Visual search - Wikipedia

Visual search is a type of perceptual task requiring attention that typically involves an active scan of the visual environment for a particular object or ... Visualsearch FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Typeofperceptualtaskrequiringattention Thisarticleisaboutvisioninbiology.Forcomputer-basedinformationretrieval,seevisualsearchengineandcontent-basedimageretrieval. Visualsearchisatypeofperceptualtaskrequiringattentionthattypicallyinvolvesanactivescanofthevisualenvironmentforaparticularobjectorfeature(thetarget)amongotherobjectsorfeatures(thedistractors).[1]Visualsearchcantakeplacewithorwithouteyemovements.Theabilitytoconsciouslylocateanobjectortargetamongstacomplexarrayofstimulihasbeenextensivelystudiedoverthepast40years.Practicalexamplesofusingvisualsearchcanbeseenineverydaylife,suchaswhenoneispickingoutaproductonasupermarketshelf,whenanimalsaresearchingforfoodamongpilesofleaves,whentryingtofindafriendinalargecrowdofpeople,orsimplywhenplayingvisualsearchgamessuchasWhere'sWally? Muchpreviousliteratureonvisualsearchusedreactiontimeinordertomeasurethetimeittakestodetectthetargetamongstitsdistractors.Anexampleofthiscouldbeagreensquare(thetarget)amongstasetofredcircles(thedistractors).However,reactiontimemeasurementsdonotalwaysdistinguishbetweentheroleofattentionandotherfactors:alongreactiontimemightbetheresultofdifficultydirectingattentiontothetarget,orsloweddecision-makingprocessesorslowedmotorresponsesafterattentionisalreadydirectedtothetargetandthetargethasalreadybeendetected.Manyvisualsearchparadigmshavethereforeusedeyemovementasameanstomeasurethedegreeofattentiongiventostimuli.[2][3] However,eyescanmoveindependentlyofattention,andthereforeeyemovementmeasuresdonotcompletelycapturetheroleofattention.[4][5] Contents 1Searchtypes 1.1Featuresearch 1.2Conjunctionsearch 1.3Realworldvisualsearch 2Reactiontimeslope 3Visualorientingandattention 4Theory 4.1Featureintegrationtheory(FIT) 4.2Guidedsearchmodel 5Biologicalbasis 6Evolution 7Facerecognition 8Considerations 8.1Ageing 8.2Alzheimer'sdisease 8.3Autism 9Consumerpsychology 10References Searchtypes[edit] Featuresearch[edit] featurebasedsearchtask Featuresearch(alsoknownas"disjunctive"or"efficient"search)[6]isavisualsearchprocessthatfocusesonidentifyingapreviouslyrequestedtargetamongstdistractorsthatdifferfromthetargetbyauniquevisualfeaturesuchascolor,shape,orientation,orsize.[7]Anexampleofafeaturesearchtaskisaskingaparticipanttoidentifyawhitesquare(target)surroundedbyblacksquares(distractors).[6]Inthistypeofvisualsearch,thedistractorsarecharacterizedbythesamevisualfeatures.[7]Theefficiencyoffeaturesearchinregardstoreactiontime(RT)andaccuracydependsonthe"popout"effect,[8]bottom-upprocessing,[8]andparallelprocessing.[7]However,theefficiencyoffeaturesearchisunaffectedbythenumberofdistractorspresent.[7] The"popout"effectisanelementoffeaturesearchthatcharacterizesthetarget'sabilitytostandoutfromsurroundingdistractorsduetoitsuniquefeature.[8]Bottom-upprocessing,whichistheprocessingofinformationthatdependsoninputfromtheenvironment,[8]explainshowoneutilizesfeaturedetectorstoprocesscharacteristicsofthestimulianddifferentiateatargetfromitsdistractors.[7]Thisdrawofvisualattentiontowardsthetargetduetobottom-upprocessesisknownas"saliency."[9]Lastly,parallelprocessingisthemechanismthatthenallowsone'sfeaturedetectorstoworksimultaneouslyinidentifyingthetarget.[7] Conjunctionsearch[edit] Conjunctivebasedsearchtask. Conjunctionsearch(alsoknownasinefficientorserialsearch)[6]isavisualsearchprocessthatfocusesonidentifyingapreviouslyrequestedtargetsurroundedbydistractorspossessingnodistinctfeaturesfromthetargetitself.