Presupposition - Wikipedia

In the branch of linguistics known as pragmatics, a presupposition (or PSP) is an implicit assumption about the world or background belief relating to an ... Presupposition FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Assumedcontextsurroundinganutterance Forotheruses,seePresupposition(disambiguation). Inthebranchoflinguisticsknownaspragmatics,apresupposition(orPSP)isanimplicitassumptionabouttheworldorbackgroundbeliefrelatingtoanutterancewhosetruthistakenforgrantedindiscourse.Examplesofpresuppositionsinclude: Janenolongerwritesfiction. Presupposition:Janeoncewrotefiction. Haveyoustoppedeatingmeat? Presupposition:youhadonceeatenmeat. HaveyoutalkedtoHans? Presupposition:Hansexists. Apresuppositionmustbemutuallyknownorassumedbythespeakerandaddresseefortheutterancetobeconsideredappropriateincontext.Itwillgenerallyremainanecessaryassumptionwhethertheutteranceisplacedintheformofanassertion,denial,orquestion,andcanbeassociatedwithaspecificlexicalitemorgrammaticalfeature(presuppositiontrigger)intheutterance. Crucially,negationofanexpressiondoesnotchangeitspresuppositions:IwanttodoitagainandIdon'twanttodoitagainbothpresupposethatthesubjecthasdoneitalreadyoneormoretimes;MywifeispregnantandMywifeisnotpregnantbothpresupposethatthesubjecthasawife.Inthisrespect,presuppositionisdistinguishedfromentailmentandimplicature.Forexample,ThepresidentwasassassinatedentailsthatThepresidentisdead,butiftheexpressionisnegated,theentailmentisnotnecessarilytrue. Contents 1Negationofasentencecontainingapresupposition 2Projectionofpresuppositions 3Presuppositiontriggers 3.1Definitedescriptions 3.2Factiveverbs 3.3Implicativeverbs 3.4Changeofstateorcontinuationofstateverbs 3.5Iteratives 3.6Temporalclauses 3.7Cleftsentences 3.8Comparisonsandcontrasts 3.9Counterfactualconditionals 3.10Questions 3.11Possessivecase 4Accommodationofpresuppositions 5Presuppositionincriticaldiscourseanalysis 6Logicalconstruct 7Seealso 8References 9Furtherreading 10Externallinks Negationofasentencecontainingapresupposition[edit] Ifpresuppositionsofasentencearenotconsistentwiththeactualstateofaffairs,thenoneoftwoapproachescanbetaken.GiventhesentencesMywifeispregnantandMywifeisnotpregnantwhenonehasnowife,theneither: Boththesentenceanditsnegationarefalse;or Strawson'sapproach:Both"mywifeispregnant"and"mywifeisnotpregnant"useawrongpresupposition(i.e.thatthereexistsareferentwhichcanbedescribedwiththenounphrasemywife)andthereforecannotbeassignedtruthvalues. BertrandRusselltriestosolvethisdilemmawithtwointerpretationsofthenegatedsentence: "Thereexistsexactlyoneperson,whoismywifeandwhoisnotpregnant" "Theredoesnotexistexactlyoneperson,whoismywifeandwhoispregnant." Forthefirstphrase,Russellwouldclaimthatitisfalse,whereasthesecondwouldbetrueaccordingtohim. Projectionofpresuppositions[edit] Apresuppositionofapartofanutteranceissometimesalsoapresuppositionofthewholeutterance,andsometimesnot.Forinstance,thephrasemywifetriggersthepresuppositionthatIhaveawife.Thefirstsentencebelowcarriesthatpresupposition,eventhoughthephraseoccursinsideanembeddedclause.Inthesecondsentence,however,itdoesnot.JohnmightbemistakenabouthisbeliefthatIhaveawife,orhemightbedeliberatelytryingtomisinformhisaudience,andthishasaneffectonthemeaningofthesecondsentence,but,perhapssurprisingly,notonthefirstone. Johnthinksthatmywifeisbeautiful. Johnsaidthatmywifeisbeautiful. Thus,thisseemstobeapropertyofthemainverbsofthesentences,thinkandsay,respectively.AfterworkbyLauriKarttunen,[1]verbsthatallowpresuppositionsto"passup"tothewholesentence("project")arecalledholes,andverbsthatblocksuchpassingup,orprojectionofpresuppositionsarecalledplugs.Somelinguisticenvironmentsareintermediatebetweenplugsandholes:Theyblocksomepresuppositionsandallowotherstoproject.Thesearecalledfilters.Anexampleofsuchanenvironmentareindicativeconditionals("If-then"clauses).Aconditionalsentencecontainsanantecedentandaconsequent.Theantecedentisthepartprecededbytheword"if,"andtheconsequentisthepartthatis(orcouldbe)precededby"then."Iftheconsequentcontainsapresuppositiontrigger,andthetriggeredpresuppositionisexplicitlystatedintheantecedentoftheconditional,thenthepresuppositionisblocked.Otherwise,itisallowedtoprojectuptotheentireconditional.Hereisanexample: IfIhaveawife,thenmywifeisblonde. Here,thepresupposition(thatIhaveawife)triggeredbytheexpressionmywifeisblocked,becauseitisstatedintheantecedentoftheconditional:Thatsentencedoesn'timplythatIhaveawife.Inthefollowingexample,itisnotstatedintheantecedent,soitisallowedtoproject,i.e.thesentencedoesimplythatIhaveawife. Ifit'salready4am,thenmywifeisprobablyangry. Hence,conditionalsentencesactasfiltersforpresuppositionsthataretriggeredbyexpressionsintheirconsequent. Asignificantamountofcurrentworkinsemanticsandpragmaticsisdevotedtoaproperunderstandingofwhenandhowpresuppositionsproject. Presuppositiontriggers[edit] Apresuppositiontriggerisalexicalitemorlinguisticconstructionwhichisresponsibleforthepresupposition,andthus"triggers"it.[2]ThefollowingisaselectionofpresuppositionaltriggersfollowingStephenC.Levinson'sclassictextbookonPragmatics,whichinturndrawsonalistproducedbyLauriKarttunen.Asiscustomary,thepresuppositionaltriggersthemselvesareitalicized,andthesymbol »standsfor'presupposes'.[3] Definitedescriptions[edit] Mainarticle:Definitedescription Definitedescriptionsarephrasesoftheform"theX"whereXrepresentsanounphrase.Thedescriptionissaidtobeproperwhenthephraseappliestoexactlyoneobject,andconversely,itissaidtobeimproperwheneitherthereexistmorethanonepotentialreferents,asin"thesenatorfromOhio",ornoneatall,asin"thekingofFrance".Inconventionalspeech,definitedescriptionsareimplicitlyassumedtobeproper,hencesuchphrasestriggerthepresuppositionthatthereferentisuniqueandexistent. Johnsawthemanwithtwoheads.»thereexistsamanwithtwoheads. Factiveverbs[edit] Seealso:Epistemology§ Truth InWesternepistemology,thereisatraditionoriginatingwithPlatoofdefiningknowledgeasjustifiedtruebelief.Onthisdefinition,forsomeonetoknowX,itisrequiredthatXbetrue.Alinguisticquestionthusarisesregardingtheusageofsuchphrases:doesapersonwhostates"JohnknowsX"implicitlyclaimthetruthofX?StevenPinkerexploredthisquestioninapopularscienceformatina2007bookonlanguageandcognition,usingawidelypublicizedexamplefromaspeechbyaU.S.president.[4]A2003speechbyGeorgeW.Bushincludedtheline,"BritishIntelligencehaslearnedthatSaddamHusseinrecentlysoughtsignificantquantitiesofuraniumfromAfrica."[5]Overthenextfewyears,itbecameapparentthatthisintelligenceleadwasincorrect.Butthewaythespeechwasphrased,usingafactiveverb,implicitlyframedtheleadastruthratherthanhypothesis.Thereishoweverastrongalternativeviewthatfactivitythesis,thepropositionthatrelationalpredicateshavingtodowithknowledge,suchasknows,learn,remembers,andrealized,presupposethefactualtruthoftheirobject,isincorrect.[6] MartharegretsdrinkingJohn'shomebrew. Presupposition:MarthadidinfactdrinkJohn'shomebrew. FrankensteinwasawarethatDraculawasthere. Presupposition:Draculawasinfactthere. Johnrealizedthathewasindebt. Presupposition:Johnwasinfactindebt. Itwasoddhowproudhewas. Presupposition:Hewasinfactproud. Somefurtherfactivepredicates:know;besorrythat;beproudthat;beindifferentthat;begladthat;besadthat. Implicativeverbs[edit] Johnmanagedtoopenthedoor.»Johntriedtoopenthedoor. Johnforgottolockthedoor.»Johnoughttohavelocked,orintendedtolock,thedoor. Somefurtherimplicativepredicates:XhappenedtoV»Xdidn'tplanorintendtoV;XavoidedVing»Xwasexpectedto,orusuallydid,oroughttoV,etc. Changeofstateorcontinuationofstateverbs[edit] Withthesepresuppositiontriggers,thecurrentunfoldingsituationisconsideredpresupposedinformation.