House sparrow - Wikipedia

The house sparrow (Passer domesticus) is a bird of the sparrow family Passeridae, found in most parts of the world. It is a small bird that has a typical ... Housesparrow FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Speciesofbird Housesparrow MaleinGermany FemaleinEngland Conservationstatus LeastConcern (IUCN3.1)[1] Scientificclassification Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Aves Order: Passeriformes Family: Passeridae Genus: Passer Species: P. domesticus Binomialname Passerdomesticus(Linnaeus,1758) RangeofP.domesticus  Resident  Non-breeding  Extantandintroduced(resident)  Possiblyextantandintroduced(resident)  Possiblyextinctandintroduced Synonyms[2] FringilladomesticaLinnaeus,1758 PasserindicusJardineandSelby,1835 PasserarboreusBonaparte,1850(preoccupied) PasserconfuciusBonaparte,1853 PasserrufidorsalisC.L.Brehm,1855 PasserengimaticusZarudny,1903 PasserahasvarKleinschmidt,1904 Thehousesparrow(Passerdomesticus)isabirdofthesparrowfamilyPasseridae,foundinmostpartsoftheworld.Itisasmallbirdthathasatypicallengthof16 cm(6.3 in)andamassof24–39.5 g(0.85–1.39 oz).Femalesandyoungbirdsarecolouredpalebrownandgrey,andmaleshavebrighterblack,white,andbrownmarkings.Oneofabout25 speciesinthegenusPasser,thehousesparrowisnativetomostofEurope,theMediterraneanBasin,andalargepartofAsia.Itsintentionaloraccidentalintroductionstomanyregions,includingpartsofAustralasia,Africa,andtheAmericas,makeitthemostwidelydistributedwildbird. Thehousesparrowisstronglyassociatedwithhumanhabitation,andcanliveinurbanorruralsettings.Thoughfoundinwidelyvariedhabitatsandclimates,ittypicallyavoidsextensivewoodlands,grasslands,anddesertsawayfromhumandevelopment.Itfeedsmostlyontheseedsofgrainsandweeds,butitisanopportunisticeaterandcommonlyeatsinsectsandmanyotherfoods.Itspredatorsincludedomesticcats,hawks,andmanyotherpredatorybirdsandmammals. Becauseofitsnumbers,ubiquity,andassociationwithhumansettlements,thehousesparrowisculturallyprominent.Itisextensively,andusuallyunsuccessfully,persecutedasanagriculturalpest.Ithasalsooftenbeenkeptasapet,aswellasbeingafooditemandasymboloflust,sexualpotency,commonness,andvulgarity.Thoughitiswidespreadandabundant,itsnumbershavedeclinedinsomeareas.Theanimal'sconservationstatusislistedasleastconcernontheIUCNRedList. Anaudiorecordingofahousesparrow Contents 1Description 1.1Measurementsandshape 1.2Plumage 1.3Voice 1.4Variation 1.5Identification 2Taxonomyandsystematics 2.1Names 2.2Taxonomy 2.3Subspecies 3Distributionandhabitat 3.1Introductions 3.2Habitat 4Behaviour 4.1Socialbehaviour 4.2Sleepandroosting 4.3Bodymaintenance 4.4Feeding 4.5Locomotion 4.6Dispersalandmigration 4.7Breeding 4.7.1Nesting 4.7.2Eggsandyoung 5Survival 5.1Predation 5.2Parasitesanddisease 6Physiology 7Relationshipswithhumans 7.1Status 7.2Culturalassociations 8Seealso 9References 9.1Workscited 10Externallinks Description[edit] Measurementsandshape[edit] Thehousesparrowistypicallyabout16 cm(6.3 in)long,rangingfrom14to18 cm(5.5to7.1 in).[3]Thehousesparrowisacompactbirdwithafullchestandalarge,roundedhead.Itsbillisstoutandconicalwithaculmenlengthof1.1–1.5 cm(0.43–0.59 in),stronglybuiltasanadaptationforeatingseeds.Itstailisshort,at5.2–6.5 cm(2.0–2.6 in)long.Thewingchordis6.7–8.9 cm(2.6–3.5 in),andthetarsusis1.6–2.5 cm(0.63–0.98 in).[4][5]Wingspanrangesfrom19–25centimetres(7.5–9.8 in).[4] Inmass,thehousesparrowrangesfrom24to39.5 g(0.85to1.39 oz).Femalesusuallyareslightlysmallerthanmales.ThemedianmassontheEuropeancontinentforbothsexesisabout30 g(1.1 oz),andinmoresoutherlysubspeciesisaround26 g(0.92 oz).Youngerbirdsaresmaller,malesarelargerduringthewinter,andfemalesarelargerduringthebreedingseason.Birdsathigherlatitudes,colderclimates,andsometimeshigheraltitudesarelarger(underBergmann'srule),bothbetweenandwithinsubspecies.[6][7][8][9] Plumage[edit] Theplumageofthehousesparrowismostlydifferentshadesofgreyandbrown.Thesexesexhibitstrongdimorphism:thefemaleismostlybuffishaboveandbelow,whilethemalehasboldlycolouredheadmarkings,areddishback,andgreyunderparts.[8]Themalehasadarkgreycrownfromthetopofitsbilltoitsback,andchestnutbrownflankingitscrownonthesidesofitshead.Ithasblackarounditsbill,onitsthroat,andonthespacesbetweenitsbillandeyes(lores).Ithasasmallwhitestripebetweentheloresandcrownandsmallwhitespotsimmediatelybehindtheeyes(postoculars),withblackpatchesbelowandabovethem.Theunderpartsarepalegreyorwhite,asarethecheeks,earcoverts,andstripesatthebaseofthehead.Theupperbackandmantleareawarmbrown,withbroadblackstreaks,whilethelowerback,rumpanduppertailcovertsaregreyishbrown.[10] Themaleisdullerinfreshnonbreedingplumage,withwhitishtipsonmanyfeathers.Wearandpreeningexposemanyofthebrightbrownandblackmarkings,includingmostoftheblackthroatandchestpatch,calledthe"bib"or"badge".[10][11]Thebadgeisvariableinwidthandgeneralsize,andmaysignalsocialstatusorfitness.Thishypothesishasledtoa"veritable'cottageindustry'"ofstudies,whichhaveonlyconclusivelyshownthatpatchesincreaseinsizewithage.[12]Themale'sbillisblackinthebreedingseasonanddarkgreyduringtherestoftheyear.[3] Headsofamale(left)andanimmatureorfemale(right) Thefemalehasnoblackmarkingsorgreycrown.Itsupperpartsandheadarebrownwithdarkerstreaksaroundthemantleandadistinctpalesupercilium.Itsunderpartsarepalegrey-brown.Thefemale'sbillisbrownish-greyandbecomesdarkerinbreedingplumageapproachingtheblackofthemale'sbill.[3][10] Juvenilesaresimilartotheadultfemale,butdeeperbrownbelowandpalerabove,withpalerandlessdefinedsupercilia.Juvenileshavebroaderbufffeatheredges,andtendtohavelooser,scruffierplumage,likemoultingadults.Juvenilemalestendtohavedarkerthroatsandwhitepostocularslikeadultmales,whilejuvenilefemalestendtohavewhitethroats.However,juvenilescannotbereliablysexedbyplumage:somejuvenilemaleslackanymarkingsoftheadultmale,andsomejuvenilefemaleshavemalefeatures.Thebillsofyoungbirdsarelightyellowtostraw,palerthanthefemale'sbill.Immaturemaleshavepalerversionsoftheadultmale'smarkings,whichcanbeveryindistinctinfreshplumage.Bytheirfirstbreedingseason,youngbirdsgenerallyareindistinguishablefromotheradults,thoughtheymaystillbepalerduringtheirfirstyear.