[10]AnexampleofaconjunctionsearchtaskishavingapersonidentifyaredX(target)amongstdistractorscomposedofblackXs(sameshape)andredOs(samecolor).[10]Unlikefeaturesearch,conjunctionsearchinvolvesdistractors(orgroupsofdistractors)thatmaydifferfromeachotherbutexhibitatleastonecommonfeaturewiththetarget.[10]Theefficiencyofconjunctionsearchinregardstoreactiontime(RT)andaccuracyisdependentonthedistractor-ratio[10]andthenumberofdistractorspresent.[7]Asthedistractorsrepresentthedifferingindividualfeaturesofthetargetmoreequallyamongstthemselves(distractor-ratioeffect),reactiontime(RT)increasesandaccuracydecreases.[10]Asthenumberofdistractorspresentincreases,thereactiontime(RT)increasesandtheaccuracydecreases.[6]However,withpracticetheoriginalreactiontime(RT)restraintsofconjunctionsearchtendtoshowimprovement.[11]Intheearlystagesofprocessing,conjunctionsearchutilizesbottom-upprocessestoidentifypre-specifiedfeaturesamongstthestimuli.[7]Theseprocessesarethenovertakenbyamoreserialprocessofconsciouslyevaluatingtheindicatedfeaturesofthestimuli[7]inordertoproperlyallocateone'sfocalspatialattentiontowardsthestimulusthatmostaccuratelyrepresentsthetarget.[12] Inmanycases,top-downprocessingaffectsconjunctionsearchbyeliminatingstimulithatareincongruentwithone'spreviousknowledgeofthetarget-description,whichintheendallowsformoreefficientidentificationofthetarget.[8][9]Anexampleoftheeffectoftop-downprocessesonaconjunctionsearchtaskiswhensearchingforared'K'amongred'Cs'andblack'Ks',individualsignoretheblacklettersandfocusontheremainingredlettersinordertodecreasethesetsizeofpossibletargetsand,therefore,moreefficientlyidentifytheirtarget.[13] Realworldvisualsearch[edit] Ineverydaysituations,peoplearemostcommonlysearchingtheirvisualfieldsfortargetsthatarefamiliartothem.Whenitcomestosearchingforfamiliarstimuli,top-downprocessingallowsonetomoreefficientlyidentifytargetswithgreatercomplexitythancanberepresentedinafeatureorconjunctionsearchtask.[8]Inastudydonetoanalyzethereverse-lettereffect,whichistheideathatidentifyingtheasymmetricletteramongsymmetriclettersismoreefficientthanitsreciprocal,researchersconcludedthatindividualsmoreefficientlyrecognizeanasymmetricletteramongsymmetriclettersduetotop-downprocesses.[9]Top-downprocessesallowedstudyparticipantstoaccesspriorknowledgeregardingshaperecognitionoftheletterNandquicklyeliminatethestimulithatmatchedtheirknowledge.[9]Intherealworld,onemustusepriorknowledgeeverydayinordertoaccuratelyandefficientlylocateobjectssuchasphones,keys,etc.amongamuchmorecomplexarrayofdistractors.[8]Despitethiscomplexity,visualsearchwithcomplexobjects(andsearchforcategoriesofobjects,suchas"phone",basedonpriorknowledge)appearstorelyonthesameactivescanningprocessesasconjunctionsearchwithlesscomplex,contrivedlaboratorystimuli,[14][15]althoughglobalstatisticalinformationavailableinreal-worldscenescanalsohelppeoplelocatetargetobjects.[16][17][18]Whilebottom-upprocessesmaycomeintoplaywhenidentifyingobjectsthatarenotasfamiliartoaperson,overalltop-downprocessinghighlyinfluencesvisualsearchesthatoccurineverydaylife.[8][19][20]Familiaritycanplayespeciallycriticalroleswhenpartsofobjectsarenotvisible(aswhenobjectsarepartlyhiddenfromviewbecausetheyarebehindotherobjects).Visualinformationfromhiddenpartscanberecalledfromlong-termmemoryandusedtofacilitatesearchforfamiliarobjects.[21][22] Reactiontimeslope[edit] Itisalsopossibletomeasuretheroleofattentionwithinvisualsearchexperimentsbycalculatingtheslopeofreactiontimeoverthenumberofdistractorspresent.