Fiqh - Wikipedia

Fiqh (/fiːk/; Arabic: فقه‎ [fɪqh]) is Islamic jurisprudence. ... Fiqh is often described as the human understanding and practices of the sharia, that is human ... Fiqh FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Islamicjurisprudence FiqhArabicفقه‎RomanizationFiqhLiteralmeaning"deepunderstanding""fullcomprehension" PartofaseriesonIslamicjurisprudence(fiqh) Ritual Shahada Salat Raka'ah Qibla Turbah Sunnahsalat(TahajjudTarawih) Witr Naflsalat Sawm Zakat Hajj Ihram (clothing Mut'ah) Tawaf Umrah (andHajj) Political Islamicleadership Caliphate Majlis-ash-Shura Imamah Wilayatal-faqih Bay'ah Dhimmi Aman Family Marriage Contract Mahr Misyar Halala Urfi Mut‘ah Polygyny Divorce Khula Zihar Iddah Kafa'ah Adoption Breastfeeding Sexual Awrah Abortion Baligh Haya Hygiene Rape Zina Masturbation Criminal Hudud Blasphemy Maisir (gambling) Zina (illicitsex) Hirabah (unlawfulwarfareandbanditry) Fasad ("mischief") Mofsed-e-filarz ("spreadingcorruption") Fitna ("sedition") Rajm (stoning) Tazir (discretionary) Qisas (retaliation) Diya (compensation) Etiquette Adab Gendersegregation(Purdah) Mahram Honorifics Toilet Economic History Zakat Jizya Nisab Khums Sadaqah (Waqf) Baytal-mal Banking Riba Murabaha Takaful Sukuk Inheritance Hygiene Sexual Toilet Taharah Ihram Wudu Masah Ghusl Tayammum Miswak Najis Dietary Dhabihah Alcohol Pork Comparisonwithkashrut Military Jihad Hudna Istijarah(asylum) Prisonersofwar Islamicstudiesvte PartofaseriesonIslam Beliefs OnenessofGod Prophets RevealedBooks Angels DayofResurrection Predestination Practices ProfessionofFaith Prayer Almsgiving Fasting Pilgrimage TextsFoundations Quran Sunnah(Hadith,Sirah) Tafsir(exegesis) Aqidah(creed) Fiqh(jurisprudence) Sharia(law) History Timeline Muhammad Ahlal-Bayt Sahabah Rashidun Caliphate Imamate MedievalIslamicscience SpreadofIslam SuccessiontoMuhammad Cultureandsociety Academics Animals Art Calendar Children Circumcision Demographics Denominations Economics Education Spiritpossessionandexorcism Feminism Festivals Finance LGBT Madrasa Moralteachings Mosque Mysticism Philosophy Poetry Politics Proselytizing Science Slavery Socialwelfare Women Relatedtopics Apostasy Criticism Muhammad Quran Hadith Otherreligions Islamism Violence terrorism war Islamophobia Jihad Jihadism Lawsofwar Glossary  Islamportalvte Fiqh(/fiːk/;[1]Arabic:فقه‎[fɪqh])isIslamicjurisprudence.[2]Fiqhisoftendescribedasthehumanunderstandingandpracticesofthesharia,[3]thatishumanunderstandingofthedivineIslamiclawasrevealedintheQuranandtheSunnah(theteachingsandpracticesoftheIslamicprophetMuhammadandhiscompanions).FiqhexpandsanddevelopsShariahthroughinterpretation(ijtihad)oftheQuranandSunnahbyIslamicjurists(ulama)[3]andisimplementedbytherulings(fatwa)ofjuristsonquestionspresentedtothem.Thus,whereasshariaisconsideredimmutableandinfalliblebyMuslims,fiqhisconsideredfallibleandchangeable.Fiqhdealswiththeobservanceofrituals,moralsandsociallegislationinIslamaswellaspoliticalsystem.Inthemodernera,therearefourprominentschools(madh'hab)offiqhwithinSunnipractice,plustwo(orthree)withinShi'apractice.Apersontrainedinfiqhisknownasafaqīh(pluralfuqaha).[4] Figuratively,fiqhmeansknowledgeaboutIslamiclegalrulingsfromtheirsources.Derivingreligiousrulingsfromtheirsourcesrequiresthemujtahid(anindividualwhoexercisesijtihad)tohaveadeepunderstandinginthedifferentdiscussionsofjurisprudence.Afaqīhmustlookdeepdownintoamatterandnotcontenthimselfwithjusttheapparentmeaning,andapersonwhoonlyknowstheappearanceofamatterisnotqualifiedasafaqīh.[2] Thestudiesoffiqh,aretraditionallydividedintoUṣūlal-fiqh(principlesofIslamicjurisprudence,lit.therootsoffiqh,alternativelytransliteratedasUsoolal-fiqh),themethodsoflegalinterpretationandanalysis;andFurūʿal-fiqh(lit.thebranchesoffiqh),theelaborationofrulingsonthebasisoftheseprinciples.