[3][10] Voice[edit] Mosthousesparrowvocalisationsarevariationsonitsshortandincessantchirpingcall.Transcribedaschirrup,tschilp,orphilip,thisnoteismadeasacontactcallbyflockingorrestingbirds,orbymalestoproclaimnestownershipandinvitepairing.Inthebreedingseason,themalegivesthiscallrepetitively,withemphasisandspeed,butnotmuchrhythm,formingwhatisdescribedeitherasasongoran"ecstaticcall"similartoasong.[13][14]Youngbirdsalsogiveatruesong,especiallyincaptivity,awarblingsimilartothatoftheEuropeangreenfinch.[15] Aggressivemalesgiveatrilledversionoftheircall,transcribedas"chur-chur-r-r-it-it-it-it".Thiscallisalsousedbyfemalesinthebreedingseason,toestablishdominanceovermaleswhiledisplacingthemtofeedyoungorincubateeggs.[16]Housesparrowsgiveanasalalarmcall,thebasicsoundofwhichistranscribedasquer,andashrillchreecallingreatdistress.[17]Anothervocalisationisthe"appeasementcall",asoftqueegiventoinhibitaggression,usuallygivenbetweenbirdsofamatedpair.[16]Thesevocalisationsarenotuniquetothehousesparrow,butareshared,withsmallvariations,byallsparrows.[18] Variation[edit] AnimmatureoftheIndiansubspecies(P.d.indicus)inRajasthan,India Somevariationisseeninthe12subspeciesofhousesparrows,whicharedividedintotwogroups,theOrientalP.d.indicusgroup,andthePalaearcticP.d.domesticusgroup.BirdsoftheP.d.domesticusgrouphavegreycheeks,whileP.d.indicusgroupbirdshavewhitecheeks,aswellasbrightcolourationonthecrown,asmallerbill,andalongerblackbib.[19]ThesubspeciesP.d.tingitanusdifferslittlefromthenominatesubspecies,exceptinthewornbreedingplumageofthemale,inwhichtheheadisspeckledwithblackandunderpartsarepaler.[20]P.d.balearoibericusisslightlypalerthanthenominate,butdarkerthanP.d.bibilicus.[21]P.d.bibilicusispalerthanmostsubspecies,buthasthegreycheeksofP.d.domesticusgroupbirds.ThesimilarP.d.persicusispalerandsmaller,andP.d.niloticusisnearlyidenticalbutsmaller.OfthelesswidespreadP.d.indicusgroupsubspecies,P.d.hyrcanusislargerthanP.d.indicus,P.d.hufufaeispaler,P.d.bactrianusislargerandpaler,andP.d.parkiniislargeranddarkerwithmoreblackonthebreastthananyothersubspecies.[20][22][23] Identification[edit] Thehousesparrowcanbeconfusedwithanumberofotherseed-eatingbirds,especiallyitsrelativesinthegenusPasser.Manyoftheserelativesaresmaller,withanappearancethatisneateror"cuter",aswiththeDeadSeasparrow.[24]Thedull-colouredfemalecanoftennotbedistinguishedfromotherfemales,andisnearlyidenticaltothoseoftheSpanishandItaliansparrows.[10]TheEurasiantreesparrowissmallerandslendererwithachestnutcrownandablackpatchoneachcheek.[25]ThemaleSpanishsparrowandItaliansparrowaredistinguishedbytheirchestnutcrowns.TheSindsparrowisverysimilarbutsmaller,withlessblackonthemale'sthroatandadistinctpalesuperciliumonthefemale.[10] Taxonomyandsystematics[edit] Names[edit] Thehousesparrowwasamongthefirstanimalstobegivenascientificnameinthemodernsystemofbiologicalclassification,sinceitwasdescribedbyCarlLinnaeus,inthe175810theditionofSystemaNaturae.ItwasdescribedfromatypespecimencollectedinSweden,withthenameFringilladomestica.[26][27]Later,thegenusnameFringillacametobeusedonlyforthecommonchaffinchanditsrelatives,andthehousesparrowhasusuallybeenplacedinthegenusPassercreatedbyFrenchzoologistMathurinJacquesBrissonin1760.[28][29] Thebird'sscientificnameanditsusualEnglishnamehavethesamemeaning.TheLatinwordpasser,liketheEnglishword"sparrow",isatermforsmallactivebirds,comingfromarootwordreferringtospeed.[30][31]TheLatinworddomesticusmeans"belongingtothehouse",likethecommonnameareferencetoitsassociationwithhumans.[32]ThehousesparrowisalsocalledbyanumberofalternativeEnglishnames,includingEnglishsparrow,chieflyinNorthAmerica;[33][34]andIndiansparroworIndianhousesparrow,forthebirdsoftheIndiansubcontinentandCentralAsia.[35]Dialectalnamesincludesparr,sparrer,spadger,spadgick,andphilip,mainlyinsouthernEngland;spugandspuggy,mainlyinnorthernEngland;spurandsprig,mainlyinScotland;[36][37]andspatzieorspotsie,fromtheGermanSpatz,inNorthAmerica.[38] Taxonomy[edit] ApairofItaliansparrows,inRome ThegenusPassercontainsabout25species,dependingontheauthority,26accordingtotheHandbookoftheBirdsoftheWorld.[39]MostPasserspeciesaredull-colouredbirdswithshort,squaretailsandstubby,conicalbeaks,between11and18 cm(4.3and7.1 in)long.[8][40]MitochondrialDNAstudiessuggestthatspeciationinthegenusoccurredduringthePleistoceneandearlier,whileotherevidencesuggestsspeciationoccurred25,000to15,000yearsago.[41][42]WithinPasser,thehousesparrowispartofthe"Palaearcticblack-bibbedsparrows"groupandacloserelativeoftheMediterranean"willowsparrows".[39][43] ThetaxonomyofthehousesparrowanditsMediterraneanrelativesiscomplicated.Thecommontypeof"willowsparrow"istheSpanishsparrow,whichresemblesthehousesparrowinmanyrespects.[44]Itfrequentlypreferswetterhabitatsthanthehousesparrow,anditisoftencolonialandnomadic.[45]InmostoftheMediterranean,oneorbothspeciesoccur,withsomedegreeofhybridisation.[46]InNorthAfrica,thetwospecieshybridiseextensively,forminghighlyvariablemixedpopulationswithafullrangeofcharactersfrompurehousesparrowstopureSpanishsparrows.[47][48][49] InmostofItaly,thebreedingspeciesistheItaliansparrow,whichhasanappearanceintermediatebetweenthoseofthehouseandSpanishsparrows.Itsspecificstatusandoriginarethesubjectofmuchdebate,butitmaybeacaseoflong-agohybridspeciation.[48][50]IntheAlps,theItaliansparrowintergradesoveranarrowroughly20 km(12 mi)stripwiththehousesparrow,andsomehousesparrowsmigrateintotheItaliansparrow'srangeinwinter.[51]OntheMediterraneanislandsofMalta,Gozo,Crete,Rhodes,andKarpathos,otherapparentlyintermediatebirdsareofunknownstatus.[48][52][53] Subspecies[edit] AmaleofthesubspeciesP.d.balearoibericusinIstanbul AmaleofthemigratorysubspeciesP.d.bactrianus(withaEurasiantreesparrowandyounghouseorSpanishsparrows)inBaikonur,Kazakhstan Alargenumberofsubspecieshavebeennamed,ofwhich12wererecognisedintheHandbookoftheBirdsoftheWorld.Thesesubspeciesaredividedintotwogroups,thePalaearcticP.d.domesticusgroup,andtheOrientalP.d.indicusgroup.[39]SeveralMiddleEasternsubspecies,includingP.d.biblicus,aresometimesconsideredathird,intermediategroup.ThesubspeciesP.d.indicuswasdescribedasaspecies,andwasconsideredtobedistinctbymanyornithologistsduringthe19thcentury.[19] MigratorybirdsofthesubspeciesP.d.bactrianusintheP.d.indicusgroupwererecordedoverlappingwithP.d.domesticusbirdswithouthybridisinginthe1970s,sotheSovietscientistsEdwardI.GavrilovandM.N.KorelovproposedtheseparationoftheP.d.indicusgroupasaseparatespecies.