[23]Generally,whenhighlevelsofattentionarerequiredwhenlookingatacomplexarrayofstimuli(conjunctionsearch),theslopeincreasesasreactiontimesincrease.Forsimplevisualsearchtasks(featuresearch),theslopedecreasesduetoreactiontimesbeingfastandrequiringlessattention.[24]However,theuseofareactiontimeslopetomeasureattentioniscontroversialbecausenon-attentionalfactorscanalsoaffectreactiontimeslope.[25][26][27] Visualorientingandattention[edit] Aphotographthatsimulatesfoveation Oneobviouswaytoselectvisualinformationistoturntowardsit,alsoknownasvisualorienting.Thismaybeamovementoftheheadand/oreyestowardsthevisualstimulus,calledasaccade.Throughaprocesscalledfoveation,theeyesfixateontheobjectofinterest,makingtheimageofthevisualstimulusfallonthefoveaoftheeye,thecentralpartoftheretinawiththesharpestvisualacuity. Therearetwotypesoforienting: Exogenousorientingistheinvoluntaryandautomaticmovementthatoccurstodirectone'svisualattentiontowardasuddendisruptioninhisperipheralvisionfield.[28]Attentionisthereforeexternallyguidedbyastimulus,resultinginareflexivesaccade. Endogenousorientingisthevoluntarymovementthatoccursinorderforonetofocusvisualattentiononagoal-drivenstimulus.[28]Thus,thefocusofattentionoftheperceivercanbemanipulatedbythedemandsofatask.Ascanningsaccadeistriggeredendogenouslyforthepurposeofexploringthevisualenvironment. Aplotofthesaccadesmadewhilereadingtext.Theplotshowsthepathofeyemovementsandthesizeofthecirclesrepresentsthetimespentatanyonelocation. Visualsearchreliesprimarilyonendogenousorientingbecauseparticipantshavethegoaltodetectthepresenceorabsenceofaspecifictargetobjectinanarrayofotherdistractingobjects. Earlyresearchsuggestedthatattentioncouldbecovertly(withouteyemovement)shiftedtoperipheralstimuli,[29]butlaterstudiesfoundthatsmallsaccades(microsaccades)occurduringthesetasks,andthattheseeyemovementsarefrequentlydirectedtowardstheattendedlocations(whetherornottherearevisiblestimuli).[30][31][32]Thesefindingsindicatethatattentionplaysacriticalroleinunderstandingvisualsearch. Subsequently,competingtheoriesofattentionhavecometodominatevisualsearchdiscourse.[33]Theenvironmentcontainsavastamountofinformation.Wearelimitedintheamountofinformationweareabletoprocessatanyonetime,soitisthereforenecessarythatwehavemechanismsbywhichextraneousstimulicanbefilteredandonlyrelevantinformationattendedto.Inthestudyofattention,psychologistsdistinguishbetweenpre-attentiveandattentionalprocesses.[34]Pre-attentiveprocessesareevenlydistributedacrossallinputsignals,formingakindof"low-level"attention.Attentionalprocessesaremoreselectiveandcanonlybeappliedtospecificpreattentiveinput.Alargepartofthecurrentdebateinvisualsearchtheorycentresonselectiveattentionandwhatthevisualsystemiscapableofachievingwithoutfocalattention.[33] Theory[edit] Featureintegrationtheory(FIT)[edit] Mainarticle:Featureintegrationtheory Apopularexplanationforthedifferentreactiontimesoffeatureandconjunctionsearchesisthefeatureintegrationtheory(FIT),introducedbyTreismanandGeladein1980.Thistheoryproposesthatcertainvisualfeaturesareregisteredearly,automatically,andarecodedrapidlyinparallelacrossthevisualfieldusingpre-attentiveprocesses.[35] Experimentsshowthatthesefeaturesincludeluminance,colour,orientation,motiondirection,andvelocity,aswellassomesimpleaspectsofform.