[5][6]Furūʿal-fiqhistheproductoftheapplicationofUṣūlal-fiqhandthetotalproductofhumaneffortsatunderstandingthedivinewill.Ahukm(pluralaḥkām)isaparticularrulinginagivencase. Contents 1Etymology 2History 2.1Diagramofearlyscholars 3Components 3.1Componentcategories 3.2Methodologiesofjurisprudence 3.3Fieldsofjurisprudence 3.4Schoolsofjurisprudence 4InfluenceonWesternlaws 5Seealso 6References 6.1Notes 6.2Citations 6.3Bibliography 7Furtherreading 8Externallinks Etymology[edit] ThewordfiqhisanArabictermmeaning"deepunderstanding"[7]: 470 or"fullcomprehension".TechnicallyitreferstothebodyofIslamiclawextractedfromdetailedIslamicsources(whicharestudiedintheprinciplesofIslamicjurisprudence)andtheprocessofgainingknowledgeofIslamthroughjurisprudence.ThehistorianIbnKhaldundescribesfiqhas"knowledgeoftherulesofGodwhichconcerntheactionsofpersonswhoownthemselvesconnectedtoobeythelawrespectingwhatisrequired(wajib),sinful(haraam),recommended(mandūb),disapproved(makrūh)orneutral(mubah)".[8]Thisdefinitionisconsistentamongstthejurists. InModernStandardArabic,fiqhhasalsocometomeanIslamicjurisprudence.[9]ItisnotthuspossibletospeakofChiefJusticeJohnRobertsasanexpertinthecommonlawfiqhoftheUnitedStates,orofEgyptianlegalscholarAbdEl-RazzakEl-SanhuriasanexpertinthecivillawfiqhofEgypt. History[edit] Mainarticle:Sharia Furtherinformation:Islamiceconomicsintheworld AccordingtotraditionalIslamichistory,Islamiclawfollowedachronologicalpathof: Allah->Muhammad->Companions->Followers->Fiqh.[10] ThecommandsandprohibitionschosenbyGodwererevealedthroughtheagencyoftheProphetinboththeQuranandtheSunnah(words,deeds,andexamplesoftheProphetpasseddownashadith). ThefirstMuslims(theSahabahorCompanions)heardandobeyed,andpassedthisessenceofIslam[11]tosucceedinggenerations(Tabi'unandTabi'al-Tabi'inorsuccessors/followersandsuccessorsofsuccessors),asMuslimsandIslamspreadfromWestArabiatotheconqueredlandsnorth,east,andwest,[12][Note1]whereitwassystematizedandelaborated[11] ThehistoryofIslamicjurisprudenceis"customarilydividedintoeightperiods":[14] thefirstperiodendingwiththedeathofMuhammadin11AH.[14] secondperiod"characterizedbypersonalinterpretations"ofthecanonbytheSahabahorcompanionsofMuhammad,lastinguntil50AH.[14] from50AHuntiltheearlysecondcenturyAHtherewascompetitionbetween"atraditionalistapproachtojurisprudence"inwesternArabiawhereIslamwasrevealedanda"rationalistapproachinIraq".[14] the"goldenageofclassicalIslamicjurisprudence"fromthe"earlysecondtothemid-fourthcenturywhentheeight"mostsignificant"schoolsofSunniandShi'ijurisprudenceemerged."[14] fromthemid-fourthcenturytomid-seventhAHIslamicjurisprudencewas"limitedtoelaborationswithinthemainjuristicschools".[14] the"darkage"ofIslamicjurisprudencestretchedfromthefallofBaghdadinthemid-seventhAH(1258CE)to1293AH/1876CE. In1293AH(1876CE)theOttomanscodifiedHanafijurisprudenceintheMajallahel-Ahkam-i-Adliya.Several"juristicrevivalmovements"influencedby"exposuretoWesternlegalandtechnologicalprogress"followeduntilthemid-20thcenturyCE.MuhammadAbduhandAbdEl-RazzakEl-Sanhuriwereproductsofthisera.[14] Themostrecenterahasbeenthatofthe"Islamicrevival",whichhasbeen"predicatedonrejectionofWesternsocialandlegaladvances"andthedevelopmentofspecificallyIslamicstates,socialsciences,economics,andfinance.[14] TheformativeperiodofIslamicjurisprudencestretchesbacktothetimeoftheearlyMuslimcommunities.Inthisperiod,juristsweremoreconcernedwithissuesofauthorityandteachingthanwiththeoryandmethodology.[15] ProgressintheoryandmethodologyhappenedwiththecomingoftheearlyMuslimjuristMuhammadibnIdrisash-Shafi`i(767–820),whocodifiedthebasicprinciplesofIslamicjurisprudenceinhisbookar-Risālah.Thebookdetailsthefourrootsoflaw(Qur'an,Sunnah,ijma,andqiyas)whilespecifyingthattheprimaryIslamictexts(theQur'anandthehadith)beunderstoodaccordingtoobjectiverulesofinterpretationderivedfromscientificstudyoftheArabiclanguage.