[28][54]However,P.d.indicusgroupandP.d.domesticusgroupbirdsintergradeinalargepartofIran,sothissplitisrarelyrecognised.[39] InNorthAmerica,housesparrowpopulationsaremoredifferentiatedthanthoseinEurope.[7]Thisvariationfollowspredictablepatterns,withbirdsathigherlatitudesbeinglargeranddarkerandthoseinaridareasbeingsmallerandpaler.[8][55][56]However,howmuchthisiscausedbyevolutionorbyenvironmentisnotclear.[57][58][59][60]SimilarobservationshavebeenmadeinNewZealand[61]andinSouthAfrica.[62]Theintroducedhousesparrowpopulationsmaybedistinctenoughtomeritsubspeciesstatus,especiallyinNorthAmericaandsouthernAfrica,[39]andAmericanornithologistHarryChurchOberholserevengavethesubspeciesnameP.d.plecticustothepalerbirdsofwesternNorthAmerica.[55] P.d.domesticusgroup P.d.domesticusLinnaeus,1758,thenominatesubspecies,isfoundinmostofEurope,acrossnorthernAsiatoSakhalinandKamchatka.Itisthemostwidelyintroducedsubspecies.[26] P.d.balearoibericusvonJordans,1923,describedfromMajorca,isfoundintheBalearicIslands,southernFrance,theBalkans,andAnatolia.[39] P.d.tingitanus(Loche,1867),describedfromAlgeria,isfoundintheMaghrebfromAjdabiyainLibyatoBéniAbbèsinAlgeria,andtoMorocco'sAtlanticcoast.IthybridisesextensivelywiththeSpanishsparrow,especiallyintheeasternpartofitsrange.[63] P.d.niloticusNicollandBonhote,1909,describedfromFaiyum,Egypt,isfoundalongtheNilenorthofWadiHalfa,Sudan.ItintergradeswithbibilicusintheSinai,andwithrufidorsalisinanarrowzonearoundWadiHalfa.IthasbeenrecordedinSomaliland.[63][64] P.d.persicusZarudnyandKudashev,1916,describedfromtheKarunRiverinKhuzestan,Iran,isfoundinthewesternandcentralIransouthoftheAlborzmountains,intergradingwithindicusineasternIran,andAfghanistan.[39][63][65] P.d.biblicusHartert,1910,describedfromPalestine,isfoundintheMiddleEastfromCyprusandsoutheasternTurkeytotheSinaiinthewestandfromAzerbaijantoKuwaitintheeast.[39][63] P.d.indicusgroup P.d.hyrcanusZarudnyandKudashev,1916,describedfromGorgan,Iran,isfoundalongthesoutherncoastoftheCaspianSeafromGorgantosoutheasternAzerbaijan.ItintergradeswithP.d.persicusintheAlborzmountains,andwithP.d.bibilicustothewest.Itisthesubspecieswiththesmallestrange.[39][63] P.d.bactrianusZarudnyandKudashev,1916,describedfromTashkent,isfoundinsouthernKazakhstantotheTianShanandnorthernIranandAfghanistan.ItintergradeswithpersicusinBaluchistanandwithindicusacrosscentralAfghanistan.Unlikemostotherhousesparrowsubspecies,itisalmostentirelymigratory,winteringintheplainsofthenorthernIndiansubcontinent.Itisfoundinopencountryratherthaninsettlements,whichareoccupiedbytheEurasiantreesparrowinitsrange.[39][63]ThereisanexceptionalrecordfromSudan.[64] P.d.parkiniWhistler,1920,describedfromSrinagar,Kashmir,isfoundinthewesternHimalayasfromthePamirMountainstosoutheasternNepal.Itismigratory,likeP.d.bactrianus.[19][63] P.d.indicusJardineandSelby,1831,describedfromBangalore,isfoundintheIndiansubcontinentsouthoftheHimalayas,inSriLanka,westernSoutheastAsia,easternIran,southwesternArabiaandsouthernIsrael.[19][39][63] P.d.hufufaeTicehurstandCheeseman,1924,describedfromHofufinSaudiArabia,isfoundinnortheasternArabia.[63][66] P.d.rufidorsalisC.L.Brehm,1855,describedfromKhartoum,Sudan,isfoundintheNilevalleyfromWadiHalfasouthtoRenkinnorthernSouthSudan,[63][64]andineasternSudan,northernEthiopiatotheRedSeacoastinEritrea.[39]IthasalsobeenintroducedtoMohéliintheComoros.[67] Distributionandhabitat[edit] ByanestinasaguarocactusinArizona Housesparrowsperchingonaroof,duringwinterintheSouthernAlpsofNewZealand ThehousesparroworiginatedintheMiddleEastandspread,alongwithagriculture,tomostofEurasiaandpartsofNorthAfrica.[68]Sincethemid-19thcentury,ithasreachedmostoftheworld,chieflyduetodeliberateintroductions,butalsothroughnaturalandshipbornedispersal.[69]ItsintroducedrangeencompassesmostofNorthAmerica,CentralAmerica,southernSouthAmerica,southernAfrica,partofWestAfrica,Australia,NewZealand,andislandsthroughouttheworld.[70]IthasgreatlyextendeditsrangeinnorthernEurasiasincethe1850s,[71]andcontinuestodoso,aswasshownbyitscolonisationaround1990ofIcelandandRishiriIsland,Japan.[72]Theextentofitsrangemakesitthemostwidelydistributedwildbirdontheplanet.[70] Introductions[edit] MaleandfemaleinNewYorkCity,wheretheywereintroducedin1852 Thehousesparrowhasbecomehighlysuccessfulinmostpartsoftheworldwhereithasbeenintroduced.Thisismostlyduetoitsearlyadaptationtolivingwithhumans,anditsadaptabilitytoawiderangeofconditions.[73][74]Otherfactorsmayincludeitsrobustimmuneresponse,comparedtotheEurasiantreesparrow.[75]Whereintroduced,itcanextenditsrangequickly,sometimesatarateover230 km(140 mi)peryear.[76]Inmanypartsoftheworld,ithasbeencharacterisedasapest,andposesathreattonativebirds.[77][78]Afewintroductionshavediedoutorbeenoflimitedsuccess,suchasthosetoGreenlandandCapeVerde.[79] ThefirstofmanysuccessfulintroductionstoNorthAmericaoccurredwhenbirdsfromEnglandwerereleasedinNewYorkCity,in1852,[80][81]intendedtocontroltheravagesofthelindenmoth.[82]InNorthAmerica,thehousesparrownowoccursfromtheNorthwestTerritoriesofCanadatosouthernPanama,[4]anditisoneofthemostabundantbirdsofthecontinent.[77]ThehousesparrowwasfirstintroducedtoAustraliain1863atMelbourneandiscommonthroughouttheeasternpartofthecontinentasfarnorthasCapeYork,[79]buthasbeenpreventedfromestablishingitselfinWesternAustralia,[83]whereeveryhousesparrowfoundinthestateiskilled.[84]HousesparrowswereintroducedinNewZealandin1859,andfromtherereachedmanyofthePacificislands,includingHawaii.[85] InsouthernAfrica,birdsofboththeEuropeansubspecies(P.d.domesticus)andtheIndiansubspecies(P.d.indicus)wereintroducedaround1900.BirdsofP.d.domesticusancestryareconfinedtoafewtowns,whileP.d.indicusbirdshavespreadrapidly,reachingTanzaniainthe1980s.Despitethisrapidspread,nativerelativessuchastheCapesparrowalsooccurandthriveinurbanhabitats.[79][86]InSouthAmerica,itwasfirstintroducednearBuenosAiresaround1870,andquicklybecamecommoninmostofthesouthernpartofthecontinent.ItnowoccursalmostcontinuouslyfromTierradelFuegotothefringesoftheAmazonbasin,withisolatedpopulationsasfarnorthascoastalVenezuela.[79][87][88] Habitat[edit] Thehousesparrowiscloselyassociatedwithhumanhabitationandcultivation.