[36]Forexample,aredXcanbequicklyfoundamonganynumberofblackXsandOsbecausetheredXhasthediscriminativefeatureofcolourandwill"popout."Incontrast,thistheoryalsosuggeststhatinordertointegratetwoormorevisualfeaturesbelongingtothesameobject,alaterprocessinvolvingintegrationofinformationfromdifferentbrainareasisneededandiscodedseriallyusingfocalattention.Forexample,whenlocatinganorangesquareamongbluesquaresandorangetriangles,neitherthecolourfeature"orange"northeshapefeature"square"issufficienttolocatethesearchtarget.Instead,onemustintegrateinformationofbothcolourandshapetolocatethetarget. Evidencethatattentionandthuslatervisualprocessingisneededtointegratetwoormorefeaturesofthesameobjectisshownbytheoccurrenceofillusoryconjunctions,orwhenfeaturesdonotcombinecorrectlyForexample,ifadisplayofagreenXandaredOareflashedonascreensobrieflythatthelatervisualprocessofaserialsearchwithfocalattentioncannotoccur,theobservermayreportseeingaredXandagreenO. TheFITisadichotomybecauseofthedistinctionbetweenitstwostages:thepreattentiveandattentivestages.[37]PreattentiveprocessesarethoseperformedinthefirststageoftheFITmodel,inwhichthesimplestfeaturesoftheobjectarebeinganalyzed,suchascolor,size,andarrangement.Thesecondattentivestageofthemodelincorporatescross-dimensionalprocessing,[38]andtheactualidentificationofanobjectisdoneandinformationaboutthetargetobjectisputtogether.Thistheoryhasnotalwaysbeenwhatitistoday;therehavebeendisagreementsandproblemswithitsproposalsthathaveallowedthetheorytobeamendedandalteredovertime,andthiscriticismandrevisionhasallowedittobecomemoreaccurateinitsdescriptionofvisualsearch.[38]Therehavebeendisagreementsoverwhetherornotthereisacleardistinctionbetweenfeaturedetectionandothersearchesthatuseamastermapaccountingformultipledimensionsinordertosearchforanobject.Somepsychologistssupporttheideathatfeatureintegrationiscompletelyseparatefromthistypeofmastermapsearch,whereasmanyothershavedecidedthatfeatureintegrationincorporatesthisuseofamastermapinordertolocateanobjectinmultipledimensions.[37] TheFITalsoexplainsthatthereisadistinctionbetweenthebrain'sprocessesthatarebeingusedinaparallelversusafocalattentiontask.ChanandHayward[37]haveconductedmultipleexperimentssupportingthisideabydemonstratingtheroleofdimensionsinvisualsearch.Whileexploringwhetherornotfocalattentioncanreducethecostscausedbydimension-switchinginvisualsearch,theyexplainedthattheresultscollectedsupportedthemechanismsofthefeatureintegrationtheoryincomparisontoothersearch-basedapproaches.Theydiscoveredthatsingledimensionsallowforamuchmoreefficientsearchregardlessofthesizeoftheareabeingsearched,butoncemoredimensionsareaddeditismuchmoredifficulttoefficientlysearch,andthebiggertheareabeingsearchedthelongerittakesforonetofindthetarget.[37] Guidedsearchmodel[edit] Asecondmainfunctionofpreattentiveprocessesistodirectfocalattentiontothemost"promising"informationinthevisualfield.[33]Therearetwowaysinwhichtheseprocessescanbeusedtodirectattention:bottom-upactivation(whichisstimulus-driven)andtop-downactivation(whichisuser-driven).IntheguidedsearchmodelbyJeremyWolfe,[39]informationfromtop-downandbottom-upprocessingofthestimulusisusedtocreatearankingofitemsinorderoftheirattentionalpriority.Inavisualsearch,attentionwillbedirectedtotheitemwiththehighestpriority.Ifthatitemisrejected,thenattentionwillmoveontothenextitemandthenext,andsoforth.Theguidedsearchtheoryfollowsthatofparallelsearchprocessing. Anactivationmapisarepresentationofvisualspaceinwhichthelevelofactivationatalocationreflectsthelikelihoodthatthelocationcontainsatarget.Thislikelihoodisbasedonpreattentive,featuralinformationoftheperceiver.Accordingtotheguidedsearchmodel,theinitialprocessingofbasicfeaturesproducesanactivationmap,witheveryiteminthevisualdisplayhavingitsownlevelofactivation.Attentionisdemandedbasedonpeaksofactivationintheactivationmapinasearchforthetarget.