[16] Secondarysourcesoflawweredevelopedandrefinedoverthesubsequentcenturies,consistingprimarilyofjuristicpreference(istihsan),lawsofthepreviousprophets(sharamanqablana),continuity(istishab),extendedanalogy(maslahamursala),blockingthemeans(saddal-dhari'ah),localcustoms(urf),andsayingsofacompanionoftheProphet(qawlal-sahabi).[17] Diagramofearlyscholars[edit] TheQuransettherights,theresponsibilitiesandtherulesforpeopleandforsocietiestoadhereto,likenotdealingininterest.Muhammadthenprovidedanexample,whichisrecordedinthehadithbooks,showingpeoplehowhepracticallyimplementedtheserulesinasociety.AfterthepassingofMuhammad,therewasaneedforjurists,todecideonnewlegalmatterswherethereisnosuchrulingintheQuranortheHadith,exampleofIslamicprophetMuhammadregardingasimilarcase.[18][19] IntheyearsproceedingMuhammad,thecommunityinMadinacontinuedtousethesamerules.PeoplewerefamiliarwiththepracticeofMuhammadandthereforecontinuedtousethesamerules. ThescholarsappearinginthediagrambelowweretaughtbyMuhammad'scompanions,manyofwhomsettledinMadina.[20]Muwatta[21]byMalikibnAnaswaswrittenasaconsensusoftheopinion,ofthesescholars.[22][23][24]TheMuwatta[21]byMalikibnAnasquotes13hadithsfromImamJafaral-Sadiq.[25] AishaalsotaughthernephewUrwahibnZubayr.HethentaughthissonHishamibnUrwah,whowasthemainteacherofMalikibnAnaswhoseviewsmanySunnifollowandalsotaughtJafaral-Sadiq.QasimibnMuhammadibnAbuBakr,HishamibnUrwahandMuhammadal-BaqirtaughtZaydibnAli,Jafaral-Sadiq,AbuHanifa,andMalikibnAnas. ImamJafaral-Sadiq,ImamAbuHanifaandMalikibnAnasworkedtogetherinAl-Masjidan-NabawiinMedina.AlongwithQasimibnMuhammadibnAbuBakr,Muhammadal-Baqir,ZaydibnAliandover70otherleadingjuristsandscholars. Al-Shafi‘iwastaughtbyMalikibnAnas.AhmadibnHanbalwastaughtbyAl-Shafi‘i.Muhammadal-BukharitravelledeverywherecollectinghadithandhisfatherIsmailibnIbrahimwasastudentofMalikibnAnas.[26][27][28][29][30] vteEarlyIslamicscholars Muhammad(570–632theConstitutionofMedina,taughttheQuran,andadvisedhiscompanions `AbdAllahbinMasud(died650)taughtAli(607–661)fourthcaliphtaughtAisha,Muhammad'swifeandAbuBakr'sdaughtertaughtAbdAllahibnAbbas(618–687)taughtZaydibnThabit(610–660)taughtUmar(579–644)secondcaliphtaughtAbuHurairah(603–681)taught AlqamaibnQays(died681)taughtHusaynibnAli(626–680)taughtQasimibnMuhammadibnAbuBakr(657–725)taughtandraisedbyAishaUrwahibnZubayr(died713)taughtbyAisha,hethentaughtSaidibnal-Musayyib(637–715)taughtAbdullahibnUmar(614–693)taughtAbdAllahibnal-Zubayr(624–692)taughtbyAisha,hethentaught Ibrahimal-Nakha’itaughtAliibnHusaynZaynal-Abidin(659–712)taughtHishamibnUrwah(667–772)taughtIbnShihabal-Zuhri(died741)taughtSalimibnAbd-AllahibnUmartaughtUmaribnAbdulAziz(682–720)raisedandtaughtbyAbdullahibnUmar HammadbinibiSulmantaughtMuhammadal-Baqir(676–733)taughtFarwahbintal-QasimJafar'smother AbuHanifa(699–767)wroteAlFiqhAlAkbarandKitabAl-Athar,jurisprudencefollowedbySunni,SunniSufi,Barelvi,Deobandi,ZaidiyyahandoriginallybytheFatimidandtaughtZaydibnAli(695–740)Ja'farbinMuhammadAl-Baqir(702–765)MuhammadandAli'sgreatgreatgrandson,jurisprudencefollowedbyShia,hetaughtMalikibnAnas(711–795)wroteMuwatta,jurisprudencefromearlyMedinaperiodnowmostlyfollowedbySunniinAfricaandtaughtAl-Waqidi(748–822)wrotehistorybookslikeKitabal-Tarikhwaal-Maghazi,studentofMalikibnAnasAbuMuhammadAbdullahibnAbdulHakam(died829)wrotebiographiesandhistorybooks,studentofMalikibnAnas AbuYusuf(729–798)wroteUsulal-fiqhMuhammadal-Shaybani(749–805)Al-Shafi‘i(767–820)wroteAl-Risala,jurisprudencefollowedbySunniandtaughtIsmailibnIbrahimAliibnal-Madini(778–849)wroteTheBookofKnowledgeoftheCompanionsIbnHisham(died833)wroteearlyhistoryandAs-Sirahan-Nabawiyyah,Muhammad'sbiography Isma'ilibnJa'far(719–775)Musaal-Kadhim(745–799)AhmadibnHanbal(780–855)wroteMusnadAhmadibnHanbaljurisprudencefollowedbySunniandhadithbooksMuhammadal-Bukhari(810–870)wroteSahihal-BukharihadithbooksMuslimibnal-Hajjaj(815–875)wroteSahihMuslimhadithbooksMuhammadibnIsaat-Tirmidhi(824–892)wroteJami`at-TirmidhihadithbooksAl-Baladhuri(died892)wroteearlyhistoryFutuhal-Buldan,GenealogiesoftheNobles