[89]Itisnotanobligatecommensalofhumansassomehavesuggested:birdsofthemigratoryCentralAsiansubspeciesusuallybreedawayfromhumansinopencountry,[90]andbirdselsewhereareoccasionallyfoundawayfromhumans.[89][91][92]Theonlyterrestrialhabitatsthatthehousesparrowdoesnotinhabitaredenseforestandtundra.Welladaptedtolivingaroundhumans,itfrequentlylivesandevenbreedsindoors,especiallyinfactories,warehouses,andzoos.[89]IthasbeenrecordedbreedinginanEnglishcoalmine640 m(2,100 ft)belowground,[93]andfeedingontheEmpireStateBuilding'sobservationdeckatnight.[94]Itreachesitsgreatestdensitiesinurbancentres,butitsreproductivesuccessisgreaterinsuburbs,whereinsectsaremoreabundant.[89][95]Onalargerscale,itismostabundantinwheat-growingareassuchastheMidwesternUnitedStates.[96] Ittoleratesavarietyofclimates,butprefersdrierconditions,especiallyinmoisttropicalclimates.[79][89]Ithasseveraladaptationstodryareas,includingahighsalttolerance[97]andanabilitytosurvivewithoutwaterbyingestingberries.[98]InmostofeasternAsia,thehousesparrowisentirelyabsent,replacedbytheEurasiantreesparrow.[99]Wherethesetwospeciesoverlap,thehousesparrowisusuallymorecommonthantheEurasiantreesparrow,butonespeciesmayreplacetheotherinamannerthatornithologistMaudDoriaHavilanddescribedas"random,orevencapricious".[100]Inmostofitsrange,thehousesparrowisextremelycommon,despitesomedeclines,[1]butinmarginalhabitatssuchasrainforestormountainranges,itsdistributioncanbespotty.[89] Behaviour[edit] PlaymediaThehousesparrowoftenbathesinwater(atleft)orindust(atright) Socialbehaviour[edit] Thehousesparrowisaverysocialbird.Itisgregariousduringallseasonswhenfeeding,oftenformingflockswithotherspeciesofbirds.[101]Itroostscommunallyandwhilebreedingnestsareusuallygroupedtogetherinclumps.Housesparrowsalsoengageinsocialactivitiessuchasdustorwaterbathingand"socialsinging",inwhichbirdscalltogetherinbushes.[102][103]Thehousesparrowfeedsmostlyontheground,butitflocksintreesandbushes.[102]Atfeedingstationsandnests,femalehousesparrowsaredominantdespitetheirsmallersize,andtheycanfightovermalesinthebreedingseason.[104][105] Sleepandroosting[edit] Housesparrowssleepwiththebilltuckedunderneaththescapularfeathers.[106]Outsideofthereproductiveseason,theyoftenroostcommunallyintreesorshrubs.Muchcommunalchirpingoccursbeforeandafterthebirdssettleintheroostintheevening,aswellasbeforethebirdsleavetheroostinthemorning.[102]Somecongregatingsitesseparatefromtheroostmaybevisitedbythebirdspriortosettlinginforthenight.[107] Bodymaintenance[edit] Dustorwaterbathingiscommonandoftenoccursingroups.Antingisrare.[108]Headscratchingisdonewiththelegoverthedroopedwing.[107] Feeding[edit] Afemalehousesparrowfeedingonricegrains Asanadult,thehousesparrowmostlyfeedsontheseedsofgrainsandweeds,butitisopportunisticandadaptable,andeatswhateverfoodsareavailable.[109]Intownsandcities,itoftenscavengesforfoodingarbagecontainersandcongregatesintheoutdoorsofrestaurantsandothereatingestablishmentstofeedonleftoverfoodandcrumbs.Itcanperformcomplextaskstoobtainfood,suchasopeningautomaticdoorstoentersupermarkets,[110]clingingtohotelwallstowatchvacationersontheirbalconies,[111]andnectarrobbingkowhaiflowers.[112]Incommonwithmanyotherbirds,thehousesparrowrequiresgrittodigesttheharderitemsinitsdiet.Gritcanbeeitherstone,oftengrainsofmasonry,ortheshellsofeggsorsnails;oblongandroughgrainsarepreferred.[113][114] Severalstudiesofthehousesparrowintemperateagriculturalareashavefoundtheproportionofseedsinitsdiettobeabout90%.[109][115][116]Itwilleatalmostanyseeds,butwhereithasachoice,itprefersoatsandwheat.[117]Inurbanareas,thehousesparrowfeedslargelyonfoodprovideddirectlyorindirectlybyhumans,suchasbread,thoughitprefersrawseeds.[116][118]Thehousesparrowalsoeatssomeplantmatterbesidesseeds,includingbuds,berries,andfruitssuchasgrapesandcherries.[98][116]Intemperateareas,thehousesparrowhasanunusualhabitoftearingflowers,especiallyyellowones,inthespring.[119] Animalsformanotherimportantpartofthehousesparrow'sdiet,chieflyinsects,ofwhichbeetles,caterpillars,dipteranflies,andaphidsareespeciallyimportant.Variousnoninsectarthropodsareeaten,asaremolluscsandcrustaceanswhereavailable,earthworms,andevenvertebratessuchaslizardsandfrogs.[109]Younghousesparrowsarefedmostlyoninsectsuntilabout15daysafterhatching.[120]Theyarealsogivensmallquantitiesofseeds,spiders,andgrit.Inmostplaces,grasshoppersandcricketsarethemostabundantfoodsofnestlings.[121]Truebugs,ants,sawflies,andbeetlesarealsoimportant,buthousesparrowstakeadvantageofwhateverfoodsareabundanttofeedtheiryoung.[121][122][123]Housesparrowshavebeenobservedstealingpreyfromotherbirds,includingAmericanrobins.[4] Thegutmicrobiotaofhousesparrowsdiffersbetweenchicksandadults,withProteobacteriadecreasinginchickswhentheygettoaround9daysold,whilsttherelativeabundanceofFirmicutesincrease.[124] Locomotion[edit] Thehousesparrow'sflightisdirect(notundulating)andflapping,averaging45.5 km/h(28.3 mph)andabout15 wingbeatspersecond.[107][125]Ontheground,thehousesparrowtypicallyhopsratherthanwalks.Itcanswimwhenpressedtodosobypursuitfrompredators.Captivebirdshavebeenrecordeddivingandswimmingshortdistancesunderwater.[107] Dispersalandmigration[edit] Mosthousesparrowsdonotmovemorethanafewkilometresduringtheirlifetimes.However,limitedmigrationoccursinallregions.Someyoungbirdsdisperselongdistances,especiallyoncoasts,andmountainbirdsmovetolowerelevationsinwinter.[102][126][127]Twosubspecies,P.d.bactrianusandP.d.parkini,arepredominantlymigratory.Unlikethebirdsinsedentarypopulationsthatmigrate,birdsofmigratorysubspeciesprepareformigrationbyputtingonweight.[102] Breeding[edit] ApairoftheIndiansubspecies(P.d.indicus)matinginKolkata Housesparrowscanbreedinthebreedingseasonimmediatelyfollowingtheirhatching,andsometimesattempttodoso.Somebirdsbreedingforthefirsttimeintropicalareasareonlyafewmonthsoldandstillhavejuvenileplumage.[128]Birdsbreedingforthefirsttimearerarelysuccessfulinraisingyoung,andreproductivesuccessincreaseswithage,asolderbirdsbreedearlierinthebreedingseason,andfledgemoreyoung.[129]Asthebreedingseasonapproaches,hormonereleasestriggerenormousincreasesinthesizeofthesexualorgansandchangesindaylengthleadmalestostartcallingbynestingsites.[130][131]Thetimingofmatingandegg-layingvariesgeographically,andbetweenspecificlocationsandyearsbecauseasufficientsupplyofinsectsisneededforeggformationandfeedingnestlings.