringcountries Furtherinformation:LanguagesofRomania§ Ukrainian,Romania,andLanguagesofMoldova§ Ukrainian SigninbothUkrainianandRomanianlanguagesinthevillageofValeaVișeului(VyshivskaDolyna),Bistracommune,inRomania AllthecountriesneighbouringUkraine(exceptforHungary)historicallyhaveregionswithasizableUkrainianpopulationandthereforeUkrainianlanguagespeakers.UkrainianisanofficialminoritylanguageinBelarus,Romania,andMoldova. Ukrainiandiaspora Ukrainianisalsospokenbyalargeémigréepopulation,particularlyinCanada(seeCanadianUkrainian),theUnitedStates,andseveralcountriesofSouthAmericalikeBrazil,Argentina,andParaguay.ThefoundersofthispopulationprimarilyemigratedfromGalicia,whichusedtobepartofAustro-HungarybeforeWorldWarI,andbelongedtoPolandbetweentheWorldWars.ThelanguagespokenbymostofthemistheGaliciandialectofUkrainianfromthefirsthalfofthe20thcentury.ComparedwithmodernUkrainian,thevocabularyofUkrainiansoutsideUkrainereflectslessinfluenceofRussian,butoftencontainsmanyloanwordsfromthelocallanguage. Mostofthecountrieswhereitisspokenareex-USSR,wheremanyUkrainianshavemigrated.CanadaandtheUnitedStatesarealsohometoalargeUkrainianpopulation.Brokenupbycountry(tothenearestthousand):[73] Russia1,129,838(accordingtothe2010census);[74] Canada200,525[75](67,665spokenathome[76]in2001,148,000spokenas"mothertongue"in2001)[77] UkrainianisoneofthreeofficiallanguagesofthebreakawayMoldovanrepublicofTransnistria.[78] Ukrainianiswidelyspokenwithinthe400,000-strong(in1994)UkrainiancommunityinBrazil.[79] Languagestructure Cyrilliclettersinthisarticleareromanizedusingscientifictransliteration. Grammar Furtherinformation:Ukrainiangrammar Ukrainianisafusional,nominative–accusative,satelliteframedlanguage.ItexhibitsT–Vdistinction,andisnull-subject.ThecanonicalwordorderofUkrainianisSVO.[80]OtherwordordersarecommonduetothefreewordorderenabledbyUkrainian'sinflectionalsystem. Nounshaveoneof3genders:masculine,feminine,neuter;nounsdeclinefor: 7cases:nominative,accusative,genitive,dative,instrumental,locative,vocative; 2numbers:singular,plural. Adjectivesagreewithnounsingender,case,andnumber. Verbsconjugatefor: 4tenses:past,pluperfect,present,future; 2voices:active,mediopassive; 3persons:first,second,third; 2numbers:singular,plural. Ukrainianverbscomeinaspectpairs:perfective,andimperfective.Pairsareusuallyformedbyaprepositionalprefixandoccasionallyarootchange.Thepasttenseagreeswithitssubjectinnumberandgender(butnotperson),havingdevelopedfromtheperfectparticiple. TheOldEastSlavicandRussianoinsyllablesendinginaconsonant,oftencorrespondtoaUkrainiani,asinpod→pid(під,'under').Thus,inthedeclensionofnouns,theocanre-appearwhenitisnolongerlocatedinaclosedsyllable,suchasrik(рік,'year')(nom):rotsi(loc)(році).Similarly,somewordscanhaveіinsomecaseswhenmostofthecaseshaveo,forexampleслово(nominativesingular),слова(nominativeplural)butслiв(genitiveplural). UkrainiancaseendingsaresomewhatdifferentfromOldEastSlavic,andthevocabularyincludesalargeoverlayofPolishterminology.Russiannapervometaže'onthefirstfloor'isinthelocative(prepositional)case.TheUkrainiancorrespondingexpressionisnaperšomupoversi(напершомуповерсі).