IbnMajah(824–887)wroteSunanibnMajahhadithbookAbuDawood(817–889)wroteSunanAbuDawoodHadithBook MuhammadibnYa'qubal-Kulayni(864-941)wroteKitabal-KafihadithbookfollowedbyTwelverShiaMuhammadibnJariral-Tabari(838–923)wroteHistoryoftheProphetsandKings,Tafsiral-TabariAbual-Hasanal-Ash'ari(874–936)wroteMaqālātal-islāmīyīn,Kitābal-luma,Kitābal-ibāna'anusūlal-diyāna IbnBabawayh(923–991)wroteManlayahduruhual-FaqihjurisprudencefollowedbyTwelverShiaSharifRazi(930–977)wroteNahjal-BalaghafollowedbyTwelverShiaNasiral-Dinal-Tusi(1201–1274)wrotejurisprudencebooksfollowedbyIsmailiandTwelverShiaAl-Ghazali(1058–1111)wroteTheNicheforLights,TheIncoherenceofthePhilosophers,TheAlchemyofHappinessonSufismRumi(1207–1273)wroteMasnavi,Diwan-eShams-eTabrizionSufism Key:SomeofMuhammad'sCompanionsKey:TaughtinMedinaKey:TaughtinIraqKey:WorkedinSyriaKey:TravelledextensivelycollectingthesayingsofMuhammadandcompiledbooksofhadithKey:WorkedinPersia Inthebooksactuallywrittenbytheseoriginaljuristsandscholars,thereareveryfewtheologicalandjudicialdifferencesbetweenthem.ImamAhmadrejectedthewritingdownandcodifyingofthereligiousrulingshegave.Theyknewthattheymighthavefallenintoerrorinsomeoftheirjudgementsandstatedthisclearly.Theyneverintroducedtheirrulingsbysaying,"Here,thisjudgementisthejudgementofGodandHisprophet."[31]ThereisalsoverylittletextactuallywrittendownbyJafaral-Sadiqhimself.TheyallgiveprioritytotheQur'anandtheHadith(thepracticeofMuhammad).TheyfeltthattheQuranandtheHadith,theexampleofMuhammadprovidedpeoplewithalmosteverythingtheyneeded."ThisdayIhaveperfectedforyouyourreligionandcompletedMyfavoruponyouandhaveapprovedforyouIslamasreligion"Quran5:3.[32] Thesescholarsdidnotdistinguishbetweeneachother.TheywerenotSunniorShia.TheyfeltthattheywerefollowingthereligionofAbrahamasdescribedintheQuran"Say:Allahspeaksthetruth;sofollowthereligionofAbraham,theuprightone.Andhewasnotoneofthepolytheists"(Qur'an3:95). MostofthedifferencesareregardingSharialawsdevisedthroughIjtihadwherethereisnosuchrulingintheQuranortheHadithsofIslamicprophetMuhammadregardingasimilarcase.[31]Asthesejuristswenttonewareas,theywerepragmaticandcontinuedtousethesamerulingaswasgiveninthatareaduringpre-Islamictimes,ifthepopulationfeltcomfortablewithit,itwasjustandtheyusedIjtihadtodeducethatitdidnotconflictwiththeQuranortheHadith.AsexplainedintheMuwatta[21]byMalikibnAnas.[22]ThismadeiteasierforthedifferentcommunitiestointegrateintotheIslamicStateandassistedinthequickexpansionoftheIslamicState. Toreducethedivergence,ash-Shafi'iproposedgivingprioritytotheQur'anandtheHadith(thepracticeofMuhammad)andonlythenlookattheconsensusoftheMuslimjurists(ijma)andanalogicalreasoning(qiyas).[22]ThisthenresultedinjuristslikeMuhammadal-Bukhari[33]dedicatingtheirlivestothecollectionofthecorrectHadith,inbookslikeSahihal-Bukhari.Sahihtranslatesasauthenticorcorrect.TheyalsofeltthatMuhammad'sjudgementwasmoreimpartialandbetterthantheirown. Theseoriginaljuristsandscholarsalsoactedasacounterbalancetotherulers.Whentheysawinjustice,allthesescholarsspokeoutagainstit.AsthestateexpandedoutsideMadina,therightsofthedifferentcommunities,astheywereconstitutedintheConstitutionofMedinastillapplied.TheQuranalsogaveadditionalrightstothecitizensofthestateandtheserightswerealsoapplied.Ali,HassanandHusseinibnAligavetheirallegiancetothefirstthreecaliphsbecausetheyabidedbytheseconditions.LaterAlithefourthcaliphwroteinaletter"IdidnotapproachthepeopletogettheiroathofallegiancebuttheycametomewiththeirdesiretomakemetheirAmir(ruler).Ididnotextendmyhandstowardsthemsothattheymightsweartheoathofallegiancetomebuttheythemselvesextendedtheirhandstowardsme".