[132] Malestakeupnestingsitesbeforethebreedingseason,byfrequentlycallingbesidethem.Unmatedmalesstartnestconstructionandcallparticularlyfrequentlytoattractfemales.Whenafemaleapproachesamaleduringthisperiod,themaledisplaysbymovingupanddownwhiledroopingandshiveringhiswings,pushinguphishead,raisingandspreadinghistail,andshowinghisbib.[132]Malesmaytrytomatewithfemaleswhilecallingordisplaying.Inresponse,afemalewilladoptathreateningpostureandattackamalebeforeflyingaway,pursuedbythemale.Themaledisplaysinfrontofher,attractingothermales,whichalsopursueanddisplaytothefemale.Thisgroupdisplayusuallydoesnotimmediatelyresultincopulations.[132]Othermalesusuallydonotcopulatewiththefemale.[133][134]Copulationistypicallyinitiatedbythefemalegivingasoftdee-dee-deecalltothemale.Birdsofapaircopulatefrequentlyuntilthefemaleislayingeggs,andthemalemountsthefemalerepeatedlyeachtimeapairmates.[132] Thehousesparrowismonogamous,andtypicallymatesforlife,butbirdsfrompairsoftenengageinextra-paircopulations,soabout15%ofhousesparrowfledglingsareunrelatedtotheirmother'smate.[135]Malehousesparrowsguardtheirmatescarefullytoavoidbeingcuckolded,andmostextra-paircopulationoccursawayfromnestsites.[133][136]Malesmaysometimeshavemultiplemates,andbigamyismostlylimitedbyaggressionbetweenfemales.[137]Manybirdsdonotfindanestandamate,andinsteadmayserveashelpersaroundthenestformatedpairs,arolewhichincreasesthechancesofbeingchosentoreplacealostmate.Lostmatesofbothsexescanbereplacedquicklyduringthebreedingseason.[133][138]Theformationofapairandthebondbetweenthetwobirdsistiedtotheholdingofanestsite,thoughpairedhousesparrowscanrecogniseeachotherawayfromthenest.[132] Nesting[edit] FemalebringingfoodforyounginanestmadeinatreeholeinCalifornia. Sparrowinaventilator Nestsitesarevaried,thoughcavitiesarepreferred.Nestsaremostfrequentlybuiltintheeavesandothercrevicesofhouses.Holesincliffsandbanks,andtreehollows,arealsoused.[139][140]Asparrowsometimesexcavatesitsownnestsinsandybanksorrottenbranches,butmorefrequentlyusesthenestsofotherbirdssuchasthoseofswallowsinbanksandcliffs,andoldtreecavitynests.Itusuallyusesdesertednests,thoughsometimesitusurpsactiveonesbydrivingawayorkillingtheoccupants.[139][141]TreehollowsaremorecommonlyusedinNorthAmericathaninEurope,[139]puttingthesparrowsincompetitionwithbluebirdsandotherNorthAmericancavitynesters,andtherebycontributingtotheirpopulationdeclines.[77] Especiallyinwarmerareas,thehousesparrowmaybuilditsnestsintheopen,onthebranchesoftrees,especiallyevergreensandhawthorns,orinthenestsoflargebirdssuchasstorksormagpies.[132][139][142]Inopennestingsites,breedingsuccesstendstobelower,sincebreedingbeginslateandthenestcaneasilybedestroyedordamagedbystorms.[139][143]Lesscommonnestingsitesincludestreetlightsandneonsigns,favouredfortheirwarmth;andtheoldopen-toppednestsofothersongbirds,whicharethendomedover.[139][140] Usuallythecouplesrepeatcopulationmanyatimesandeverycopulationisfollowedbysomebreakof3to4secondsandinthattimebothpairchangetheirpositionbysomedistance. Thenestisusuallydomed,thoughitmaylackaroofinenclosedsites.[139]Ithasanouterlayerofstemsandroots,amiddlelayerofdeadgrassandleaves,andaliningoffeathers,aswellasofpaperandothersoftmaterials.[140]Neststypicallyhaveexternaldimensionsof20×30 cm(8×12 in),[132]buttheirsizevariesgreatly.[140]Thebuildingofthenestisinitiatedbytheunmatedmalewhiledisplayingtofemales.Thefemaleassistsinbuilding,butislessactivethanthemale.[139]Somenestbuildingoccursthroughouttheyear,especiallyaftermoultinautumn.Incolderareashousesparrowsbuildspeciallycreatedroostnests,orroostinstreetlights,toavoidlosingheatduringthewinter.[139][144]Housesparrowsdonotholdterritories,buttheydefendtheirnestsaggressivelyagainstintrudersofthesamesex.[139] Housesparrows'nestssupportawiderangeofscavenginginsects,includingnestfliessuchasNeottiophilumpraestum,Protocalliphorablowflies,[145][146]andover1,400speciesofbeetle.[147] Eggsandyoung[edit] Eggsinanest Clutchesusuallycomprisefourorfiveeggs,thoughnumbersfromoneto10havebeenrecorded.Atleasttwoclutchesareusuallylaid,anduptosevenayearmaybelaidinthetropicsorfourayearintemperatelatitudes.Whenfewerclutchesarelaidinayear,especiallyathigherlatitudes,thenumberofeggsperclutchisgreater.CentralAsianhousesparrows,whichmigrateandhaveonlyoneclutchayear,average6.5 eggsinaclutch.Clutchsizeisalsoaffectedbyenvironmentalandseasonalconditions,femaleage,andbreedingdensity.[148][149] Ahatchling Someintraspecificbroodparasitismoccurs,andinstancesofunusuallylargenumbersofeggsinanestmaybetheresultoffemaleslayingeggsinthenestsoftheirneighbours.Suchforeigneggsaresometimesrecognisedandejectedbyfemales.[148][150]Thehousesparrowisavictimofinterspecificbroodparasites,butonlyrarely,sinceitusuallyusesnestsinholestoosmallforparasitestoenter,anditfeedsitsyoungfoodsunsuitableforyoungparasites.[151][152]Inturn,thehousesparrowhasoncebeenrecordedasabroodparasiteoftheAmericancliffswallow.[150][153] Ajuvenile,showingitspinkbillandobviousnestlinggape—thesoft,swollenbase,whichbecomesharderandlessswollenasthebirdmatures Theeggsarewhite,bluishwhite,orgreenishwhite,spottedwithbrownorgrey.[107]Subellipticalinshape,[8]theyrangefrom20to22 mm(0.79to0.87 in)inlengthand14to16 mm(0.55to0.63 in)inwidth,[4]haveanaveragemassof2.9 g(0.10 oz),[154]andanaveragesurfaceareaof9.18 cm2(1.423 in2).[155]Eggsfromthetropicalsubspeciesaredistinctlysmaller.[156][157]Eggsbegintodevelopwiththedepositionofyolkintheovaryafewdaysbeforeovulation.Inthedaybetweenovulationandlaying,eggwhiteforms,followedbyeggshell.[158]Eggslaidlaterinaclutcharelarger,asarethoselaidbylargerfemales,andeggsizeishereditary.Eggsdecreaseslightlyinsizefromlayingtohatching.[159]Theyolkcomprises25%oftheegg,theeggwhite68%,andtheshell7%.Eggsarewatery,being79%liquid,andotherwisemostlyprotein.[160] Thefemaledevelopsabroodpatchofbareskinandplaysthemainpartinincubatingtheeggs.Themalehelps,butcanonlycovertheeggsratherthantrulyincubatethem.Thefemalespendsthenightincubatingduringthisperiod,whilethemaleroostsnearthenest.[148]Eggshatchatthesametime,afterashortincubationperiodlasting11–14 days,andexceptionallyforasmanyas17orasfewas9.[8][132][161]Thelengthoftheincubationperioddecreasesasambienttemperatureincreaseslaterinthebreedingseason.[162] Younghousesparrowsremaininthenestfor11to23days,normally14to16days.