Paradigm shift - Wikipedia

A paradigm shift, a concept identified by the American physicist and philosopher Thomas Kuhn, is a fundamental change in the basic concepts and experimental ... Paradigmshift FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Fundamentalchangeinconcepts Forotheruses,seeParadigmShift(disambiguation). Seealso:epistemologicalbreak PartofaseriesonScience Overview History Literature Philosophy Scientificmethod Scientist Branches Formal Natural Physical Life Social Applied Engineering Medical Interdisciplinary Society Communication Education Funding Pseudoscience Policy Sociology Outline  Scienceportal  Categoryvte Aparadigmshift,aconceptidentifiedbytheAmericanphysicistandphilosopherThomasKuhn,isafundamentalchangeinthebasicconceptsandexperimentalpracticesofascientificdiscipline.EventhoughKuhnrestrictedtheuseofthetermtothenaturalsciences,theconceptofaparadigmshifthasalsobeenusedinnumerousnon-scientificcontextstodescribeaprofoundchangeinafundamentalmodelorperceptionofevents. KuhnpresentedhisnotionofaparadigmshiftinhisinfluentialbookTheStructureofScientificRevolutions(1962). Kuhncontrastsparadigmshifts,whichcharacterizeascientificrevolution,totheactivityofnormalscience,whichhedescribesasscientificworkdonewithinaprevailingframeworkorparadigm.Paradigmshiftsarisewhenthedominantparadigmunderwhichnormalscienceoperatesisrenderedincompatiblewithnewphenomena,facilitatingtheadoptionofanewtheoryorparadigm.[1] Asonecommentatorsummarizes: Kuhnacknowledgeshavingusedtheterm"paradigm"intwodifferentmeanings.Inthefirstone,"paradigm"designateswhatthemembersofacertainscientificcommunityhaveincommon,thatistosay,thewholeoftechniques,patentsandvaluessharedbythemembersofthecommunity.Inthesecondsense,theparadigmisasingleelementofawhole,sayforinstanceNewton’sPrincipia,which,actingasacommonmodeloranexample...standsfortheexplicitrulesandthusdefinesacoherenttraditionofinvestigation.ThusthequestionisforKuhntoinvestigatebymeansoftheparadigmwhatmakespossibletheconstitutionofwhathecalls"normalscience".Thatistosay,thesciencewhichcandecideifacertainproblemwillbeconsideredscientificornot.Normalsciencedoesnotmeanatallascienceguidedbyacoherentsystemofrules,onthecontrary,therulescanbederivedfromtheparadigms,buttheparadigmscanguidetheinvestigationalsointheabsenceofrules.Thisispreciselythesecondmeaningoftheterm"paradigm",whichKuhnconsideredthemostnewandprofound,thoughitisintruththeoldest.[2] Contents 1History 1.1Originalusage 2Features 2.1Paradigmshiftsandprogress 2.2Incommensurability 2.3Gradualismvs.suddenchange 3Examples 3.1Naturalsciences 3.2Socialsciences 3.3Appliedsciences 4Otheruses 5Criticism 6Seealso 7References 7.1Citations 7.2Sources 8Externallinks History[edit] ThenatureofscientificrevolutionshasbeenstudiedbymodernphilosophysinceImmanuelKantusedthephraseintheprefacetothesecondeditionofhisCritiqueofPureReason(1787).Kantusedthephrase"revolutionofthewayofthinking"(RevolutionderDenkart)torefertoGreekmathematicsandNewtonianphysics.Inthe20thcentury,newdevelopmentsinthebasicconceptsofmathematics,physics,andbiologyrevitalizedinterestinthequestionamongscholars. Originalusage[edit] Kuhnusedtheduck-rabbitopticalillusion,madefamousbyWittgenstein,todemonstratethewayinwhichaparadigmshiftcouldcauseonetoseethesameinformationinanentirelydifferentway.