[39]Visualsearchcanproceedefficientlyorinefficiently.Duringefficientsearch,performanceisunaffectedbythenumberofdistractoritems.Thereactiontimefunctionsareflat,andthesearchisassumedtobeaparallelsearch.Thus,intheguidedsearchmodel,asearchisefficientifthetargetgeneratesthehighest,oroneofthehighestactivationpeaks.Forexample,supposesomeoneissearchingforred,horizontaltargets.Featureprocessingwouldactivateallredobjectsandallhorizontalobjects.Attentionisthendirectedtoitemsdependingontheirlevelofactivation,startingwiththosemostactivated.Thisexplainswhysearchtimesarelongerwhendistractorsshareoneormorefeatureswiththetargetstimuli.Incontrast,duringinefficientsearch,thereactiontimetoidentifythetargetincreaseslinearlywiththenumberofdistractoritemspresent.Accordingtotheguidedsearchmodel,thisisbecausethepeakgeneratedbythetargetisnotoneofthehighest.[39] Biologicalbasis[edit] Apseudo-colorimageshowingactivationoftheprimaryvisualcortexduringaperceptualtaskusingfunctionalmagneticresonanceimaging(fMRI) Duringvisualsearchexperimentstheposteriorparietalcortexhaselicitedmuchactivationduringfunctionalmagneticresonanceimaging(fMRI)andelectroencephalography(EEG)experimentsforinefficientconjunctionsearch,whichhasalsobeenconfirmedthroughlesionstudies.Patientswithlesionstotheposteriorparietalcortexshowlowaccuracyandveryslowreactiontimesduringaconjunctionsearchtaskbuthaveintactfeaturesearchremainingtotheipsilesional(thesamesideofthebodyasthelesion)sideofspace.[40][41][42][43] Ashbridge,Walsh,andCoweyin(1997)[44] demonstratedthatduringtheapplicationoftranscranialmagneticstimulation(TMS)totherightparietalcortex,conjunctionsearchwasimpairedby100millisecondsafterstimulusonset.Thiswasnotfoundduringfeaturesearch.Nobre,Coull,WalshandFrith(2003)[45] identifiedusingfunctionalmagneticresonanceimaging(fMRI)thattheintraparietalsulcuslocatedinthesuperiorparietalcortexwasactivatedspecificallytofeaturesearchandthebindingofindividualperceptualfeaturesasopposedtoconjunctionsearch.Conversely,theauthorsfurtheridentifythatforconjunctionsearch,thesuperiorparietallobeandtherightangulargyruselicitbilaterallyduringfMRIexperiments. Visualsearchprimarilyactivatesareasoftheparietallobe. Incontrast,Leonards,Sunaert,VamHeckeandOrban(2000)[46]identifiedthatsignificantactivationisseenduringfMRIexperimentsinthesuperiorfrontalsulcusprimarilyforconjunctionsearch.Thisresearchhypothesisesthatactivationinthisregionmayinfactreflectworkingmemoryforholdingandmaintainingstimulusinformationinmindinordertoidentifythetarget.Furthermore,significantfrontalactivationincludingtheventrolateralprefrontalcortexbilaterallyandtherightdorsolateralprefrontalcortexwereseenduringpositronemissiontomographyforattentionalspatialrepresentationsduringvisualsearch.[47] Thesameregionsassociatedwithspatialattentionintheparietalcortexcoincidewiththeregionsassociatedwithfeaturesearch.Furthermore,thefrontaleyefield(FEF)locatedbilaterallyintheprefrontalcortex,playsacriticalroleinsaccadiceyemovementsandthecontrolofvisualattention.[48][49][50] Moreover,researchintomonkeysandsinglecellrecordingfoundthatthesuperiorcolliculusisinvolvedintheselectionofthetargetduringvisualsearchaswellastheinitiationofmovements.[51]Conversely,italsosuggestedthatactivationinthesuperiorcolliculusresultsfromdisengagingattention,ensuringthatthenextstimuluscanbeinternallyrepresented.Theabilitytodirectlyattendtoaparticularstimuliduringvisualsearchexperimentshasbeenlinkedtothepulvinarnucleus(locatedinthemidbrain)whileinhibitingattentiontounattendedstimuli.