[107][162][163]Duringthistime,theyarefedbybothparents.Asnewlyhatchedhousesparrowsdonothavesufficientinsulation,theyarebroodedforafewdays,orlongerincoldconditions.[162][164]Theparentsswallowthedroppingsproducedbythehatchlingsduringthefirstfewdays;later,thedroppingsaremovedupto20 m(66 ft)awayfromthenest.[164][165] Thechicks'eyesopenafterabout4daysand,atanageofabout8days,theyoungbirdsgettheirfirstdown.[107][163]Ifbothparentsperish,theensuingintensivebeggingsoundsoftheyoungoftenattractreplacementparentswhichfeedthemuntiltheycansustainthemselves.[164][166]Alltheyounginthenestleaveitduringthesameperiodofafewhours.Atthisstage,theyarenormallyabletofly.Theystartfeedingthemselvespartlyafter1or2days,andsustainthemselvescompletelyafter7to10days,14atthelatest.[167] Survival[edit] Inadulthousesparrows,annualsurvivalis45–65%.[168]Afterfledgingandleavingthecareoftheirparents,youngsparrowshaveahighmortalityrate,whichlessensastheygrowolderandmoreexperienced.Onlyabout20–25%ofbirdshatchedsurvivetotheirfirstbreedingseason.[169]Theoldestknownwildhousesparrowlivedfornearlytwodecades;itwasfounddead19 yearsand9 monthsafteritwasringedinDenmark.[170]Theoldestrecordedcaptivehousesparrowlivedfor23 years.[171]Thetypicalratioofmalestofemalesinapopulationisuncertainduetoproblemsincollectingdata,butaveryslightpreponderanceofmalesatallagesisusual.[172] Predation[edit] Amalesparrowbeingeatenbyacat:Domesticcatsareoneofthemainpredatorsofthehousesparrow. Thehousesparrow'smainpredatorsarecatsandbirdsofprey,butmanyotheranimalspreyonthem,includingcorvids,squirrels,[173]andevenhumans—thehousesparrowhasbeenconsumedinthepastbypeopleinmanypartsoftheworld,anditstillisinpartsoftheMediterranean.[174]Mostspeciesofbirdsofpreyhavebeenrecordedpreyingonthehousesparrowinplaceswhererecordsareextensive.Accipitersandthemerlininparticulararemajorpredators,thoughcatsarelikelytohaveagreaterimpactonhousesparrowpopulations.[173]Thehousesparrowisalsoacommonvictimofroadkill;onEuropeanroads,itisthebirdmostfrequentlyfounddead.[175] Parasitesanddisease[edit] Thehousesparrowishosttoahugenumberofparasitesanddiseases,andtheeffectofmostisunknown.OrnithologistTedR.Andersonlistedthousands,notingthathislistwasincomplete.[176]Thecommonlyrecordedbacterialpathogensofthehousesparrowareoftenthosecommoninhumans,andincludeSalmonellaandEscherichiacoli.[177]Salmonellaiscommoninthehousesparrow,andacomprehensivestudyofhousesparrowdiseasefounditin13%ofsparrowstested.Salmonellaepidemicsinthespringandwintercankilllargenumbersofsparrows.[176]Thehousesparrowhostsavianpoxandavianmalaria,whichithasspreadtothenativeforestbirdsofHawaii.[178]Manyofthediseaseshostedbythehousesparrowarealsopresentinhumansanddomesticanimals,forwhichthehousesparrowactsasareservoirhost.[179]ArbovirusessuchastheWestNilevirus,whichmostcommonlyinfectinsectsandmammals,survivewintersintemperateareasbygoingdormantinbirdssuchasthehousesparrow.[176][180]Afewrecordsindicatediseaseextirpatinghousesparrowpopulations,especiallyfromScottishislands,butthisseemstoberare.[181]Housesparrowsarealsoinfectedbyhaemosporidianparasites,butlesssoinurbanthaninruralareas[182]ToxoplasmagondiihasbeendetectedinsparrowsinnorthwesternChinawheretheyposeariskduetotheirmeatbeingconsumedintheregion.[183] Thehousesparrowisinfestedbyanumberofexternalparasites,whichusuallycauselittleharmtoadultsparrows.InEurope,themostcommonmitefoundonsparrowsisProctophyllodes,themostcommonticksareArgasreflexusandIxodesarboricola,andthemostcommonfleaonthehousesparrowisCeratophyllusgallinae.[145]Dermanyssusblood-feedingmitesarealsocommonectoparasitesofhousesparrows,[184]andthesemitescanenterhumanhabitationandbitehumans,causingaconditionknownasgamasoidosis.[185]Anumberofchewingliceoccupydifferentnichesonthehousesparrow'sbody.Menacanthusliceoccuracrossthehousesparrow'sbody,wheretheyfeedonbloodandfeathers,whileBrueelialicefeedonfeathersandPhilopterusfringillaeoccursonthehead.[145] Physiology[edit] Animmaturehousesparrowsleeping Housesparrowsexpressstrongcircadianrhythmsofactivityinthelaboratory.Theywereamongthefirstbirdspeciestobeseriouslystudiedintermsoftheircircadianactivityandphotoperiodism,inpartbecauseoftheiravailabilityandadaptabilityincaptivity,butalsobecausetheycan"findtheirway"andremainrhythmicinconstantdarkness.[186][187]Suchstudieshavefoundthatthepinealglandisacentralpartofthehousesparrow'scircadiansystem:removalofthepinealeliminatesthecircadianrhythmofactivity,[188]andtransplantofthepinealintoanotherindividualconferstothisindividualtherhythmphaseofthedonorbird.[189]Thesuprachiasmaticnucleiofthehypothalamushavealsobeenshowntobeanimportantcomponentofthecircadiansystemofhousesparrows.[190]Thephotoreceptorsinvolvedinthesynchronisationofthecircadianclocktotheexternallight-darkcyclearelocatedinthebrainandcanbestimulatedbylightreachingthemdirectlythoughtheskull,asrevealedbyexperimentsinwhichblindsparrows,whichnormallycanstillsynchronisetothelight-darkcycle,failedtodosoonceIndiainkwasinjectedasascreenundertheskinontopoftheirskulls.[191] Similarly,evenwhenblind,housesparrowscontinuetobephotoperiodic,i.e.showreproductivedevelopmentwhenthedaysarelong,butnotwhenthedaysareshort.Thisresponseisstrongerwhenthefeathersontopoftheheadareplucked,andiseliminatedwhenIndiainkisinjectedundertheskinatthetopofthehead,showingthatthephotoreceptorsinvolvedinthephotoperiodicresponsetodaylengtharelocatedinsidethebrain.[192] Housesparrowshavealsobeenusedinstudiesofnonphoticentrainment(i.e.synchronisationtoanexternalcycleotherthanlightanddark):forexample,inconstantdarkness,asituationinwhichthebirdswouldnormallyrevealtheirendogenous,non-24-hour,"free-running"rhythmsofactivity,theyinsteadshow24-hourperiodicityiftheyareexposedtotwohoursofchirpplaybacksevery24 hours,matchingtheirdailyactivityonsetswiththedailyplaybackonsets.[193]Housesparrowsinconstantdimlightcanalsobeentrainedtoadailycyclebasedonthepresenceoffood.[194]Finally,housesparrowsinconstantdarknesscouldbeentrainedtoacycleofhighandlowtemperature,butonlyifthedifferenceintemperaturewaslarge(38 °Cversus6 °C);someofthetestedsparrowsmatchedtheiractivitytothewarmphase,andotherstothecoldphase.