-omuisthestandardlocative(prepositional)ending,butvariantsin-imarecommonindialectandpoetry,andallowedbythestandardsbodies.ThekhofUkrainianpoverkh(поверх)hasmutatedintosundertheinfluenceofthesoftvoweli(kissimilarlymutableintocinfinalpositions). Phonology Furtherinformation:Ukrainianphonology Thepoem"GleamsofThunderstorm"byEmmaAndijewskabeingreadinUkrainian TheUkrainianlanguagehassixvowels,/i/,/u/,/ɪ/,/ɛ/,/ɔ/,/a/. Anumberoftheconsonantscomeinthreeforms:hard,soft(palatalized)andlong,forexample,/l/,/lʲ/,and/lː/or/n/,/nʲ/,and/nː/. Theletter⟨г⟩representsthevoicedglottalfricative/ɦ/,oftentransliteratedasLatinh.ItisthevoicedequivalentofEnglish/h/.RussianspeakersfromUkraineoftenusethesoftUkrainian/ɦ/inplaceofRussian/ɡ/,whichcomesfromnortherndialectsofOldEastSlavic.TheUkrainianalphabethastheadditionalletter⟨ґ⟩for/ɡ/,whichappearsinafewnativewordssuchasґринджолиgryndžoly'sleigh'andґудзикgudzyk'button'.However,/ɡ/appearsalmostexclusivelyinloanwords,andisusuallysimplywritten⟨г⟩.Forexample,loanwordsfromEnglishonpublicsignsusuallyuse⟨г⟩forbothEnglishgandh. AnotherphoneticdivergencebetweentheUkrainianandRussianlanguagesisthepronunciationofCyrillic⟨в⟩v/w.WhileinstandardRussianitrepresents/v/,inmanyUkrainiandialectsitdenotes/w/(followingavowelandprecedingaconsonant(cluster),eitherwithinawordoratawordboundary,itdenotestheallophone[u̯],andliketheoff-glideintheEnglishwords"flow"and"cow",itformsadiphthongwiththeprecedingvowel).NativeRussianspeakerswillpronouncetheUkrainian⟨в⟩as[v],whichisonewaytotellthetwogroupsapart.Aswith⟨г⟩above,Ukrainiansuse⟨в⟩torenderbothEnglishvandw;Russiansoccasionallyuse⟨у⟩forwinstead. UnlikeRussianandmostothermodernSlaviclanguages,Ukrainiandoesnothavefinaldevoicing. Alphabet Mainarticle:Ukrainianalphabet TheUkrainianalphabet Аа Бб Вв Гг Ґґ Дд Ее Єє Жж Зз Ии Іі Її Йй Кк Лл Мм Нн Оо Пп Рр Сс Тт Уу Фф Хх Цц Чч Шш Щщ Ьь Юю Яя UkrainianiswritteninaversionofCyrillic,consistingof33letters,representing38phonemes;anapostropheisalsoused.Ukrainianorthographyisbasedonthephonemicprinciple,withonelettergenerallycorrespondingtoonephoneme,althoughthereareanumberofexceptions.Theorthographyalsohascaseswherethesemantic,historical,andmorphologicalprinciplesareapplied. ThemodernUkrainianalphabetistheresultofanumberofproposedalphabeticreformsfromthe19thandearly20thcenturies,inUkraineundertheRussianEmpire,inAustrianGalicia,andlaterinSovietUkraine.AunifiedUkrainianalphabet(theSkrypnykivka,afterMykolaSkrypnyk)wasofficiallyestablishedata1927internationalOrthographicConferenceinKharkiv,duringtheperiodofUkrainizationinSovietUkraine.Butthepolicywasreversedinthe1930s,andtheSovietUkrainianorthographydivergedfromthatusedbythediaspora.TheUkrainianlettergeґwasbannedintheSovietUnionfrom1933untiltheperiodofGlasnostin1990.[81] Theletterщrepresentstwoconsonants[ʃt͡ʃ].Thecombinationof[j]withsomeofthevowelsisalsorepresentedbyasingleletter([ja]=я,[je]=є,[ji]or[jı̽]=ї,[ju]=ю),while[jɔ]=йоandtherareregional[jɨ]=йиarewrittenusingtwoletters.Theseiotatedvowellettersandaspecialsoftsignchangeaprecedingconsonantfromhardtosoft.Anapostropheisusedtoindicatethehardnessofthesoundinthecaseswhennormallythevowelwouldchangetheconsonanttosoft;inotherwords,itfunctionsliketheyerintheRussianalphabet. Aconsonantletterisdoubledtoindicatethatthesoundisdoubled,orlong. Thephonemes[d͡z]and[d͡ʒ]donothavededicatedlettersinthealphabetandarerenderedwiththedigraphsдзandдж,respectively.