Cixi, the controversial empress dowager who modernized China
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After Cixi seized power, the brilliant queen regent of China never let it go and guided her people into the 20th century. SkiptocontentNewslettersSubscribeMenuHistoryMagazineCixi,thecontroversialconcubinewhobecamequeen,ledChinaintothemodernageAfterCixiseizedpower,thebrilliantqueenregentofChinaneverletitgoandguidedherpeopleintothe20thcentury.TheEmpressCixiataroundage70ina1905portraitbyartistHubertVoPhotographbyAKG/AlbumBornin1835,thegirlwhowouldgainfameastheEmpressDowagerCixishowednoobvioussignsoffuturegreatness.Thisgirl,boththroughgoodfortuneandunyieldingdetermination,wouldrisetopowerinChina,becomingtheDowagerEmpress,rulingasthequeenregentfrom1861untilherdeathin1908,oneofthemostturbulentperiodsinChina’shistory.Withherironwillandshrewdmind,shehelpedtransformChinafromamedievalsocietytoamodernpowerontheglobalstage.FewconcreterecordsremainofCixi’slifebeforeage16.ShewasManchu,theethnicminorityinpowersincethe1600s,andherheritagekeptherfeetfrombeingbound,atraditionofChina’sethnicmajority,theHan.Herfamilyweremostlikelygovernmentemployees.Sheprobablycouldread,write,draw,andsew.Somehistorianssayherfathersoughtheradviceandvaluedheropinionashighlyashewouldason’s.ArespectedpositioninherbirthfamilywouldnotwinCixirespectintheoutsideworld.Becauseshewasbornfemale,heropinionsmeantlittletomen.Likeotherteenagegirlsatthattime,16-year-oldCixihadtobepresentedbyherfamilytobeconsideredasaconcubinetothenewlycrownedChineseemperor,Xianfeng.Selectedasalow-rankingconsort,CixileftherfamilytoliveintheForbiddenCitywiththeotherwomenintheemperor’sharem.(Seealso:Beijing'sForbiddenCitybuiltoniceroads.)AbronzecoinfromthereignofEmperorXianfeng PhotographbyAlbumPleaseberespectfulofcopyright.Unauthorizeduseisprohibited.Xianfeng’schiefconsortwasEmpressZhen.Thehighestrankingofhiswives,shebecamefriendswithCixi.Therelationshipservedthembothwell,especiallyafterCixigavebirthtotheemperor’sonlysurvivingsonin1856,aneventthatraisedherstatusandprovidedherwiththekeystopower.TheWidows’CoupThenewsummerpalaceinBeijingwasrestoredforCixiin1886.Theformerpalacewasdestroyedin1860duringthesecondOpiumWar.PhotographbyJTBPhoto/AgeFotostockPleaseberespectfulofcopyright.Unauthorizeduseisprohibited.Earlyinhisreign,Xianfengfacedcolossalproblemsonbothdomesticandforeignfronts.Hecametopoweratage18in1850,thesameyearthatwidespreadfaminecausedtheTaipingRebellion,amassivepeasantuprisinginthesouthernprovinces.ThisinsurrectionwouldcontinueunabatedandleaveathirdofChinaunderrebelcontrol.Sixyearslater,FranceandBritaininvadedChina,beginningthesecondOpiumWarandputtinganenormousstrainonthecountry’sresources.Thisconflictalsostirredupheateddebatesbetweenpro-andanti-WesternfactionswithinChina.Inthefaceofallthisturmoil,EmperorXianfengdiedin1861,andCixi’sfive-year-oldsonbecametheimperialheir,dubbedEmperorTongzhi.Beforehisdeath,Xianfenghadselectedeightmen—princesandministersfromhisinnercircle—toformaBoardofRegentsandruleuntilhissoncameofage.Cixisawtheemperor’sdeathasanecessarymomenttostrikeablowtoimproveChina.Shethoughttheregentshadpoorlyadvisedtheemperor.Cixi,thenknownthenasConcubineYi,workedtogetherwithZhenonaplantolaunchacoup.SheandZhenweresupportedbytwoofXianfeng’sbrothers,PrinceGong—anadvocateofappeasingtheWest—andPrinceChun,whohadmarriedYi’syoungersister.Thetwowomensuccessfullyoverthrewtheregents,imprisoningfiveofthem,executingone,andorderingtwotocommitsuicide.Thedowagerempresseswouldruleuntilthechildemperorcameofage.Theytooknewnames:ZhenbecameCi’an(“kindlyandserene”);andYitookthenameCixi(“kindlyandjoyous”)tomarktheevents.TheQueen’sManPleaseberespectfulofcopyright.Unauthorizeduseisprohibited.Eunuch’srobefromthecourtofCixiPhotographbyWernerForman/GTRESInimperialChinaeunuchswereaubiquitouspresenceintheForbiddenCityandhadbeenservingasguardiansoftheemperor’smostinnercourtformorethan2,000years.InCixi’stime,oneofthemostinfluentialeunuchsatcourtwasLiLianying,whowasinchargeofastaffofthousands:cooks,gardeners,servants,cleaners,painters,andothereunuchs.ModernityandTraditionOverthenextfivedecades,China’sfatewasdeterminedbyCixi.Shemanagedtoimposeherauthorityinspiteoftheinferiorpositionthestrictcourtprotocolgavetowomen:Thewidowedempresspresidedovermeetingsfrombehindascreen,astheministerswerenotsupposedtoseeher.SheneverenteredtheforemostsectionoftheForbiddenCity,whichwasreservedfortheemperor.Insteadshereliedonloyalmentocarryoutherdecisions,suchasPrinceGong,whoheadedtheGreatImperialCouncil.Sinceshegovernedbehindthescenes,herachievementswereattributedtoothers,whileheropponentscastherasacrafty,bloodthirstyconspirator.Manchugovernors(whodominatedtheHanethnicmajority)weredividedbetweenthosewhoopposedtheWesternersandthosewho,likeCixi,wantedtomodernizeChinatoboostitseconomyinordertoavoidtotalsubmissiontotheWest,aswellasJapan,whichhadbecomeaseriousthreattoChina.Cixiadvocatedwesternization—butnotcompletely.Forexample,shetooknearly20yearstoallowthecompleteconstructionofarailroadbecauseshedidnotwanttodisturbancestraltombsthatlayneartheproposedline.ShedidnotwanttopromotetextilefactoriesbecausetheytookworkawayfromChinesewomen.Shealsoknewtherewasmuchoppositiontoreformamongthepeople,fromcommonerstocivilservantstonobles,whodetestedso-calledbarbarianWesterncustoms.Cixipresidedovermeetingsfrombehindascreen,asherministerswerenotsupposedtoseeher.Inspiteofthecriticism,Ciximanagedtobringpeacetothecountry,putpublicfinancesonasoundfooting,builtanavy,andencouragedthecountrytoopenuptotheworld.WiththehelpoftheWesternerswhocommandedthearmy,thesouthernTaipingrebelswerefinallycrushed.WorkingontheRailroadPleaseberespectfulofcopyright.Unauthorizeduseisprohibited.China’sfirstrailroad,builtin1876bytheBritish,ranthe12milesbetweenShanghaiandWusong.PhotographbyScala,FlorenceAlthoughCixifavoredmodernization,localopinionhadtoberespected.China’sfirstrailroad,builtin1876bytheBritish,wasdismantledafterseriouslocalprotests.Ittook13yearsforCixitochangeenoughmindstolaunchChina’sfirstrailline,theBeijing-Wuhanrailway.Shefeltitwouldbea“keycomponentofourblueprintforMakingChinaStrong.”Officially,CixihadtostanddownwhenTongzhicameofagein1873.Twoyearsintohisrule,aboutwithsmallpoxkilledtheyoungemperor,wholeftnoheir.Somebelievedthatpower-hungryCixihadpoisonedhersontoclingtopower,butnoproofformurderexists.DarkrumorscirculatedaroundCixi,andnotforthelasttime.TheTamingoftheEmperorCixiagainseizedthereinsofgovernment,adoptingthesonofhersisterandPrinceChunandnaminghimemperor.Ci’anandCixiwouldcontinuetoactasregentstothenewemperor,Guangxu—whowasbarelythreeyearsold—untilCi’an’ssuddendeathin1881.Afterthat,Cixiwasthesoleregent.Sheembarkedonasecondwaveofmodernization,introducingelectricityandcoalmining.ShestartedawarwithFrancetoopposeitsterritorialambitionsontheborderbetweenChinaandVietnam,whichendedinastalemate.CixiofficiallycededpowertoGuangxuin1889whenhecameofage.EducatedinthestrictestofConfucianorthodoxy,GuangxuwassuspiciousofeverythingWestern.HisfailuretocomprehendthemodernworldlaterledhimtoabandonChina’snavalprogram,resultinginacrushingdefeattoJapanin1895,acrisisthatmadeCixithedefactoruleragain.ThetensionbetweenCixiandheradoptedson,andbetweenreformersandtraditionalists,washeightenedbytheinfluenceofanacademicandadviser,KangYouwei.HisreformproposalswonoverGuangxu,butCiximistrustedhim.Kanginvolvedtheemperorinaplottoassassinateher,buttheirplanswerediscoveredin1898.KangfledtoJapan,andGuangxuwasplacedunderhousearrest,leavinghimasapuppetbuteffectivelyremovinghimfrompower.CixicontinuedtoruleChinauntilherdeath.Shesurvivedanumberofcrises,includingtheBoxerRebellion,whichendedinadefeatforChinaatthehandsofaforeigncoalitionin1901.Inthefaceofdefeat,therulingChineseeliteralliedaroundthedowagerempress,whohadpublishedtheunprecedentedDecreeofSelf-reproach,inwhichsheblamedherselfforthedevastationcausedbythewar.InJanuary1902CixiannouncedaseriesofreformsthatshookupallaspectsofChineselife.MarriagesbetweenHanandManchupartnerswerelegalized.Foot-binding,acustomlongpracticedonHangirls,wasbanned.Freedomofthepresswasexpanded.In1906CixiannouncedthatChinawouldbetransformedintoaconstitutionalmonarchywithelections.In1900,theEight-nationAlliancefoughttheBoxerRebellion,asdepictedinthisillustrationfromaGermanpublication.PhotographbyAlbumPleaseberespectfulofcopyright.Unauthorizeduseisprohibited.CixidiedinNovember1908,onlyonedayafterGuangxu,whommanybelieveshehadpoisonedtoensuretheweaksovereignwouldstayoutofpower.Cixinamedhertwo-year-oldgreat-nephewtheheiranddesignatedanewdowagerempresstowatchoverthenationshebroughtintothemodernage.ThisstoryfirstappearedintheNovember/December2016issueofNationalGeographicHistorymagazine.Ithasbeenadaptedandupdated.Timeline1852CixibecomesaconcubineofEmperorXianfeng.ShewillgivebirthtohisheirTongzhiin1856.1861CixiandZhen,theemperor’swidows,seizepowerinacoupafterXianfengdies.Tongzhiinheritsthethrone.1875AfterTongzhi'sdeath,Cixiappointsheradoptedthree-year-oldson,Guangxu,asemperorandservesasregent.1898CixiuncoversaplottokillherorchestratedbyGuangxu,whomsheplacesunderhousearrest.1908CixipoisonsGuangxu,fearingheistooweak-willedtorule.Cixidiesadaylater,havingnamedanewheir.ShareTweetEmailReadThisNextThisseventh-centuryMayacitywasagloriouscenterofpowerHistoryMagazineThisseventh-centuryMayacitywasagloriouscenterofpowerSteppedpyramids,colorfultemples,andagrandpalaceproclaimedPalenque'sbrilliance,reflectingthefavorofthegodsandthestrengthofitsseventh-centuryruler.LivingwithdementiainsouthernAfricaHistory&CultureLivingwithdementiainsouthernAfricaInaregionwherefamilymembershavehistoricallyservedascaretakersforolderrelatives,propercareforanagingpopulationhasbecomemoredifficult.Simulating200mphhurricanestomakestorm-resistanthomesEnvironmentSimulating200mphhurricanestomakestorm-resistanthomesToprepareforextremeweather,FloridaInternationalUniversityplanstosimulatesomeoftheworld'smostcatastrophicstorms.SwoonovertheseromanticEuropeanvillagesTravelBestofEuropeSwoonovertheseromanticEuropeanvillagesScenicstrolls,starrynights,andtemptingfareseducethesensesintheseseventownsfromFrancetoItalyandbeyond.GoFurtherAnimalsWhyplaguestillafflictsU.S.wildlifeAnimalsWhyplaguestillafflictsU.S.wildlifeHowouractionsaremakingraccoonssmarter,VideoStoryAnimalsNatGeoExploresHowouractionsaremakingraccoonssmarterWhysomeanimalsevolvedtosacrificethemselvesAnimalsWhysomeanimalsevolvedtosacrificethemselvesEnormousstingraysetsworldrecordforlargestfreshwaterfishAnimalsEnormousstingraysetsworldrecordforlargestfreshwaterfishWhythisnewlypolarbearsubpopulationissospecialAnimalsWhythisnewlypolarbearsubpopulationissospecialWhatdoweoweformerlabchimps?AnimalsWildlifeWatchWhatdoweoweformerlabchimps?EnvironmentWhatisacarbonfootprint—andhowtomeasureyoursEnvironmentWhatisacarbonfootprint—andhowtomeasureyoursThaifishermenandrestaurantsteamupforsustainabilityPaidContentThaifishermenandrestaurantsteamupforsustainabilityHumanityisleavinganirreversibleimprintonEarth'srocksEnvironmentHumanityisleavinganirreversibleimprintonEarth'srocksSimulating200mphhurricanestomakestorm-resistanthomesEnvironmentSimulating200mphhurricanestomakestorm-resistanthomesYellowstoneflooding:Whyisithappeningnow?EnvironmentYellowstoneflooding:Whyisithappeningnow?Scotland’s‘GreatWood’:Wasthelegendaryforestreal?EnvironmentScotland’s‘GreatWood’:Wasthelegendaryforestreal?History&Culture‘Thisisme,asIam’:PhotographingmyowngendertransitionHistory&Culture‘Thisisme,asIam’:PhotographingmyowngendertransitionHowhistoriansaredocumentingthelivesoftransgenderpeopleHistory&CultureHowhistoriansaredocumentingthelivesoftransgenderpeopleThetumultuoushistorythatledtothelandmarkRoev.WaderulingHistory&CultureThetumultuoushistorythatledtothelandmarkRoev.WaderulingThisseventh-centuryMayacitywasagloriouscenterofpowerHistoryMagazineThisseventh-centuryMayacitywasagloriouscenterofpowerLivingwithde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