[195] Relationshipswithhumans[edit] PlaymediaFlockingandchirpingtogetherbeneathafluorescenttubelightinGermany Thehousesparrowiscloselyassociatedwithhumans.Theyarebelievedtohavebecomeassociatedwithhumansaround10,000yearsago.TheTurkestansubspecies(P.d.bactrianus)isleastassociatedwithhumansandconsideredtobeevolutionarilyclosertotheancestralnoncommensalpopulations.[196]Usually,thehousesparrowisregardedasapest,sinceitconsumesagriculturalproductsandspreadsdiseasetohumansandtheirdomesticanimals.[197]Evenbirdwatchersoftenholditinlittleregardbecauseofitsmolestationofotherbirds.[77]Inmostoftheworld,thehousesparrowisnotprotectedbylaw.Attemptstocontrolhousesparrowsincludethetrapping,poisoning,orshootingofadults;thedestructionoftheirnestsandeggs;orlessdirectly,blockingnestholesandscaringoffsparrowswithnoise,glue,orporcupinewire.[198]However,thehousesparrowcanbebeneficialtohumans,aswell,especiallybyeatinginsectpests,andattemptsatthelarge-scalecontrolofthehousesparrowhavefailed.[39] Thehousesparrowhaslongbeenusedasafooditem.Fromaround1560toatleastthe19thcenturyinnorthernEurope,earthenware"sparrowpots"werehungfromeavestoattractnestingbirdssotheyoungcouldbereadilyharvested.Wildbirdsweretrappedinnetsinlargenumbers,andsparrowpiewasatraditionaldish,thought,becauseoftheassociationofsparrowswithlechery,tohaveaphrodisiacproperties.[199]AtraditionalIndianmedicine,CiṭṭukkuruvilēkiyaminTamil,wassoldwithsimilaraphrodisiacclaims.[200]Sparrowswerealsotrappedasfoodforfalconers'birdsandzooanimals.Duringthe1870s,thereweredebatesonthedamagingeffectsofsparrowsintheHouseofCommonsinEngland.[201]Intheearlypartofthe20thcentury,sparrowclubsculledmanymillionsofbirdsandeggsinanattempttocontrolnumbersofthisperceivedpest,butwithonlyalocalisedimpactonnumbers.[202]Housesparrowshavebeenkeptaspetsatmanytimesinhistory,thoughtheyhavenobrightplumageorattractivesongs,andraisingthemisdifficult.[199] Status[edit] Thehousesparrowhasanextremelylargerangeandpopulation,andisnotseriouslythreatenedbyhumanactivities,soitisassessedasleastconcernforconservationontheIUCNRedList.[1]TheIUCNestimatesfortheglobalpopulationrunsuptonearly1.4billionindividuals,secondamongallbirdsperhapsonlytothered-billedqueleainabundance(althoughthequeleais,unlikethesparrow,restrictedtoasinglecontinentandhasneverbeensubjecttohumanintroductions).[1]However,populationshavebeendeclininginmanypartsoftheworld,especiallynearitsEurasianplacesoforigin.[203][204][205]ThesedeclineswerefirstnoticedinNorthAmerica,wheretheywereinitiallyattributedtothespreadofthehousefinch,buthavebeenmostsevereinWesternEurope.[206][207]Declineshavenotbeenuniversal,asnoseriousdeclineshavebeenreportedfromEasternEurope,buthaveevenoccurredinAustralia,wherethehousesparrowwasintroducedrecently.[208] InGreatBritain,populationspeakedintheearly1970s,[209]buthavesincedeclinedby68%overall,[210]andabout90%insomeregions.[211][212]TheRSPBliststhehousesparrow'sUKconservationstatusasred.[213]InLondon,thehousesparrowalmostdisappearedfromthecentralcity.[211]ThenumbersofhousesparrowsintheNetherlandshavedroppedinhalfsincethe1980s,[95]sothehousesparrowisevenconsideredanendangeredspecies.[214]Thisstatuscametowidespreadattentionafterafemalehousesparrow,referredtoasthe"Dominomus",waskilledafterknockingdowndominoesarrangedaspartofanattempttosetaworldrecord.[215]Thesedeclinesarenotunprecedented,assimilarreductionsinpopulationoccurredwhentheinternalcombustionenginereplacedhorsesinthe1920sandamajorsourceoffoodintheformofgrainspillagewaslost.[216][217] Variouscausesforthedramaticdecreasesinpopulationhavebeenproposed,includingpredation,inparticularbyEurasiansparrowhawks;[218][219][220]electromagneticradiationfrommobilephones;[221]anddiseases[222]suchasavianmalaria.[223]Ashortageofnestingsitescausedbychangesinurbanbuildingdesignisprobablyafactor,andconservationorganisationshaveencouragedtheuseofspecialnestboxesforsparrows.[222][224][225][226]Aprimarycauseofthedeclineseemstobeaninsufficientsupplyofinsectfoodfornestlingsparrows.[222][227]Declinesininsectpopulationsresultfromanincreaseofmonoculturecrops,theheavyuseofpesticides,[228][229][230]thereplacementofnativeplantsincitieswithintroducedplantsandparkingareas,[231][232]andpossiblytheintroductionofunleadedpetrol,whichproducestoxiccompoundssuchasmethylnitrite.[233] Protectinginsecthabitatsonfarms,[234][235]andplantingnativeplantsincitiesbenefitthehousesparrow,asdoesestablishingurbangreenspaces.[236][237]Toraiseawarenessofthreatstothehousesparrow,WorldSparrowDayhasbeencelebratedon20Marchacrosstheworldsince2010.[238] Overtherecentyears,thehousesparrowpopulationhasbeenonthedeclineinmanyAsiancountries,andthisdeclineisquiteevidentinIndia.Topromotetheconservationofthesebirds,in2012,thehousesparrowwasdeclaredasthestatebirdofDelhi.[239] Culturalassociations[edit] Tomanypeopleacrosstheworld,thehousesparrowisthemostfamiliarwildanimaland,becauseofitsassociationwithhumansandfamiliarity,itisfrequentlyusedtorepresentthecommonandvulgar,orthelewd.[240]OneofthereasonsfortheintroductionofhousesparrowsthroughouttheworldwastheirassociationwiththeEuropeanhomelandofmanyimmigrants.[81]BirdsusuallydescribedlaterassparrowsarereferredtoinmanyworksofancientliteratureandreligioustextsinEuropeandwesternAsia.Thesereferencesmaynotalwaysreferspecificallytothehousesparrow,oreventosmall,seed-eatingbirds,butlaterwriterswhowereinspiredbythesetextsoftenhadthehousesparrowinmind.[39][240][241]Inparticular,sparrowswereassociatedbytheancientGreekswithAphrodite,thegoddessoflove,duetotheirperceivedlustfulness,anassociationechoedbylaterwriterssuchasChaucerandShakespeare.[39][199][240][242]Jesus'suseof"sparrows"asanexampleofdivineprovidenceintheGospelofMatthew[243]alsoinspiredlaterreferences,suchasthatinShakespeare'sHamlet[240]andtheGospelhymnHisEyeIsontheSparrow.[244] ThehousesparrowisrepresentedinancientEgyptianartveryrarely,butanEgyptianhieroglyphisbasedonit.Thesparrowhieroglyphhadnophoneticvalueandwasusedasadeterminativeinwordstoindicatesmall,narrow,orbad.[245]Analternativeviewisthatthehieroglyphmeant"aprolificman"or"therevolutionofayear".