[3] Inhis1962bookTheStructureofScientificRevolutions,Kuhnexplainsthedevelopmentofparadigmshiftsinscienceintofourstages: Normalscience–Inthisstage,whichKuhnseesasmostprominentinscience,adominantparadigmisactive.Thisparadigmischaracterizedbyasetoftheoriesandideasthatdefinewhatispossibleandrationaltodo,givingscientistsaclearsetoftoolstoapproachcertainproblems.SomeexamplesofdominantparadigmsthatKuhngivesare:Newtonianphysics,calorictheory,andthetheoryofelectromagnetism.[4]Insofarasparadigmsareuseful,theyexpandboththescopeandthetoolswithwhichscientistsdoresearch.Kuhnstressesthat,ratherthanbeingmonolithic,theparadigmsthatdefinenormalsciencecanbeparticulartodifferentpeople.Achemistandaphysicistmightoperatewithdifferentparadigmsofwhataheliumatomis.[5]Undernormalscience,scientistsencounteranomaliesthatcannotbeexplainedbytheuniversallyacceptedparadigmwithinwhichscientificprogresshastheretobeenmade. Extraordinaryresearch–Whenenoughsignificantanomalieshaveaccruedagainstacurrentparadigm,thescientificdisciplineisthrownintoastateofcrisis.Toaddressthecrisis,scientistspushtheboundariesofnormalscienceinwhatKuhncalls“extraordinaryresearch”,whichischaracterizedbyitsexploratorynature.[6]Withoutthestructuresofthedominantparadigmtodependon,scientistsengaginginextraordinaryresearchmustproducenewtheories,thoughtexperiments,andexperimentstoexplaintheanomalies.Kuhnseesthepracticeofthisstage–“theproliferationofcompetingarticulations,thewillingnesstotryanything,theexpressionofexplicitdiscontent,therecoursetophilosophyandtodebateoverfundamentals”–asevenmoreimportanttosciencethanparadigmshifts.[7] Adoptionofanewparadigm–Eventuallyanewparadigmisformed,whichgainsitsownnewfollowers.ForKuhn,thisstageentailsbothresistancetothenewparadigm,andreasonsforwhyindividualscientistsadoptit.AccordingtoMaxPlanck,"anewscientifictruthdoesnottriumphbyconvincingitsopponentsandmakingthemseethelight,butratherbecauseitsopponentseventuallydie,andanewgenerationgrowsupthatisfamiliarwithit."[8]Becausescientistsarecommittedtothedominantparadigm,andparadigmshiftsinvolvegestalt-likechanges,Kuhnstressesthatparadigmsaredifficulttochange.However,paradigmscangaininfluencebyexplainingorpredictingphenomenamuchbetterthanbefore(i.e.,Bohr'smodeloftheatom)orbybeingmoresubjectivelypleasing.Duringthisphase,proponentsforcompetingparadigmsaddresswhatKuhnconsidersthecoreofaparadigmdebate:whetheragivenparadigmwillbeagoodguideforfutureproblems–thingsthatneithertheproposedparadigmnorthedominantparadigmarecapableofsolvingcurrently.[9] Aftermathofthescientificrevolution–Inthelongrun,thenewparadigmbecomesinstitutionalizedasthedominantone.Textbooksarewritten,obscuringtherevolutionaryprocess. Features[edit] Paradigmshiftsandprogress[edit] Acommonmisinterpretationofparadigmsisthebeliefthatthediscoveryofparadigmshiftsandthedynamicnatureofscience(withitsmanyopportunitiesforsubjectivejudgmentsbyscientists)areacaseforrelativism:[10]theviewthatallkindsofbeliefsystemsareequal.Kuhnvehementlydeniesthisinterpretation[11]andstatesthatwhenascientificparadigmisreplacedbyanewone,albeitthroughacomplexsocialprocess,thenewoneisalwaysbetter,notjustdifferent. Incommensurability[edit] Theseclaimsofrelativismare,however,tiedtoanotherclaimthatKuhndoesatleastsomewhatendorse:thatthelanguageandtheoriesofdifferentparadigmscannotbetranslatedintooneanotherorrationallyevaluatedagainstoneanother—thattheyareincommensurable.Thisgaverisetomuchtalkofdifferentpeoplesandcultureshavingradicallydifferentworldviewsorconceptualschemes—sodifferentthatwhetherornotonewasbetter,theycouldnotbeunderstoodbyoneanother.However,thephilosopherDonaldDavidsonpublishedthehighlyregardedessay"OntheVeryIdeaofaConceptualScheme"(ProceedingsandAddressesoftheAmericanPhilosophicalAssociation,Vol.47,(1973–1974),pp. 5–20)in1974arguingthatthenotionthatanylanguagesortheoriescouldbeincommensurablewithoneanotherwasitselfincoherent.Ifthisiscorrect,Kuhn'sclaimsmustbetakeninaweakersensethantheyoftenare.Furthermore,theholdoftheKuhniananalysisonsocialsciencehaslongbeentenuous,withthewideapplicationofmulti-paradigmaticapproachesinordertounderstandcomplexhumanbehaviour(seeforexampleJohnHassard,SociologyandOrganizationTheory:Positivism,ParadigmandPostmodernity.CambridgeUniversityPress,1993,ISBN 0521350344). Gradualismvs.suddenchange[edit] Paradigmshiftstendtobemostdramaticinsciencesthatappeartobestableandmature,asinphysicsattheendofthe19thcentury.Atthattime,physicsseemedtobeadisciplinefillinginthelastfewdetailsofalargelyworked-outsystem. InTheStructureofScientificRevolutions,Kuhnwrote,"Successivetransitionfromoneparadigmtoanotherviarevolutionistheusualdevelopmentalpatternofmaturescience"(p. 12).Kuhn'sideawasitselfrevolutionaryinitstimeasitcausedamajorchangeinthewaythatacademicstalkaboutscience.Thus,itcouldbearguedthatitcausedorwasitselfpartofa"paradigmshift"inthehistoryandsociologyofscience.However,Kuhnwouldnotrecognisesuchaparadigmshift.Inthesocialsciences,peoplecanstilluseearlierideastodiscussthehistoryofscience. Philosophersandhistoriansofscience,includingKuhnhimself,ultimatelyacceptedamodifiedversionofKuhn'smodel,whichsynthesizeshisoriginalviewwiththegradualistmodelthatprecededit.[citationneeded] Examples[edit] Naturalsciences[edit] Someofthe"classicalcases"ofKuhnianparadigmshiftsinscienceare: 1543–ThetransitionincosmologyfromaPtolemaiccosmologytoaCopernicanone.[12] 1543–TheacceptanceoftheworkofAndreasVesalius,whoseworkDehumanicorporisfabricacorrectedthenumerouserrorsinthepreviously-heldsystemofhumananatomycreatedbyGalen.[13] 1687–ThetransitioninmechanicsfromAristotelianmechanicstoclassicalmechanics.[14] 1783–TheacceptanceofLavoisier'stheoryofchemicalreactionsandcombustioninplaceofphlogistontheory,knownasthechemicalrevolution.[15][16] ThetransitioninopticsfromgeometricalopticstophysicalopticswithAugustin-JeanFresnel'swavetheory.[17] 1826–Thediscoveryofhyperbolicgeometry.[18] 1859–Therevolutioninevolutionfromgoal-directedchangetoCharlesDarwin'snaturalselection.[19] 1880–ThegermtheoryofdiseasebeganovertakingGalen'smiasmatheory. 1905–Thedevelopmentofquantummechanics,whichreplacedclassicalmechanicsatmicroscopicscales.[20] 1887to1905–Thetransitionfromtheluminiferousaetherpresentinspacetoelectromagneticradiationinspacetime.[21] 1919–ThetransitionbetweentheworldviewofNewtoniangravityandgeneralrelativity. 1964–Thediscoveryofcosmicmicrowavebackgroundradiationleadstothebigbangtheorybeingacceptedoverthesteadystatetheoryincosmology. 1965–Theacceptanceofplatetectonicsastheexplanationforlarge-scalegeologicchanges. 