[d͡z]isequivalenttoEnglishdsinpods,[d͡ʒ]isequivalenttojinjump. AsinRussian,theacuteaccentmaybeusedtodenotevowelstress. Transliteration Mainarticle:RomanizationofUkrainian Seealso:DrahomanivkaandUkrainianLatinalphabet Orthography Mainarticle:UkrainianorthographySeealso:Ukrainianorthographyof2019Ukrainian[permanentdeadlink]keyboardlayout Spellingsearch,whichbeganinthelate18thcenturywiththeemergenceofmodernliterarylanguage,ledtotheemergenceofseveralspellingoptions.Inparticular,therewasthespellingsystemofOleksiiPavlovskyi,thespellingversionof"MermaidoftheDniester"(1837),Kulishivka(P.Kulish'sspellingsystem),Drahomanivka(producedinKyivinthe1870sbyagroupofculturalfiguresledbylinguistP.Zhytetskyi,whichincludedandM.Drahomanov),Zhelekhivka(systemofYevhenZhelekhovskyi(1886),enshrinedintheRussianGrammarbyStepanSmal-StotskyiandTheodoreGartner1893).BorysHrinchenkousedsomecorrectionsinthefundamentalfour-volumeDictionaryoftheUkrainianLanguage(1907–1909).Mostofthespellingrules(practicallybasedonphonetics–"writeasyouhear")usedinHrinchenko'sdictionaryarestillvalid.Hrinchenko'sworkbecameaninformalspellingandmodelforUkrainianwritersandpublicationsfrom1907untilthecreationofthefirstofficialUkrainianspellingin1918. OnJanuary17,1918,theCentralRadaofUkraineissuedthe"MainRulesofUkrainianorthography",which,however,didnotcovertheentirescopeofthelanguage.OnMay17,1919,theUkrainianAcademyofSciencesapprovedthe"MainRulesofUkrainianOrthography",whichbecamethebasisforallsubsequentrevisionsandamendments. OnJuly23,1925,theCouncilofPeople'sCommissarsoftheUSSRdecidedtoorganizeaStateCommissionfortheOrganizationofUkrainianSpelling(StateSpellingCommission).Itincludedmorethan20academicsfromtheUSSR,whoalsoexpressedadesiretoinviterepresentativesofWesternUkraine:StepanSmal-Stotskyi,VolodymyrHnatiukandVasylSimovych. AfteralmostayearofworkinApril1926,the"ProjectofUkrainianSpelling"waspublishedtoacquaintthegeneralpublicwiththenewsystem.AfterseveralmonthsofdiscussionandconsiderationoftheprojectattheAll-UkrainianSpellingConference(May26–June6,1927),theUkrainianorthographyof1928wasadoptedinaccordancewiththeRNCresolutionofSeptember6,1928.Itwentdowninhistoryas"Kharkiv"or"Skrypnikorthography"–fromtheplaceofcreation,orfromthesurnameofthePeople'sCommissarofEducationMykolaSkrypnyk. In1929,HryhoriiHoloskevychpublishedtheUkrainianSpellingDictionary(about40,000words),agreedwiththefullspellingproducedbytheStateSpellingCommissionandapprovedbythePeople'sCommissarforEducation(September6,1928).[82] In1933,aspellingcommissionheadedbyAndriiKhvyliabrandedtheUkrainianorthographyof1928as"nationalist",immediatelystoppedpublishinganydictionaries,andwithoutanydiscussion,inaveryshorttime(fivemonths),createdanewspellingthatunifiedasneverbeforetheUkrainianandRussianlanguages.Theletterґwasremovedfromthealphabet,andUkrainianscientificterminologywasrevisedandharmonizedwithRussian-Ukrainiandictionaries(theInstituteofUkrainianScientificLanguagewasabolishedin1930).ThisversionofthespellingwasapprovedbytheresolutionofthePeople'sCommissarofEducationoftheUSSRofSeptember5,1933. Someminorchangesweremadeinthespellingof1946and1959(publishedthefollowingyear).Itwasconnectedwiththedocument"TherulesofRussianspellingandpunctuation",publishedin1956.From1960until1990,the1960editionwastheofficialstandard. Afterthebeginningof"perestroika",theissueofimprovingUkrainianspellingbecamerelevantagain:theeditingofthespellingcodewasstartedbytheOrthographicCommissionattheLMMoftheUSSRAcademyofSciences.TheprojectwasalsodiscussedinthenewlyestablishedUkrainianLanguageSociety.T.Shevchenko(headedbyDmytroPavlychko).ThenewversionwasapprovedonNovember14,1989,andpublishedin1990.Themainachievementsweretherestorationoftheletterґandtheaccusativecase(inSoviettimesitwasoptionalandwascalledtheaccusativeform). Today,despitetheexistenceoftheofficialspellingoftheUkrainianlanguage,itisnottheonlyspellingstandardinuse.EveninUkraineitself,manypublishersandpublicationsuseotherversionsofthespelling,whicheithertendto"skrypnykivka",orelsedifferfromtheofficialrulesoftransmissionofwordsofforeignorigin. OnMay22,2019,theCabinetofMinistersofUkraineapprovedanewversionoftheorthographypreparedbytheUkrainianNationalCommissiononSpelling.Theneweditionbroughttolifesomefeaturesoforthographyin1928,whichwerepartoftheUkrainianorthographictradition.Atthesametime,thecommissionwasguidedbytheunderstandingthatthelanguagepracticeofUkrainiansinthesecondhalfofthe20thtothebeginningofthe21stcenturyhasalreadybecomepartoftheUkrainianorthographictradition.[83] Vocabulary TheDictionaryoftheUkrainianLanguage,in11volumes,contains253,000entries.[84]LexicalcardcatalogoftheUkrainianInstituteofLanguageStudieshas6millioncards.[85]Asmentionedatthetopofthearticle,UkrainianismostcloselyrelatedlexicallytoBelarusian,andisalsoclosertoPolishthantoRussian(forexample,можливість,mozhlyvist',"possibility",andPolishmożliwość,butRussianвозможность,vozmozhnostʹ). FalsecognateswithRussian Seealso:Surzhyk ThestandardUkrainianlanguagewhichisbasedontheKyiv–PoltavadialecthasaplethoraoffalsefriendswiththestandardRussianlanguagewhichisbasedontheMoscowdialect.Manypeopleintentionallydoordonotusethem,causingtheirlanguageshiftintowhatisknownasSurzhykwherethemeaningofsomewordsmimickingRussiancouldbeunderstoodoutofcontextratherthantheirliteralmeaninginUkrainian. Falsefriendsamples English Ukrainian Russian Surzhyk cancel скасовувати отменять відміняти conjugate відміняти спрягать спрягати gentle лагідний ласковый ласкавий kind ласкавий добродушный добродушний Classification UkrainianhasvaryingdegreesofmutualintelligibilitywithotherSlaviclanguagesandisconsideredtobemostcloselyrelatedtoBelarusian.[86] Inthe19thcentury,thequestionofwhetherUkrainian,BelarusianandRussianlanguagesaredialectsofasinglelanguageorthreeseparatelanguageswasactivelydiscussed,withthedebateaffectedbylinguisticandpoliticalfactors.[9]Thepoliticalsituation(UkraineandBelarusbeingmainlypartoftheRussianEmpireatthetime)andthehistoricalexistenceofthemedievalstateofKievanRus',whichoccupiedlargepartsofthesethreenations,ledtothecreationofthecommonclassificationknownlaterastheEastSlaviclanguages.Theunderlyingtheoryofthegroupingistheirdescentfromacommonancestor.Inmoderntimes,Ukrainian,Russian,andBelarusianareusuallylistedbylinguistsasseparatelanguages.[87][88] Untilthe17thand18thcenturies(thetimeofnationalandlanguagerevivalofUkraine)theUkrainianswerepredominantlypeasantsandpetitsbourgeois;asaresult,theUkrainianlanguagewasmostlyvernacularandfewearlierliteraryworksfromtheperiodcanbefound.Inthecities,UkrainiancoexistedwithChurchSlavonic—aliterarylanguageofreligionthatevolvedfromOldChurchSlavonic—andlaterPolishandRussian,bothlanguageswhichweremoreoftenusedinformalwritingandcommunicationduringthattime. DifferenceswithotherSlaviclanguages TheUkrainianlanguagehasthefollowingsimilaritiesanddifferenceswithotherSlaviclanguages: LikeallSlaviclanguageswiththeexceptionofRussian,Belarusian,standardwrittenSlovak[note3]andSlovene,theUkrainianlanguagehaspreservedtheCommonSlavicvocativecase.Whenaddressingone'ssister(sestra)sheisreferredtoassestro.IntheRussianlanguagethevocativecasehasbeenalmostentirelyreplacedbythenominative(exceptforahandfulofvestigialforms,e.g.Bozhe"God!"andGospodi"Lord!").