[7] Johnstoppedteasinghiswife.»Johnhadbeenteasinghiswife. Joanbeganteasingherhusband.»Joanhadn'tbeenteasingherhusband. Somefurtherchangeofstateverbs:start;finish;carryon;cease;take(asinXtookYfromZ »Ywasat/in/withZ);leave;enter;come;go;arrive;etc. Iteratives[edit] Thesetypesoftriggerspresupposetheexistenceofapreviousstateofaffairs.[7] Theflyingsaucercameagain.»Theflyingsaucercamebefore. Youcan'tgetgobstoppersanymore.»Youoncecouldgetgobstoppers. Carterreturnedtopower.»Carterheldpowerbefore. Furtheriteratives:anothertime;tocomeback;restore;repeat;forthenthtime. Temporalclauses[edit] Thesituationexplainedinaclausethatbeginswithatemporalclauseconstructoristypicallyconsideredbackgroundedinformation.[7] BeforeStrawsonwasevenborn,Fregenoticedpresuppositions.»Strawsonwasborn. WhileChomskywasrevolutionizinglinguistics,therestofsocialsciencewasasleep.»Chomskywasrevolutionizinglinguistics. SinceChurchilldied,we'velackedaleader.»Churchilldied. Furthertemporalclauseconstructors:after;during;whenever;as(asinAsJohnwasgettingup,heslipped). Cleftsentences[edit] Cleftsentencestructureshighlightparticularaspectsofasentenceandconsiderthesurroundinginformationtobebackgroundedknowledge.Thesesentencesaretypicallynotspokentostrangers,butrathertoaddresseeswhoareawareoftheongoingsituation.[7] Cleftconstruction:ItwasHenrythatkissedRosie.»SomeonekissedRosie. Pseudo-cleftconstruction:WhatJohnlostwashiswallet.»Johnlostsomething. Comparisonsandcontrasts[edit] Comparisonsandcontrastsmaybemarkedbystress(orbyotherprosodicmeans),byparticleslike"too",orbycomparativesconstructions. MariannecalledAdolphamalechauvinist,andthenHEinsultedHER.»ForMariannetocallAdolphamalechauvinistwouldbetoinsulthim. CarolisabetterlinguistthanBarbara.»Barbaraisalinguist. Counterfactualconditionals[edit] Ifthenoticehadonlysaid'mine-field'inWelshaswellasinEnglish,wewouldneverhavelostpoorLlewellyn.»Thenoticedidn'tsay'mine-field'inWelsh. Questions[edit] Questionsoftenpresupposewhattheassertivepartofthequestionpresupposes,butinterrogativepartsmightintroducefurtherpresuppositions.Therearethreedifferenttypesofquestions:yes/noquestions,alternativequestionsandWH-questions. IsthereaprofessoroflinguisticsatMIT?»EitherthereisaprofessoroflinguisticsatMITorthereisn't. IsNewcastleinEnglandorinAustralia?»NewcastleisinEnglandorNewcastleisinAustralia. WhoistheprofessoroflinguisticsatMIT?»SomeoneistheprofessoroflinguisticsatMIT. Possessivecase[edit] John'schildrenareverynoisy.»Johnhaschildren. Accommodationofpresuppositions[edit] Apresuppositionofasentencemustnormallybepartofthecommongroundoftheutterancecontext(thesharedknowledgeoftheinterlocutors)inorderforthesentencetobefelicitous.Sometimes,however,sentencesmaycarrypresuppositionsthatarenotpartofthecommongroundandneverthelessbefelicitous.Forexample,Ican,uponbeingintroducedtosomeone,outoftheblueexplainthatmywifeisadentist,thiswithoutmyaddresseehavingeverheard,orhavinganyreasontobelievethatIhaveawife.Inordertobeabletointerpretmyutterance,theaddresseemustassumethatIhaveawife.Thisprocessofanaddresseeassumingthatapresuppositionistrue,evenintheabsenceofexplicitinformationthatitis,isusuallycalledpresuppositionaccommodation.Wehavejustseenthatpresuppositiontriggerslikemywife(definitedescriptions)allowforsuchaccommodation.In"PresuppositionandAnaphora:RemarksontheFormulationoftheProjectionProblem",[8]thephilosopherSaulKripkenotedthatsomepresuppositiontriggersdonotseemtopermitsuchaccommodation.Anexampleofthatisthepresuppositiontriggertoo.Thiswordtriggersthepresuppositionthat,roughly,somethingparalleltowhatisstatedhashappened.Forexample,ifpronouncedwithemphasisonJohn,thefollowingsentencetriggersthepresuppositionthatsomebodyotherthanJohnhaddinnerinNewYorklastnight. JohnhaddinnerinNewYorklastnight,too. Butthatpresupposition,asstated,iscompletelytrivial,givenwhatweknowaboutNewYork.SeveralmillionpeoplehaddinnerinNewYorklastnight,andthatinitselfdoesn'tsatisfythepresuppositionofthesentence.WhatisneededforthesentencetobefelicitousisreallythatsomebodyrelevanttotheinterlocutorshaddinnerinNewYorklastnight,andthatthishasbeenmentionedinthepreviousdiscourse,orthatthisinformationcanberecoveredfromit.Presuppositiontriggersthatdisallowaccommodationarecalledanaphoricpresuppositiontriggers. Presuppositionincriticaldiscourseanalysis[edit] Criticaldiscourseanalysis(CDA)isabroadstudybelongingtonotoneresearchcategory.Itfocusesonidentifyingpresuppositionsofanabstractnaturefromvaryingperspectives.CDAisconsideredcritical,notonlyinthesenseofbeinganalytical,butalsointheideologicalsense.[9] Throughtheanalysisofwrittentextsandverbalspeech,TeunA.vanDijk(2003)saysCDAstudiespowerimbalancesexistinginboththeconversationalandpoliticalspectrum.[9]Withthepurposeoffirstidentifyingandthentacklinginequalityinsociety,vanDijkdescribesCDAasanonconformistpieceofwork.[9]OnenotablefeatureofideologicalpresuppositionsresearchedinCDAisaconcepttermedsyntheticpersonalisation[10] Logicalconstruct[edit] Todescribeapresuppositioninthecontextofpropositionalcalculusandtruth-bearers,Belnapdefines"Asentenceisapresuppositionofaquestionifthetruthofthesentenceisanecessaryconditionofthequestion'shavingsometrueanswer."Thenreferringtothesemantictheoryoftruth,interpretationsareusedtoformulateapresupposition:"Everyinterpretationwhichmakesthequestiontrulyanswerableisaninterpretationwhichmakesthepresupposedsentencetrueaswell." Asentencethatexpressesapresuppositioninaquestionmaybecharacterizedasfollows:thequestionhassometrueanswerifandonlyifthesentenceistrue.[11] Seealso[edit] Commonground Conversationalscoreboard Double-barreledquestion Dynamicsemantics Fallacyofmanyquestions Loadedquestion Performativecontradiction Speechact References[edit] ^Karttunen,Lauri(1974)[1].TheoreticalLinguistics1181-94.AlsoinPragmatics:AReader,StevenDavis(ed.),pages406-415,OxfordUniversityPress,1991. ^Kadmon,Nirit.Formalpragmatics:semantics,pragmatics,presupposition,andfocus.GreatBritain:Wiley-Blackwell,2001,page10. ^Levinson,StephenC.Pragmatics.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1983,pp.181-184. ^Pinker,Steven(2007),Thestuffofthought:languageasawindowintohumannature,PenguinBooks,ISBN 978-0-670-06327-7,pp.6–9.{{citation}}:Externallinkin|postscript=(help)CS1maint:postscript(link) ^Bush,GeorgeW.,StateoftheUnionAddress,January28th,2003. ^Hazlett,A.(2010)."TheMythofFactiveVerbs".PhilosophyandPhenomenologicalResearch.80(3):497–522.doi:10.1111/j.1933-1592.2010.00338.x. ^abcdSedivy,Julie,andCarlson,GregN.(2011)."SoldonLanguage:HowAdvertisersTalktoYouandWhatThisSaysAboutYou,"Wiley-Blackwell,pp.104-105. ^Kripke,Saul(2009)"PresuppositionandAnaphora:RemarksontheFormulationoftheProjectionProblem,"LinguisticInquiry,Vol.40,No.3,Pages367-386.[2] ^abc "Criticaldiscourseanalysis(CDA)isatypeofdiscourseanalyticalresearchthatprimarilystudiesthewaysocialpowerabuse,dominance,andinequalityareenacted,reproduced,andresistedbytextandtalkinthesocialandpoliticalcontext.Withsuchdissidentresearch,criticaldiscourseanalyststakeexplicitposition,andthuswanttounderstand,expose,andultimatelyresistsocialinequality." TeunAdrianusvanDijk,"CriticalDiscourseAnalysisArchived2009-02-06attheWaybackMachine",chapter18inDeborahSchiffrin,DeborahTannenandHeidiE.Hamilton(eds.),TheHandbookofDiscourseAnalysis,(Wiley-Blackwell,2003):pp.352–371. ^"Syntheticpersonalisation",Wikipedia,2017-07-29,retrieved2020-05-15 ^NuelD.Belnap,Jr.(1966)"Questions,Answers,andPresuppositions",TheJournalofPhilosophy63(20):609–11,AmericanPhilosophicalAssociationEasternDivisionSixty-ThirdAnnualMeeting.doi:10.2307/2024255 Furtherreading[edit] Beaver,David.[deadlink]1997.Presupposition.InJ.vanBenthemandA.terMeulen(eds.),TheHandbookofLogicandLanguage,Elsevier,pp. 939–1008. HenkZeevat.2007.Accommodation.InRamchand,G.andC.Reiss(eds.),TheOxfordHandbookofLinguisticInterfaces,OxfordUniversityPress,.pp. 503-538. 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