1974–TheNovemberRevolution,withthediscoveryoftheJ/psimeson,andtheacceptanceoftheexistenceofquarksandtheStandardModelofparticlephysics. 1960to1985–Theacceptanceoftheubiquityofnonlineardynamicalsystemsaspromotedbychaostheory,insteadofalaplacianworld-viewofdeterministicpredictability.[22] Socialsciences[edit] InKuhn'sview,theexistenceofasinglereigningparadigmischaracteristicofthenaturalsciences,whilephilosophyandmuchofsocialsciencewerecharacterizedbya"traditionofclaims,counterclaims,anddebatesoverfundamentals."[23]OthershaveappliedKuhn'sconceptofparadigmshifttothesocialsciences. Themovementknownasthecognitiverevolutionmovedawayfrombehaviouristapproachestopsychologicalstudyandtheacceptanceofcognitionascentraltostudyinghumanbehaviour. TheKeynesianrevolutionistypicallyviewedasamajorshiftinmacroeconomics.[24]AccordingtoJohnKennethGalbraith,Say'sLawdominatedeconomicthoughtpriortoKeynesforoveracentury,andtheshifttoKeynesianismwasdifficult.Economistswhocontradictedthelaw,whichimpliedthatunderemploymentandunderinvestment(coupledwithoversaving)werevirtuallyimpossible,riskedlosingtheircareers.[25]Inhismagnumopus,Keynescitedoneofhispredecessors,JohnA.Hobson,[26]whowasrepeatedlydeniedpositionsatuniversitiesforhishereticaltheory. Later,themovementformonetarismoverKeynesianismmarkedaseconddivisiveshift.Monetaristsheldthatfiscalpolicywasnoteffectiveforstabilizinginflation,thatitwassolelyamonetaryphenomenon,incontrasttotheKeynesianviewofthetimewasthatbothfiscalandmonetarypolicywereimportant.Keynesianslateradoptedmuchofthemonetarists'viewofthequantitytheoryofmoneyandshiftingPhillipscurve,theoriestheyinitiallyrejected.[27] FirstproposedbyFerdinanddeSaussurein1879,thelaryngealtheoryinIndo-Europeanlinguisticspostulatedtheexistenceof"laryngeal"consonantsintheProto-Indo-Europeanlanguage(PIE),atheorythatwasconfirmedbythediscoveryoftheHittitelanguageintheearly20thcentury.Thetheoryhassincebeenacceptedbythevastmajorityoflinguists,pavingthewayfortheinternalreconstructionofthesyntaxandgrammaticalrulesofPIEandisconsideredoneofthemostsignificantdevelopmentsinlinguisticssincetheinitialdiscoveryoftheIndo-Europeanlanguagefamily.[28] Theadoptionofradiocarbondatingbyarchaeologistshasbeenproposedasaparadigmshiftbecauseofhowitgreatlyincreasedthetimedepththearchaeologistscouldreliablydateobjectsfrom.SimilarlytheuseofLIDARforremotegeospatialimagingofculturallandscapes,andtheshiftfromprocessualtopost-processualarchaeologyhavebothbeenclaimedasparadigmshiftsbyarchaeologists.[29] Appliedsciences[edit] Morerecently,paradigmshiftsarealsorecognisableinappliedsciences: Inmedicine,thetransitionfrom"clinicaljudgment"toevidence-basedmedicine Insoftwareengineering,thetransitionfromtheRationalParadigmtotheEmpiricalParadigm[30] InArtificialIntelligence,thetransitionfromaknowledge-basedtoadata-drivenparadigmhasbeendiscussedfrom2010[31] Otheruses[edit] Theterm"paradigmshift"hasfoundusesinothercontexts,representingthenotionofamajorchangeinacertainthoughtpattern—aradicalchangeinpersonalbeliefs,complexsystemsororganizations,replacingtheformerwayofthinkingororganizingwitharadicallydifferentwayofthinkingororganizing: M.L.Handa,aprofessorofsociologyineducationatO.I.S.E.UniversityofToronto,Canada,developedtheconceptofaparadigmwithinthecontextofsocialsciences.Hedefineswhathemeansby"paradigm"andintroducestheideaofa"socialparadigm".Inaddition,heidentifiesthebasiccomponentofanysocialparadigm.LikeKuhn,headdressestheissueofchangingparadigms,theprocesspopularlyknownas"paradigmshift".Inthisrespect,hefocusesonthesocialcircumstancesthatprecipitatesuchashift.Relatedly,headdresseshowthatshiftaffectssocialinstitutions,includingtheinstitutionofeducation.