[52]Conversely,BenderandButter(1987)[53]foundthatduringtestingonmonkeys,noinvolvementofthepulvinarnucleuswasidentifiedduringvisualsearchtasks. ThereisevidencefortheV1SaliencyHypothesisthattheprimaryvisualcortex(V1)createsabottom-upsaliencymaptoguideattentionexogenously,[54][55]andthisV1saliencymapisreadoutbythesuperiorcolliculuswhichreceivesmonosynapticinputsfromV1. Evolution[edit] Thereisavarietyofspeculationabouttheoriginandevolutionofvisualsearchinhumans.Ithasbeenshownthatduringvisualexplorationofcomplexnaturalscenes,bothhumansandnonhumanprimatesmakehighlystereotypedeyemovements.[56]Furthermore,chimpanzeeshavedemonstratedimprovedperformanceinvisualsearchesforuprighthumanordogfaces,[57]suggestingthatvisualsearch(particularlywherethetargetisaface)isnotpeculiartohumansandthatitmaybeaprimaltrait.Researchhassuggestedthateffectivevisualsearchmayhavedevelopedasanecessaryskillforsurvival,wherebeingadeptatdetectingthreatsandidentifyingfoodwasessential.[58][59] HenriRousseau,JunglewithLionTheimportanceofevolutionarilyrelevantthreatstimuliwasdemonstratedinastudybyLoBueandDeLoache(2008)inwhichchildren(andadults)wereabletodetectsnakesmorerapidlythanothertargetsamongstdistractorstimuli.[60]However,someresearchersquestionwhetherevolutionarilyrelevantthreatstimuliaredetectedautomatically.[61] Facerecognition[edit] Overthepastfewdecadestherehavebeenvastamountsofresearchintofacerecognition,specifyingthatfacesendurespecializedprocessingwithinaregioncalledthefusiformfacearea(FFA)locatedinthemidfusiformgyrusinthetemporallobe.[62]Debatesareongoingwhetherbothfacesandobjectsaredetectedandprocessedindifferentsystemsandwhetherbothhavecategoryspecificregionsforrecognitionandidentification.[63][64]Muchresearchtodatefocusesontheaccuracyofthedetectionandthetimetakentodetectthefaceinacomplexvisualsearcharray.Whenfacesaredisplayedinisolation,uprightfacesareprocessedfasterandmoreaccuratelythaninvertedfaces,[65][66][67][68]butthiseffectwasobservedinnon-faceobjectsaswell.[69]Whenfacesaretobedetectedamonginvertedorjumbledfaces,reactiontimesforintactanduprightfacesincreaseasthenumberofdistractorswithinthearrayisincreased.[70][71][72]Hence,itisarguedthatthe'popout'theorydefinedinfeaturesearchisnotapplicableintherecognitionoffacesinsuchvisualsearchparadigm.Conversely,theoppositeeffecthasbeenarguedandwithinanaturalenvironmentalscene,the'popout'effectofthefaceissignificantlyshown.[73]Thiscouldbeduetoevolutionarydevelopmentsastheneedtobeabletoidentifyfacesthatappearthreateningtotheindividualorgroupisdeemedcriticalinthesurvivalofthefittest.[74]Morerecently,itwasfoundthatfacescanbeefficientlydetectedinavisualsearchparadigm,ifthedistractersarenon-faceobjects,[75][76][77]howeveritisdebatedwhetherthisapparent'popout'effectisdrivenbyahigh-levelmechanismorbylow-levelconfoundingfeatures.[78][79]Furthermore,patientswithdevelopmentalprosopagnosia,sufferingfromimpairedfaceidentification,generallydetectfacesnormally,suggestingthatvisualsearchforfacesisfacilitatedbymechanismsotherthantheface-identificationcircuitsofthefusiformfacearea.[80] Patientswithformsofdementiacanalsohavedeficitsinfacialrecognitionandtheabilitytorecognizehumanemotionsintheface.Inameta-analysisofnineteendifferentstudiescomparingnormaladultswithdementiapatientsintheirabilitiestorecognizefacialemotions,[81]thepatientswithfrontotemporaldementiawereseentohavealowerabilitytorecognizemanydifferentemotions.Thesepatientsweremuchlessaccuratethanthecontrolparticipants(andevenincomparisonwithAlzheimer'spatients)inrecognizingnegativeemotions,butwerenotsignificantlyimpairedinrecognizinghappiness.Angeranddisgustinparticularwerethemostdifficultforthedementiapatientstorecognize.