[34]Butlaterasfatewouldhaveit(PredestinationinIslam)whenYazidI,anoppressiverulertookpower,HusseinibnAlithegrandsonofMuhammadfeltthatitwasatestfromGodforhimandhisdutytoconfronthim.ThenAbdAllahibnal-Zubayr,QasimibnMuhammadibnAbuBakr'scousinconfrontedtheUmayyadrulersafterHusseinibnAliwasbetrayedbythepeopleofKufaandkilledbySyrianRomanArmynowunderthecontroloftheYazidItheUmayyadruler.[35]AbdAllahibnal-ZubayrthentookontheUmayyadsandexpelledtheirforcesfromHijazandIraq.ButthenhisforcesweredepletedinIraq,tryingtostoptheKhawarij.TheUmmayadsthenmovedin.Afteralengthycampaign,inhislasthourAbdAllahibnal-ZubayraskedhismotherAsma'bintAbuBakrthedaughterofAbuBakrthefirstcaliphforadvice.Asma'bintAbuBakrrepliedtoherson,shesaid:[36]"Youknowbetterinyourownself,thatifyouareuponthetruthandyouarecallingtowardsthetruthgoforth,forpeoplemorehonourablethanyouhavebeenkilledandifyouarenotuponthetruth,thenwhatanevilsonyouareandyouhavedestroyedyourselfandthosewhoarewithyou.Ifyousay,thatifyouareuponthetruthandyouwillbekilledatthehandsofothers,thenyouwillnottrulybefree".AbdAllahibnal-ZubayrleftandwaslateralsokilledandcrucifiedbytheSyrianRomanArmynowunderthecontroloftheUmayyadsandledbyHajjaj.MuhammadibnAbiBakrthesonofAbuBakrthefirstcaliphandraisedbyAlithefourthcaliphwasalsokilledbytheUmmayads.[37]AishathenraisedandtaughthersonQasimibnMuhammadibnAbuBakrwholatertaughthisgrandsonJafaral-Sadiq. DuringtheearlyUmmayadperiod,therewasmorecommunityinvolvement.TheQuranandMuhammad'sexamplewasthemainsourceoflawafterwhichthecommunitydecided.Ifitworkedforthecommunity,wasjustanddidnotconflictwiththeQuranandtheexampleofMuhammad,itwasaccepted.Thismadeiteasierforthedifferentcommunities,withRoman,Persian,CentralAsiaandNorthAfricanbackgroundstointegrateintotheIslamicStateandthatassistedinthequickexpansionoftheIslamicState.ThescholarsinMadinawereconsultedonthemorecomplexjudicialissues.TheShariaandtheofficialmorecentralizedschoolsoffiqhdevelopedlater,duringthetimeoftheAbbasids.[38] Components[edit] Furtherinformation:PrinciplesofIslamicjurisprudence Legalsystemsoftheworld Thesourcesofshariainorderofimportanceare Primarysources Qur'an Hadith Secondarysources 3.Ijma,i.e.collectivereasoningandconsensusamongstauthoritativeMuslimsofaparticulargeneration,anditsinterpretationbyIslamicscholars. 4.Ijtihad,i.e.independentlegalreasoningbyIslamicjurists[39][40] MajorityofSunniMuslimsviewQiyasasacentralPillarofIjtihad.[40]Ontheotherhand;Zahirites,AhmadibnHanbal,Al-Bukhari,earlyHanbalites,etcrejectedQiyasamongsttheSunnis.Similarly,theShi’ajuristsalmostunanimouslyrejectbothpurereasonandanalogicalreason;viewingboththesemethodsassubjective.[41][42][43] TheQur'angivesclearinstructionsonmanyissues,suchashowtoperformtheritualpurification(wudu)beforetheobligatorydailyprayers(salat).Onotherissues,forexample,theQur'anstatesoneneedstoengageindailyprayers(salat)andfast(sawm)duringthemonthofRamadanbutfurtherinstructionsanddetailsonhowtoperformthesedutiescanbefoundinthetraditionsofMuhammad,soQur'anandSunnahareinmostcasesthebasisfor(Shariah). SometopicsarewithoutprecedentinIslam'searlyperiod.Inthosecases,Muslimjurists(Fuqaha)trytoarriveatconclusionsbyothermeans.Sunnijuristsusehistoricalconsensusofthecommunity(Ijma);amajorityinthemoderneraalsouseanalogy(Qiyas)andweightheharmsandbenefitsofnewtopics(Istislah),andapluralityutilizesjuristicpreference(Istihsan).Theconclusionsarrivedatwiththeaidoftheseadditionaltoolsconstituteawidearrayoflaws,anditsapplicationiscalledfiqh.Thus,incontrasttothesharia,fiqhisnotregardedassacredandtheschoolsofthoughthavedifferingviewsonitsdetails,withoutviewingotherconclusionsassacrilegious.Thisdivisionofinterpretationinmoredetailedissueshasresultedindifferentschoolsofthought(madh'hab). ThiswiderconceptofIslamicjurisprudenceisthesourceofarangeoflawsindifferenttopicsthatguideMuslimsineverydaylife. Componentcategories[edit] Islamicjurisprudence(fiqh)coverstwomainareas: Rulesinrelationtoactions,and, Rulesinrelationtocircumstancessurroundingactions. Thesetypesofrulescanalsofallintotwogroups: Worship(Ibadaat) Dealingsandtransactions(withpeople)(Mu`amalaat) Rulesinrelationtoactions('amaliyya—عملية)or"decisiontypes"comprise: Obligation(fardh) Recommendation(mustahabb) Permissibility(mubah) Disrecommendation(makrooh) Prohibition(haraam) Rulesinrelationtocircumstances(wadia')comprise: Condition(shart) Cause(sabab) Preventor(mani) Permit/Enforced(rukhsah,azeemah) Valid/Corrupt/Invalid(sahih,fasid,batil) Intime/Deferred/Repeat(adaa,qadaa,i'ada) Methodologiesofjurisprudence[edit] Mainarticle:Usulal-fiqh ThemodusoperandioftheMuslimjuristisknownasusulal-fiqh("principlesofjurisprudence"). TherearedifferentapproachestothemethodologyusedinjurisprudencetoderiveIslamicrulingsfromtheprimarysourcesofsharia(Islamiclaw).ThemainmethodologiesarethoseoftheSunni,Shi'aandIbadidenominations.WhilebothSunniandShi'ite(Shia)aredividedintosmallersub-schools,thedifferencesamongtheShi'iteschoolsisconsiderablygreater.Ibaditesonlyfollowasingleschoolwithoutdivisions. Fatawa WhileusingcourtdecisionsaslegalprecedentsandcaselawarecentraltoWesternlaw,theimportanceoftheinstitutionoffatawa(non-bindinganswersbyIslamiclegalscholarstolegalquestions)hasbeencalled"centraltothedevelopment"ofIslamicjurisprudence.[44]Thisisinpartbecauseofa"vacuum"intheothersourceofIslamiclaw,qada`(legalrulingsbystateappointedIslamicjudges)afterthefallofthelastcaliphatetheOttomanEmpire.[14]WhilethepracticeinIslamdatesbacktothetimeofMuhammad,accordingtoatleastonesource(MuhammadEl-Gamal),itis"modeledaftertheRomansystemofresponsa,"andgivesthequestioner"decisiveprimary-moveradvantageinchoosingthequestionanditswording."[14] Argumentsforandagainstreform Eachschool(madhhab)reflectsauniqueal-urforculture(aculturalpracticethatwasinfluencedbytraditions),thattheclassicaljuriststhemselveslivedin,whenrulingsweremade.Somesuggestthatthedisciplineofisnad,whichdevelopedtovalidatehadithmadeitrelativelyeasytorecordandvalidatealsotherulingsofjurists.This,inturn,madethemfareasiertoimitate(taqlid)thantochallengeinnewcontexts.Theargumentis,theschoolshavebeenmoreorlessfrozenforcenturies,andreflectaculturethatsimplynolongerexists.Traditionalscholarsholdthatreligionistheretoregulatehumanbehaviorandnurturepeople'smoralsideandsincehumannaturehasnotfundamentallychangedsincethebeginningofIslamacalltomodernizethereligionisessentiallyonetorelaxalllawsandinstitutions. Earlyshariahhadamuchmoreflexiblecharacter,andsomemodernMuslimscholarsbelievethatitshouldberenewed,andthattheclassicaljuristsshouldlosespecialstatus.Thiswouldrequireformulatinganewfiqhsuitableforthemodernworld,e.g.asproposedbyadvocatesoftheIslamizationofknowledge,whichwoulddealwiththemoderncontext.Thismodernizationisopposedbymostconservativeulema.Traditionalscholarsholdthatthelawsarecontextualandconsidercircumstancesuchastime,placeandculture,theprinciplestheyarebaseduponareuniversalsuchasjustice,equalityandrespect.ManyMuslimscholarsarguethateventhoughtechnologymayhaveadvanced,thefundamentalsofhumanlifehavenot. Fieldsofjurisprudence[edit] Criminal Economics Etiquette Family Hygienical Inheritance Marital Military Political Theological Schoolsofjurisprudence[edit] Mainarticle:Madhhab Thereareseveralschoolsoffiqhthought(Arabic:مذهبmaḏhab;pl.