[32] Theconcepthasbeendevelopedfortechnologyandeconomicsintheidentificationofnewtechno-economicparadigmsaschangesintechnologicalsystemsthathaveamajorinfluenceonthebehaviouroftheentireeconomy(CarlotaPerez;earlierworkonlyontechnologicalparadigmsbyGiovanniDosi).ThisconceptislinkedtoJosephSchumpeter'sideaofcreativedestruction.Examplesincludethemovetomassproductionandtheintroductionofmicroelectronics.[33] TwophotographsoftheEarthfromspace,"Earthrise"(1968)and"TheBlueMarble"(1972),arethought[bywhom?]tohavehelpedtousherintheenvironmentalistmovement,whichgainedgreatprominenceintheyearsimmediatelyfollowingdistributionofthoseimages.[34][35] HansKüngappliesThomasKuhn'stheoryofparadigmchangetotheentirehistoryofChristianthoughtandtheology.Heidentifiessixhistorical"macromodels":1)theapocalypticparadigmofprimitiveChristianity,2)theHellenisticparadigmofthepatristicperiod,3)themedievalRomanCatholicparadigm,4)theProtestant(Reformation)paradigm,5)themodernEnlightenmentparadigm,and6)theemergingecumenicalparadigm.Healsodiscussesfiveanalogiesbetweennaturalscienceandtheologyinrelationtoparadigmshifts.Küngaddressesparadigmchangeinhisbooks,ParadigmChangeinTheology[36]andTheologyfortheThirdMillennium:AnEcumenicalView.[37] Inthelaterpartofthe1990s,'paradigmshift'emergedasabuzzword,popularizedasmarketingspeakandappearingmorefrequentlyinprintandpublication.[38]InhisbookMindTheGaffe,authorLarryTraskadvisesreaderstorefrainfromusingit,andtousecautionwhenreadinganythingthatcontainsthephrase.Itisreferredtoinseveralarticlesandbooks[39][40]asabusedandoverusedtothepointofbecomingmeaningless. Theconceptoftechnologicalparadigmshasbeenadvanced,particularlybyGiovanniDosi. Criticism[edit] Ina2015retrospectiveonKuhn,[41]thephilosopherMartinCohendescribesthenotionoftheparadigmshiftasakindofintellectualvirus–spreadingfromhardsciencetosocialscienceandontotheartsandeveneverydaypoliticalrhetorictoday.CohenclaimsthatKuhnhadonlyaveryhazyideaofwhatitmightmeanand,inlinewiththeAmericanphilosopherofsciencePaulFeyerabend,accusesKuhnofretreatingfromthemoreradicalimplicationsofhistheory,whicharethatscientificfactsareneverreallymorethanopinionswhosepopularityistransitoryandfarfromconclusive.Cohensaysscientificknowledgeislesscertainthanitisusuallyportrayed,andthatscienceandknowledgegenerallyisnotthe'verysensibleandreassuringlysolidsortofaffair'thatKuhndescribes,inwhichprogressinvolvesperiodicparadigmshiftsinwhichmuchoftheoldcertaintiesareabandonedinordertoopenupnewapproachestounderstandingthatscientistswouldneverhaveconsideredvalidbefore. Hearguesthatinformationcascadescandistortrational,scientificdebate.Hehasfocusedonhealthissues,includingtheexampleofhighlymediatised'pandemic'alarms,andwhytheyhaveturnedouteventuallytobelittlemorethanscares.