[81] Facerecognitionisacomplexprocessthatisaffectedbymanyfactors,bothenvironmentalandindividuallyinternal.Otheraspectstobeconsideredincluderaceandcultureandtheireffectsonone'sabilitytorecognizefaces.[82]Somefactorssuchasthecross-raceeffectcaninfluenceone'sabilitytorecognizeandrememberfaces. Considerations[edit] Ageing[edit] Researchindicatesthatperformanceinconjunctivevisualsearchtaskssignificantlyimprovesduringchildhoodanddeclinesinlaterlife.[83]Morespecifically,youngadultshavebeenshowntohavefasterreactiontimesonconjunctivevisualsearchtasksthanbothchildrenandolderadults,buttheirreactiontimesweresimilarforfeaturevisualsearchtasks.[52]Thissuggeststhatthereissomethingabouttheprocessofintegratingvisualfeaturesorserialsearchingthatisdifficultforchildrenandolderadults,butnotforyoungadults.Studieshavesuggestednumerousmechanismsinvolvedinthisdifficultyinchildren,includingperipheralvisualacuity,[84]eyemovementability,[85]abilityofattentionalfocalmovement,[86]andtheabilitytodividevisualattentionamongmultipleobjects.[87] Studieshavesuggestedsimilarmechanismsinthedifficultyforolderadults,suchasagerelatedopticalchangesthatinfluenceperipheralacuity,[88]theabilitytomoveattentionoverthevisualfield,[89]theabilitytodisengageattention,[90]andtheabilitytoignoredistractors.[91] AstudybyLorenzo-Lópezetal.(2008)providesneurologicalevidenceforthefactthatolderadultshaveslowerreactiontimesduringconjunctivesearchescomparedtoyoungadults.Event-relatedpotentials(ERPs)showedlongerlatenciesandloweramplitudesinoldersubjectsthanyoungadultsattheP3component,whichisrelatedtoactivityoftheparietallobes.Thissuggeststheinvolvementoftheparietallobefunctionwithanage-relateddeclineinthespeedofvisualsearchtasks.Resultsalsoshowedthatolderadults,whencomparedtoyoungadults,hadsignificantlylessactivityintheanteriorcingulatecortexandmanylimbicandoccipitotemporalregionsthatareinvolvedinperformingvisualsearchtasks.[92] Alzheimer'sdisease[edit] ResearchhasfoundthatpeoplewithAlzheimer'sdisease(AD)aresignificantlyimpairedoverallinvisualsearchtasks.[93] Surprisingly,ADsufferersmanifestenhancedspatialcueing,butthisbenefitisonlyobtainedforcueswithhighspatialprecision.[94]Abnormalvisualattentionmayunderliecertainvisuospatialdifficultiesinpatientswith(AD).PeoplewithADhavehypometabolismandneuropathologyintheparietalcortex,andgiventheroleofparietalfunctionforvisualattention,patientswithADmayhavehemispatialneglect,whichmayresultindifficultywithdisengagingattentioninvisualsearch.[95] AnexperimentconductedbyTalesetal.(2000)[93]investigatedtheabilityofpatientswithADtoperformvarioustypesofvisualsearchtasks.Theirresultsshowedthatsearchrateson"pop-out"tasksweresimilarforbothADandcontrolgroups,however,peoplewithADsearchedsignificantlyslowercomparedtothecontrolgrouponaconjunctiontask.OneinterpretationoftheseresultsisthatthevisualsystemofADpatientshasaproblemwithfeaturebinding,suchthatitisunabletocommunicatethedifferentfeaturedescriptionsforthestimulusefficiently.[93]Bindingoffeaturesisthoughttobemediatedbyareasinthetemporalandparietalcortex,andtheseareasareknowntobeaffectedbyAD-relatedpathology. AnotherpossibilityfortheimpairmentofpeoplewithADonconjunctionsearchesisthattheremaybesomedamagetogeneralattentionalmechanismsinAD,andthereforeanyattention-relatedtaskwillbeaffected,includingvisualsearch.[93] Talesetal.