مذاهبmaḏāhib) MapoftheMuslimworldwiththemainmadh'habs. TheschoolsofSunniIslamareeachnamedbystudentsoftheclassicaljuristwhotaughtthem.TheSunnischools(andwheretheyarecommonlyfound)are Hanafi(Turkey,theBalkans,theLevant,CentralAsia,Indiansubcontinent,China,Alexandria,Egypt,andRussia'sMuslimcommunity) Maliki(NorthAfrica,WestAfricaandEasternArabia#Religion) Shafi'i(Kurdistan,Indonesia,Malaysia,Brunei,Cairo,EastAfrica,SouthernYemen,andsouthernpartsofIndia) Hanbali(SaudiArabia)seeWahhabism Zahiri(minoritycommunitiesinMoroccoandPakistan) Jariri,Laythi,Awza'i,Thawri,andQurtubinolongerexist. TheschoolsofShiaIslamcomprise: Ja'fari(TwelverShia:Iran,Azerbaijan,Iraq,Lebanon,etc.) Isma'ili(minoritycommunitiesinCentralAsia,Levant,India,andPakistan) Zaydi(NorthernYemen) EntirelyseparatefromboththeSunniandShiatraditions,KhawarijIslamhasevolveditsowndistinctschool. Ibadi(Oman) Theseschoolssharemanyoftheirrulings,butdifferontheparticularhadithstheyacceptasauthenticandtheweighttheygivetoanalogyorreason(qiyas)indecidingdifficulties. Therelationshipbetween(atleasttheSunni)schoolsofjurisprudenceandtheconflictbetweentheunityoftheShariahandthediversityoftheschools,wasexpressedbythe12thcenturyHanafischolarAbuHafsUmaran-Nasafi,whowrote:`Ourschooliscorrectwiththepossibilityoferror,andanotherschoolisinerrorwiththepossibilityofbeingcorrect.”[45] InfluenceonWesternlaws[edit] Mainarticle:Sharia:ClassicIslamiclaw AnumberofimportantlegalinstitutionsweredevelopedbyMuslimjuristsduringtheclassicalperiodofIslam,knownastheIslamicGoldenAge.OnesuchinstitutionwastheHawala,anearlyinformalvaluetransfersystem,whichismentionedintextsofIslamicjurisprudenceasearlyasthe8thcentury.HawalaitselflaterinfluencedthedevelopmentoftheagencyincommonlawandincivillawssuchastheavalinFrenchlawandtheavalloinItalianlaw.[46] TheWaqfinIslamiclaw,whichdevelopedduringthe7th–9thcenturies,bearsanotableresemblancetothetrustsintheEnglishtrustlaw.[47]Forexample,everyWaqfwasrequiredtohaveawaqif(settlor),mutawillis(trustee),qadi(judge)andbeneficiaries.[48]ThetrustlawdevelopedinEnglandatthetimeoftheCrusades,duringthe12thand13thcenturies,wasintroducedbyCrusaderswhomayhavebeeninfluencedbytheWaqfinstitutionstheycameacrossintheMiddleEast.[49][50] TheIslamiclafifwasabodyoftwelvemembersdrawnfromtheneighbourhoodandsworntotellthetruth,whowereboundtogiveaunanimousverdict,aboutmatters"whichtheyhadpersonallyseenorheard,bindingonthejudge,tosettlethetruthconcerningfactsinacase,betweenordinarypeople,andobtainedasofrightbytheplaintiff."TheonlycharacteristicoftheEnglishjurywhichtheIslamiclafiflackedwasthe"judicialwritdirectingthejurytobesummonedanddirectingthebailifftohearitsrecognition."AccordingtoProfessorJohnMakdisi,"nootherinstitutioninanylegalinstitutionstudiedtodatesharesallofthesecharacteristicswiththeEnglishjury."ItisthuslikelythattheconceptofthelafifmayhavebeenintroducedtoEnglandbytheNormans,whoconqueredbothEnglandandtheEmirateofSicily,andthenevolvedintothemodernEnglishjury.[51] SeveralotherfundamentalcommonlawinstitutionsmayhavebeenadaptedfromsimilarlegalinstitutionsinIslamiclawandjurisprudence,andintroducedtoEnglandbytheNormansaftertheNormanconquestofEnglandandtheEmirateofSicily,andbyCrusadersduringtheCrusades.Inparticular,the"royalEnglishcontractprotectedbytheactionofdebtisidentifiedwiththeIslamicAqd,theEnglishassizeofnoveldisseisinisidentifiedwiththeIslamicIstihqaq,andtheEnglishjuryisidentifiedwiththeIslamiclafif."JohnMakdisispeculatedthatEnglishlegalinstitutionssuchas"thescholasticmethod,thelicencetoteach",the"lawschoolsknownasInnsofCourtinEnglandandMadrasasinIslam"andthe"Europeancommenda"(IslamicQirad)mayhavealsooriginatedfromIslamiclaw.[51]Themethodologyoflegalprecedentandreasoningbyanalogy(Qiyas)arealsosimilarinboththeIslamicandcommonlawsystems.[52]TheseinfluenceshaveledsomescholarstosuggestthatIslamiclawmayhavelaidthefoundationsfor"thecommonlawasanintegratedwhole".[51] Seealso[edit] Islamportal Lawportal Abdallahal-Harari Traditionalisttheology Bahar-e-Shariat GlossaryofIslam IndexofIslam-relatedarticles Ja'farijurisprudence OutlineofIslam ListofIslamictermsinArabic Ma'ruf Mizan,acomprehensivetreatiseonthecontentsofIslamwrittenbyJavedAhmedGhamidi. Palestinianlaw SchoolsofIslamictheology SourcesofIslamiclaw Urf References[edit] Notes[edit] ^forexample,SunniHanbalischolar/preacherAl-Hasanibn'Alial-Barbahari(d.941)whoruledthestreetsofBaghdadfrom921-941CE,insistedthat"whoeverassertsthatthereisanypartofIslamwithwhichtheCompanionsoftheProphetdidnotprovideushascalledthem[theCompanionsoftheProphet]liars".