[42] Seealso[edit] Acceleratingchange –Perceivedincreaseintherateoftechnologicalchangethroughouthistory Attitudepolarization Beliefperseverance –Maintainingabeliefdespitenewinformationthatfirmlycontradictsit BuckminsterFuller –Americanarchitect,systemstheorist,author,designer,inventorandfuturist Cognitivebias –Systematicpatternofdeviationfromnormorrationalityinjudgment Conceptualmodel –Theoreticalframework Confirmationbias –Tendencyofpeopletofavorinformationthatconfirmstheirbeliefsorvalues CopernicanRevolution –16thto17thcenturyintellectualrevolution Criticaljuncturetheory –Theoryoflarge,discontinuouschanges Culturalbias –Interpretationandjudgementofphenomenabythestandardsofone'sculture Disruptiveinnovation –Technologicalchange DonTapscott(authorofParadigmShift) Epistemologicalbreak GastonBachelard –Frenchphilosopher Globalization –Spreadofworldviews,products,ideas,andotheraspectsofculture Historyoftheworld Infrastructurebias Innovation –Applicationofbettersolutionsthatmeetnewrequirements,inarticulatedneeds,orexistingmarketneeds Inquiry –anyprocessthathastheaimofaugmentingknowledge,resolvingdoubt,orsolvingaproblem Kondratievwave –Hypothesizedcycle-likephenomenainthemodernworldeconomy LudwikFleck –Polishphysician Modeling –Theoreticalframework Mindset –Termindecisiontheoryandgeneralsystemstheory Newworldorder(politics) –Periodofhistorywithadramaticchangeinworldpoliticalthought Scientificmodelling –Scientificactivity Statisticalmodel –Typeofmathematicalmodel Systemicbias –Inherenttendencyofaprocesstosupportparticularoutcomes Teachablemoment –Timeatwhichlearningaparticularideabecomespossibleoreasiest Worldview Zeitgeist –Philosophicalconceptmeaning"spiritoftheage" References[edit] Citations[edit] ^Kuhn,Thomas(1962).TheStructureofScientificRevolutions.pp. 54. ^Agamben,Giorgio."WhatisaParadigm?"(PDF).RetrievedNovember14,2015. ^Kuhn,1970,p.114 ^Kuhn,Thomas(1962).TheStructureofScientificRevolutions.pp. 28. ^Kuhn,Thomas(1962).TheStructureofScientificRevolutions.pp. 50. ^Kuhn,Thomas(1962).TheStructureofScientificRevolutions.pp. 87. ^Kuhn,Thomas(1962).TheStructureofScientificRevolutions.pp. 91. ^QuotedinThomasKuhn,TheStructureofScientificRevolutions(1970ed.):p.150. ^Kuhn,Thomas(1962).TheStructureofScientificRevolutions.pp. 157. ^Sankey,Howard(1997)"Kuhn'sontologicalrelativism,"inIssuesandImagesinthePhilosophyofScience:ScientificandPhilosophicaldakogulokEssaysinHonourofAzaryaPolikarov,editedbyDimitriGinevandRobertS.Cohen.Dordrecht:KluwerAcademic,1997.Bostonstudiesinthephilosophyofscience,vol.192,pp.305–20.ISBN 0792344448 ^ThomasKuhn,TheStructureofScientificRevolutions(3rded.):p.199. ^Kuhn,1970,pp.154andpassim ^Joutsivuo,T(1997)."[VesaliusandDehumanicorporisfabrica:Galen'serrorsandthechangeofanatomyinthesixteenthcentury]".Hippokrates(Helsinki):98–112.PMID 11625189. ^Kuhn,1970,pp.148andpassim ^ParadigmShifts:Technology&Culture ^Kuhn,1970,p.157 ^Kuhn,1970,p.155 ^Trudeau,RichardJ(1987).Thenon-Euclideanrevolution.Boston:Birkhäuser.ISBN 978-0-8176-3311-0. ^Kuhn,1970,pp.151andpassim ^Kuhn,1970,pp.83–84,151andpassim ^Kuhn,1970,p.107 ^Gleick,James(1988)."Chapter2:Revolution".Chaos:makinganewscience.NewYork:VikingPenguin.p. 35–56.ISBN 0-670-81178-5. ^Kuhn,ThomasN.(1972)[1970]."LogicofDiscoveryorPsychologyofResearch".InLakatos,Imre;Musgrave,Alan(eds.).CriticismandtheGrowthofKnowledge(second ed.).Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.p. 6.ISBN 978-0-521-09623-2. ^DavidLaidler.FabricatingtheKeynesianRevolution. ^Galbraith,JohnKenneth(1975).Money:WhenceItCame,WhereItWent.Boston:HoughtonMifflin.p. 223.ISBN 978-0-395-19843-8. ^Keynes,JohnMaynard(1936)."TheGeneralTheoryofEmployment,Interest,andMoney".Nature.137(3471):366.Bibcode:1936Natur.137..761B.doi:10.1038/137761a0.S2CID 4104514.Mr.Hobsonhasflunghimselfwithunflagging,butalmostunavailing,ardourandcourageagainsttheranksoforthodoxy.Thoughitissocompletelyforgottento-day,thepublicationofthisbookmarks,inasense,anepochineconomicthought. ^Bordo,MichaelD.,Schwartz,AnnaJ.(2008).MonetaryEconomicResearchattheSt.LouisFedDuringTedBalbach'sTenureasResearchDirector.TheFederalReserveBankofSt.LouisReview. ^JamesClackson(2007).IndoEuropeanLinguistics:AnIntroduction.CambridgeUniversity.p. 53.ISBN 9780521653671. ^Schmidt,SophieC.;Marwick,Ben(28January2020)."Tool-DrivenRevolutionsinArchaeologicalScience".JournalofComputerApplicationsinArchaeology.3(1):18–32.doi:10.5334/jcaa.29. ^Ralph,Paul(January2018)."Thetwoparadigmsofsoftwaredevelopmentresearch".ScienceofComputerProgramming.156:68–89.doi:10.1016/j.scico.2018.01.002. ^Cristianini,Nello(2012)."OntheCurrentParadigminArtificialIntelligence".AICommunications.27:37–43.doi:10.3233/AIC-130582. ^Handa,M.L.(1986)"PeaceParadigm:TranscendingLiberalandMarxianParadigms".Paperpresentedin"InternationalSymposiumonScience,TechnologyandDevelopment,NewDelhi,India,March20–25,1987,MimeographedatO.I.S.E.,UniversityofToronto,Canada(1986) ^Perez,Carlota(2009)."Technologicalrevolutionsandtechno-economicparadigms",CambridgeJournalofEconomics,Vol.34,No.1,pp.185–202 ^ChristopherH.(2009)."GlobalWarmingandtheProblemofPolicyInnovation:LessonsfromtheEarlyEnvironmentalMovement". ^SeealsoStewartBrand#NASAimageofEarth ^Kung,Hans&Tracy,David(ed).ParadigmChangeinTheology.NewYork:Crossroad,1989. ^Küng,Hans.TheologyfortheThirdMillennium:AnEcumenicalView.NewYork:AnchorBooks,1990. ^ RobertFulford,GlobeandMail(June5,1999).http://www.robertfulford.com/Paradigm.htmlRetrievedon2008-04-25. ^Cnet.com'sTop10Buzzwords ^"TheCompleteIdiot'sGuidetoaSmartVocabulary"pp.142–43,author:PaulMcFedriespublisher:Alpha;1stedition(May7,2001)ArchivedDecember15,2007,attheWaybackMachineISBN 978-0-02-863997-0 ^Cohen,Martin(2015).ParadigmShift:HowExpertOpinionsKeepChangingonLife,theUniverseandEverything.ImprintAcademic.p.181. ^"MartinCohen". Sources[edit] Kuhn,Thomas(1970).TheStructureofScientificRevolutions(2nd,enlarged ed.).UniversityofChicagoPress.ISBN 978-0-226-45804-5. Externallinks[edit] ThedictionarydefinitionofparadigmshiftatWiktionary MIT6.933J–TheStructureofEngineeringRevolutions.FromMITOpenCourseWare,coursematerials(graduatelevel)foracourseonthehistoryoftechnologythroughaKuhnianlens. ""ScientificChange"".InternetEncyclopediaofPhilosophy. vteScienceandtechnologystudiesEconomics Economicsofscience Economicsofscientificknowledge History Historyandphilosophyofscience Historyofscience andtechnology Historyoftechnology Philosophy Anthropocene Antipositivism Empiricism Fuzzylogic Neo-Luddism Philosophyofscience Philosophyofsocialscience Philosophyoftechnology Positivism Postpositivism Religionandscience Scientism Socialconstructivism Socialepistemology Transhumanism Sociology Actor–networktheory Social