(2000)detectedadoubledissociationwiththeirexperimentalresultsonADandvisualsearch.EarlierworkwascarriedoutonpatientswithParkinson'sdisease(PD)concerningtheimpairmentpatientswithPDhaveonvisualsearchtasks.[96][97]Inthosestudies,evidencewasfoundofimpairmentinPDpatientsonthe"pop-out"task,butnoevidencewasfoundontheimpairmentoftheconjunctiontask.Asdiscussed,ADpatientsshowtheexactoppositeoftheseresults:normalperformancewasseenonthe"pop-out"task,butimpairmentwasfoundontheconjunctiontask.ThisdoubledissociationprovidesevidencethatPDandADaffectthevisualpathwayindifferentways,andthatthepop-outtaskandtheconjunctiontaskaredifferentiallyprocessedwithinthatpathway. Autism[edit] Studieshaveconsistentlyshownthatautisticindividualsperformedbetterandwithlowerreactiontimesinfeatureandconjunctivevisualsearchtasksthanmatchedcontrolswithoutautism.[98][99]Severalexplanationsfortheseobservationshavebeensuggested. Onepossibilityisthatpeoplewithautismhaveenhancedperceptualcapacity.[99]Thismeansthatautisticindividualsareabletoprocesslargeramountsofperceptualinformation,allowingforsuperiorparallelprocessingandhencefastertargetlocation.[100]Second,autisticindividualsshowsuperiorperformanceindiscriminationtasksbetweensimilarstimuliandthereforemayhaveanenhancedabilitytodifferentiatebetweenitemsinthevisualsearchdisplay.[101]Athirdsuggestionisthatautisticindividualsmayhavestrongertop-downtargetexcitationprocessingandstrongerdistractorinhibitionprocessingthancontrols.[98] Keehnetal.(2008)usedanevent-relatedfunctionalmagneticresonanceimagingdesigntostudytheneurofunctionalcorrelatesofvisualsearchinautisticchildrenandmatchedcontrolsoftypicallydevelopingchildren.[102]Autisticchildrenshowedsuperiorsearchefficiencyandincreasedneuralactivationpatternsinthefrontal,parietal,andoccipitallobeswhencomparedtothetypicallydevelopingchildren.Thus,autisticindividuals'superiorperformanceonvisualsearchtasksmaybeduetoenhanceddiscriminationofitemsonthedisplay,whichisassociatedwithoccipitalactivity,andincreasedtop-downshiftsofvisualattention,whichisassociatedwiththefrontalandparietalareas. Consumerpsychology[edit] Inthepastdecade,therehasbeenextensiveresearchintohowcompaniescanmaximisesalesusingpsychologicaltechniquesderivedfromvisualsearchtodeterminehowproductsshouldbepositionedonshelves.PietersandWarlop(1999)[103]usedeyetrackingdevicestoassesssaccadesandfixationsofconsumerswhiletheyvisuallyscanned/searchedanarrayofproductsonasupermarketshelf.Theirresearchsuggeststhatconsumersspecificallydirecttheirattentiontoproductswitheye-catchingpropertiessuchasshape,colourorbrandname.Thiseffectisduetoapressuredvisualsearchwhereeyemovementsaccelerateandsaccadesminimise,thusresultingintheconsumer'squicklychoosingaproductwitha'popout'effect.Thisstudysuggeststhatefficientsearchisprimarilyused,concludingthatconsumersdonotfocusonitemsthatshareverysimilarfeatures.Themoredistinctormaximallyvisuallydifferentaproductisfromsurroundingproducts,themorelikelytheconsumeristonoticeit.Janiszewski(1998)[104]discussedtwotypesofconsumersearch.Onesearchtypeisgoaldirectedsearchtakingplacewhensomebodyusesstoredknowledgeoftheproductinordertomakeapurchasechoice.Thesecondisexploratorysearch.Thisoccurswhentheconsumerhasminimalpreviousknowledgeabouthowtochooseaproduct.Itwasfoundthatforexploratorysearch,individualswouldpaylessattentiontoproductsthatwereplacedinvisuallycompetitiveareassuchasthemiddleoftheshelfatanoptimalviewingheight.Thiswasprimarilyduetothecompetitioninattentionmeaningthatlessinformationwasmaintainedinvisualworkingmemoryfortheseproducts. 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