[246] Seealso[edit] Portal:Birds Housebunting Housefinch Housewren References[edit] ^abcdBirdLifeInternational(2019)[amendedversionof2018assessment]."Passerdomesticus".IUCNRedListofThreatenedSpecies.2019:e.T103818789A155522130.Retrieved27January2020. ^Summers-Smith1988,pp. 307–313. ^abcdSummers-Smith1988,pp. 116–117. ^abcde"HouseSparrow".AllAboutBirds.CornellLabofOrnithology.Archivedfromtheoriginalon4December2010. ^Clement,Harris&Davis1993,p. 443. ^Summers-Smith1988,pp. 118–121. ^abJohnston,RichardF.;Selander,RobertK(May–June1973)."EvolutionintheHouseSparrow.III.VariationinSizeandSexualDimorphisminEuropeandNorthandSouthAmerica".TheAmericanNaturalist.107(955):373–390.doi:10.1086/282841.JSTOR 2459538.S2CID 84083164. ^abcdefGroschupf,Kathleen(2001)."OldWorldSparrows".InElphick,Chris;Dunning,JohnB.Jr.;Sibley,David(eds.).TheSibleyGuidetoBirdLifeandBehaviour.London:ChristopherHelm.pp. 562–564.ISBN 978-0-7136-6250-4. ^Felemban,HassanM.(1997)."MorphologicaldifferencesamongpopulationsofhousesparrowsfromdifferentaltitudesinSaudiArabia"(PDF).TheWilsonBulletin.109(3):539–544. ^abcdefClement,Harris&Davis1993,p. 444. ^Anderson2006,pp. 202–203. ^Anderson2006,pp. 224–225,244–245. ^Summers-Smith1963,pp. 26–30. ^Cramp&Perrins1994,p. 291. ^Summers-Smith1963,p. 101. ^abSummers-Smith1963,pp. 30–31. ^Summers-Smith1963,pp. 31–32. ^Summers-Smith1988,p. 254. ^abcdVaurie,Charles;Koelz,Walter(1949)."NotesonsomePloceidaefromwesternAsia".AmericanMuseumNovitates(1406).hdl:2246/2345. ^abSummers-Smith1988,p. 117. ^Snow&Perrins1998,pp. 1061–1064. ^Clement,Harris&Davis1993,p. 445. ^Roberts1992,pp. 472–477. ^Mullarneyetal.1999,pp. 342–343. ^Clement,Harris&Davis1993,pp. 463–465. ^abSummers-Smith1988,pp. 121–122. ^Linnaeus1758,p. 183. ^abSummers-Smith1988,pp. 114–115. ^Brisson1760,p. 36. ^Newton,Alfred(1911)."Sparrow" .InChisholm,Hugh(ed.).EncyclopædiaBritannica.25(11th ed.).CambridgeUniversityPress. ^Summers-Smith1988,p. 13. ^Jobling2009,p. 138. ^Saikku,Mikko(2004)."HouseSparrow".InKrechIII,Shepard;McNeill,JohnRobert;Merchant,Carolyn(eds.).EncyclopediaofWorldEnvironmentalHistory.3.Routledge.ISBN 978-0-415-93735-1. ^Turcotte&Watts1999,p. 429. ^Sibley&Monroe1990,pp. 669–670. ^Lockwood1984,pp. 114–146. ^Swainson1885,pp. 60–62. ^Carver1987,pp. 162,199. 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HousesparrowattheRoyalSocietyfortheProtectionofBirdswebsite IndiansparrowandhousesparrowatBirdsofKazakhstan WorldSparrowDay vteOldWorldsparrows(family:Passeridae)GenusSpeciesHypocryptadius Cinnamonibon Passer Saxaulsparrow Housesparrow Spanishsparrow Italiansparrow Sindsparrow Somalisparrow Russetsparroworcinnamonsparrow Plain-backedsparroworPegusparrow DeadSeasparrow Greatsparrow Socotrasparrow Abdal-Kurisparrow Kenyasparrow Kordofansparrow Shelley'ssparrow Iagosparrow Capesparrow Northerngrey-headedsparrow Swainson'ssparrow Parrot-billedsparrow Swahilisparrow Southerngrey-headedsparrow Desertsparrow Zarudny'ssparrow Eurasiantreesparrow Sudangoldensparrow Arabiangoldensparrow Chestnutsparrow Passerpredomesticus Carpospiza Palerockfinch Petronia Rocksparrow Gymnoris Yellow-throatedbushsparrow Sahelbushsparrow Yellow-spottedbushsparrow Yellow-throatedsparrow Montifringilla White-wingedsnowfinch Tibetansnowfinch Black-wingedsnowfinch Onychostruthus White-rumpedsnowfinch Pyrgilauda PèreDavid'ssnowfinch Rufous-neckedsnowfinch Blanford'ssnowfinch Afghansnowfinch Taxonidentifiers Wikidata:Q14683 Wikispecies:Passerdomesticus ABA:houspa ADW:Passer_domesticus AFD:Passer_domesticus ARKive:passer-domesticus Avibase:240E33900CE34D44 BioLib:8993 BirdLife:103818789 BirdLife-Australia:house-sparrow BOLD:9688 BTO:bob15910 BOW:houspa eBird:houspa EPPO:PASSDO Euring:15910 FaunaEuropaea:97437 FaunaEuropaea(new):8fbcce1c-df22-4ebe-abf4-28cce81df03a Fossilworks:373332 GBIF:5231190 GISD:420 GNAB:house-sparrow IBC:house-sparrow-passer-domesticus iNaturalist:13858 IRMNG:10582565 ISC:38975 ITIS:179628 IUCN:103818789 NBN:NHMSYS0000530537 NCBI:48849 Neotropical:houspa NZBO:house-sparrow NZOR:07ec2042-0164-4dc4-a43f-f16baf7abd38 TSA:12965 WoRMS:1451658 Xeno-canto:Passer-domesticus Authoritycontrol IntegratedAuthorityFile(Germany) Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=House_sparrow&oldid=1061618122" Categories:IUCNRedListleastconcernspeciesPasserCosmopolitanbirdsStored-productpestsBirdsdescribedin1758TaxanamedbyCarlLinnaeusHiddencategories:Wikipediaarticlesincorporatingacitationfromthe1911EncyclopaediaBritannicawithWikisourcereferenceCS1French-languagesources(fr)CS1maint:multiplenames:authorslistCS1German-languagesources(de)CS1errors:missingperiodicalArticleswithshortdescriptionShortdescriptionisdifferentfromWikidataGoodarticlesUsedmydatesfromDecember2021Articleswith'species'microformatsPagesusingmultipleimagewithautoscaledimagesCS1maint:extratext:authorslistCS1Latin-languagesources(la)CommonscategorylinkfromWikidataTaxonbarswith30–34taxonIDsArticleswithGNDidentifiersArticlescontainingvideoclips Navigationmenu Personaltools NotloggedinTalkContributionsCreateaccountLogin Namespaces ArticleTalk Variants expanded collapsed Views ReadEditViewhistory More expanded collapsed Search Navigation MainpageContentsCurrenteventsRandomarticleAboutWikipediaContactusDonate Contribute HelpLearntoeditCommunityportalRecentchangesUploadfile Tools WhatlinkshereRelatedchangesUploadfileSpecialpagesPermanentlinkPageinformationCitethispageWikidataitem Print/export DownloadasPDFPrintableversion Inotherprojects WikimediaCommonsWikispecies Languages АдыгэбзэAfrikaansAlemannischአማርኛAnarâškielâالعربيةAragonésঅসমীয়াAsturianuАварAzərbaycancaবাংলাBân-lâm-gúБашҡортсаБеларускаяभोजपुरीБългарскиBoarischBosanskiBrezhonegБуряадCatalàЧӑвашлаCebuanoČeštinaCymraegDanskDavvisámegiellaDeutschDinébizaadEestiΕλληνικάEmiliànerumagnòlEspañolEsperantoEstremeñuEuskaraفارسیFøroysktFrançaisFryskGaeilgeGalegoГӀалгӀайગુજરાતી客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî한국어Հայերենहिन्दीHrvatskiInterlinguaÍslenskaItalianoעבריתქართულიKaszëbscziҚазақшаKongoKurdîКырыкмарыLadinLatinaLatviešuLëtzebuergeschLietuviųLigureLimburgsLivvinkarjalaMagyarМакедонскиMalagasyമലയാളംमराठीمصرىမြန်မာဘာသာNederlandsNedersaksiesनेपाली日本語NapulitanoNordfriiskNorskbokmålNorsknynorskOccitanଓଡ଼ିଆਪੰਜਾਬੀپنجابیPicardPiemontèisPlattdüütschPolskiPortuguêsRomânăРусиньскыйРусскийСахатылаᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤSarduScotsSicilianuSlovenčinaSlovenščinaСрпски/srpskiSrpskohrvatski/српскохрватскиSundaSuomiSvenskaTagalogதமிழ்TaclḥitTaqbaylitతెలుగుไทยТоҷикӣTürkçeУкраїнськаاردوVepsänkel’TiếngViệtWalonWest-VlamsWinaray吴语粵語Žemaitėška中文 Editlinks