constructionoftechnology shapingoftechnology Sociologyofknowledge scientific Sociologyofscientificignorance Sociologyofthehistoryofscience Sociotechnology Strongprogramme Sciencestudies Antiscience Bibliometrics Boundary-work Consilience Criticismofscience Demarcationproblem Doublehermeneutic Logology Mappingcontroversies Metascience Paradigmshift blackswanevents Pseudoscience Psychologyofscience Science citizen communication education normal Neo-colonial post-normal rhetoric wars Scientific community consensus controversy dissent enterprise literacy method misconduct priority skepticism Scientocracy Scientometrics Teamscience Traditionalknowledge ecological Unityofscience Womeninscience STEM Technologystudies Co-production Cyborganthropology Dematerialization Digitalanthropology Digitalmediauseandmentalhealth Earlyadopter Hypecycle Innovation diffusion disruptive linearmodel system user Leapfrogging Normalizationprocesstheory Reversesalient Skunkworksproject Sociotechnicalsystem Technicalchange Technocracy Technoscience feminist Technological change convergence determinism revolution transitions Technology andsociety criticismof dynamics theoriesof transfer Engineeringstudies Womeninengineering Financialtechnology Policy Academicfreedom Digitaldivide Evidence-basedpolicy Factor10 Fundingofscience Horizonscanning Sciencepolicy historyof scienceof Politicizationofscience Regulationofscience Researchethics Righttoscience Socio-scientificissues Technologyassessment Technologypolicy Transitionmanagement Portals Science Historyofscience Technology Category Associations Journals Scholars AuthoritycontrolGeneral IntegratedAuthorityFile(Germany) Other MicrosoftAcademic Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paradigm_shift&oldid=1060980951" Categories:ChangeConceptsinepistemologyConceptsinmetaphilosophyConceptsinmetaphysicsConceptsinthephilosophyofmindConceptsinthephilosophyofscienceCriticalthinkingEpistemologyofscienceHistoriographyofscienceInnovationMetaphysicsofmindMetaphysicsofsciencePhilosophicaltheoriesReasoningScientificrevolutionTheoriesofhistoryThomasKuhnHiddencategories:WebarchivetemplatewaybacklinksArticleswithshortdescriptionShortdescriptionisdifferentfromWikidataArticlescontainingGerman-languagetextAllarticleswithunsourcedstatementsArticleswithunsourcedstatementsfromDecember2013Articleswithspecificallymarkedweasel-wordedphrasesfromDecember2020ArticleswithInternetEncyclopediaofPhilosophylinksArticleswithGNDidentifiersArticleswithMAidentifiers Navigationmenu Personaltools NotloggedinTalkContributionsCreateaccountLogin Namespaces ArticleTalk Variants expanded collapsed Views ReadEditViewhistory More expanded collapsed Search Navigation MainpageContentsCurrenteventsRandomarticleAboutWikipediaContactusDonate Contribute HelpLearntoeditCommunityportalRecentchangesUploadfile Tools WhatlinkshereRelatedchangesUploadfileSpecialpagesPermanentlinkPageinformationCitethispageWikidataitem Print/export DownloadasPDFPrintableversion Inotherprojects Wikiquote Languages العربيةBân-lâm-gúБългарскиDanskDeutschEspañolEuskaraفارسی한국어हिन्दीBahasaIndonesiaItalianoMagyarമലയാളംNederlands日本語NorskbokmålPortuguêsРусскийSimpleEnglishSlovenčinaСрпски/srpskiSrpskohrvatski/српскохрватскиSvenskaTürkçeУкраїнська粵語中文 Editlinks