[89] TheUkrainianlanguage,incommonwithallSlaviclanguagesotherthanRussian,SlovakandSlovene,hasretainedtheCommonSlavicsecondpalatalizationofthevelars*k,*gand*xinfrontofthesecondaryvowel*ěofthedativeandlocativeendinginthefemaledeclension,resultinginthefinalsequences-cě,-zě,and-sě.Forexample,ruka(hand)becomesruciinUkrainian.InRussian,thedativeandlocativeofrukaisruke. TheUkrainianlanguage,incommonwithSerbo-CroatianandSlovene,hasdevelopedtheending-moforfirst-personpluralsinverbs(khodymofor"wewalk").[89]Inallcases,itresultedfromlengtheningoftheCommonSlavic-mŭ.[citationneeded][dubious–discuss] TheUkrainianlanguage,alongwithRussianandBelarusian,haschangedtheCommonSlavicword-initialye-intoo,suchasinthewordsozero(lake)andodyn(one).[89] TheUkrainianlanguage,incommonwithCzech,Slovak,UpperSorbian,BelarusianandsouthernRussiandialects,haschangedtheCommonSlavic"g"intoan"h"sound(forexample,noha–leg).[89] TheUkrainianlanguage,incommonwithsomenorthernRussianandCroatiandialects,hastransformedtheCommonSlavicyěintoi(forexample,lis–forest).[89] TheUkrainianlanguage,incommonwithRussian,Belarusian,Bulgarian,Serbo-Croatian,Macedonian,andSlovene,hassimplifiedtheCommonSlavictlanddlintol(forexample,mela–sheswept").[89] TheUkrainianlanguage,incommonwithallmodernSlaviclanguagesotherthanBulgarianandMacedonian,doesnotusearticles. OtherSlavicoinclosedsyllables,i.e.,syllablesendinginaconsonant,inmanycasescorrespondstoaUkrainiani,asinpod→pid(під,'under').ThisalsoincludesplacenamessuchasLviv(ЛьвівinUkrainian),LwówinPolish,andЛьвов(Lvov)inRussian. UnlikeallotherSlaviclanguages,Ukrainianhasasyntheticfuture(alsotermedinflectionalfuture)tensewhichdevelopedthroughtheerosionandcliticizationoftheverb"tohave"(orpossibly"totake"):pysat-ymu(infinitive-future-1stsg.)Iwillwrite.[90]Althoughtheinflectionalfuture(basedontheverb'tohave')ischaracteristicofRomancelanguages,UkrainianlinguistA.DanylenkoarguesthatUkrainiandiffersfromRomanceinthechoiceofauxiliary,whichshouldbeinterpretedas'totake'andnot'tohave.'HestatesthatLateCommonSlavic(LCS)hadthreeverbswiththesameProto-Indo-Europeanroot*h₁em-: adeterminedimperfectiveLCS*jęti:*jĭmǫ'totake'(latersupersededbynumerousprefixedperfectives) anindeterminedimperfectiveLCS*jĭmati:jemljǫ'totake'(whichwouldnottakeanyprefixes) animperfectiveLCS*jĭměti:*jĭmamĭ'tohold,own,have' ThethreeverbsbecameconflatedinEastSlavicduetomorphologicaloverlap,inparticularof*iměti"tohave"and*jati"totake"asexemplifiedintheMiddleUkrainianhomonymicimut’frombothiměti(futureisfoundinChineseandHungarian.[91] Seealso Ukraineportal Languageportal Linguisticsportal Ukrainization Anti-Ukrainiansentiment ChronologyofUkrainianlanguagebans LanguagesofUkraine LanguagepolicyinUkraine Linguisticdiscrimination ListofUkrainianwordsofTurkicorigin RussificationofUkraine Surzhyk SwadeshlistofSlaviclanguages UkrainianBraille UkrainianSignLanguage Ukrainians Vergonha Notes ^ThestatusofCrimeaandofthecityofSevastopolhasbeenunderdisputebetweenRussiaandUkrainesinceMarch2014;UkraineandthemajorityoftheinternationalcommunityconsiderCrimeatobeanautonomousregionofUkraineandSevastopoltobeoneofUkraine'scitieswithspecialstatus,whereasRussiaconsidersCrimeatobeafederalsubjectofRussiaandSevastopoltobeoneofRussia'sthreefederalcities. ^ThestatusofTransnistriaisunderdisputewithMoldova;MoldovaandthemajorityoftheinternationalcommunityconsiderTransnistriatobeanautonomousregionofMoldova,whereastheregionhasclaimedindependence,andisgoverneddefactoindependentlyofMoldova. 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