[13] Citations[edit] ^"fiqh".CollinsEnglishDictionary. ^abFiqhEncyclopædiaBritannica ^abVogel,FrankE.(2000).IslamicLawandtheLegalSystemofSaudí:StudiesofSaudiArabia.Brill.pp. 4–5.ISBN 9004110623. ^Glasse,Cyril,TheNewEncyclopediaofIslam,Altamira,2001,p.141 ^Calder2009.sfnerror:notarget:CITEREFCalder2009(help) ^Schneider2014.sfnerror:notarget:CITEREFSchneider2014(help) ^MohammadTaqial-Modarresi(26March2016).TheLawsofIslam(PDF).EnlightPress.ISBN 978-0994240989.Retrieved22December2017. ^Levy(1957).p.150. ^أنیس,إبراهیم(1998).المعجمالوسیط.بیروت،لبنان:دارالفکر.p. 731. ^Maghen,Ze'ev(2003)."DeadTradition:JosephSchachtandtheOriginsof"PopularPractice"".IslamicLawandSociety.10(3):276–347.doi:10.1163/156851903770227575.JSTOR 3399422. ^abHawting,"JohnWansbrough,Islam,andMonotheism",2000:p.513 ^Hoyland,InGod'sPath,2015:p.223 ^Cook,Michael(2000).TheKoran :AVeryShortIntroduction.OxfordUniversityPress.p. 109.ISBN 0192853449. ^abcdefghijEl-Gamal,IslamicFinance,2006:pp.30–31 ^Weiss,BernardG.(2002).StudiesinIslamicLegalTheory,editedbyBernardG.Weiss,(Leiden:E.J.Brill,2002.pp.3,161.) ^Weiss,BernardG.(2002).StudiesinIslamicLegalTheory,editedbyBernardG.Weiss,(Leiden:E.J.Brill,2002.p.162.) ^Nyazee,ImranAhsanKhan(2000).IslamicJurisprudence(UsulAI-Fiqh).Islamabad:IslamicResearchInstitutePress. ^Asadulla,Abubakr(2009).IslamVs.West.ISBN 9780595501571. ^Rehman,Javaid(7June2005).IslamicStatePractices,InternationalLawandtheThreatfromTerrorism.ISBN 9781841135014. ^"ulama".bewley.virtualave.net. ^abc"Muwatta".bewley.virtualave.net. ^abcCoulson,NoelJames(1994).AHistoryofIslamicLaw.ISBN 9780748605149. ^Houtsma,M.Th(1993).E.J.Brill'sFirstEncyclopaediaofIslam,1913–1936.ISBN 9004097910. ^Šārôn,Moše(1986).StudiesinIslamicHistoryandCivilization.ISBN 9789652640147. ^Al-MuwattaofImamMalikIbnAnas,translatedbyAishaBewley(Book#5,Hadith#5.9.23)(Book#16,Hadith#16.1.1)(Book#17,Hadith#17.24.43)(Book#20,Hadith#20.10.40)(Book#20,Hadith#20.11.44)(Book#20,Hadith#20.32.108)(Book#20,Hadith#20.39.127)(Book#20,Hadith#20.40.132)(Book#20,Hadith#20.49.167)(Book#20,Hadith#20.57.190)(Book#26,Hadith#26.1.2)(Book#29,Hadith#29.5.17)(Book#36,Hadith#36.4.5)Al-Muwatta' ^Hasyim,Syafiq(2006).UnderstandingWomeninIslam.ISBN 9789793780191. ^Calder,Norman;Mojaddedi,JawidAhmad;Rippin,Andrew(2003).ClassicalIslam.ISBN 9780415240321. ^Brockopp,JonathanE.;Neusner,Jacob;Sonn,Tamara(27September2005).JudaismandIslaminPractice.ISBN 9781134605538. ^"JafarAl-Sadiq". ^"IMAMJAFARBINMUHAMMADAS-SADIQ(AS)".www.ziaraat.org. ^abKurzman,Charles(2002).ModernistIslam,1840–1940.ISBN 9780195154689. ^"SuratAl-Ma'idah[5:3]-TheNobleQur'an-القرآنالكريم".Archivedfromtheoriginalon25September2013.QuranSurahAl-Maaida(Verse3)Archived12June2018attheWaybackMachine ^Bukhari,Sahih."SahihBukhari :Read,Study,SearchOnline". ^NahjulBalaghaLetter54 ^Najeebabadi,AkbarShah(2001).TheHistoryofIslamV.2.Riyadh:Darussalam.p.110.ISBN 9960-892-88-3. ^"TheAdviceofAsmaabintAbuBakr(ra)tohersonAbdullahIbnZubair(ra)".Ummah.com-MuslimForum. ^Nahjal-BalaghaSermon71,Letter27,Letter34,Letter35 ^MuawiyaRestoreroftheMuslimFaithByAishaBewleyp.68 ^RashīdRiḍā,Muhammad(1996).TheMuhammadanRevelation.Alexandria,Virginia,VA22303,U.S.A:Al-SaadawiPublications.p. 127.ISBN 1-881963-55-1.{{citebook}}:CS1maint:location(link) ^abIrshadAbdelHaqq(2006).Ramadan,HishamM.(ed.).UnderstandingIslamicLaw:FromClassicaltoContemporary.RowmanAltamira.ISBN 9780759109919.Retrieved17August2016. ^B.Hallaq,Wael(2005).THEORIGINSANDEVOLUTIONOFISLAMICLAW.TheEdinburghBuilding,CambridgeCB28RU,UK:CambridgeUniversityPress.pp. 124,127.ISBN 978-0-521-80332-8.{{citebook}}:CS1maint:location(link) ^Lucas,ScottC.(2006)."TheLegalPrinciplesofMuhammadB.IsmāʿīlAl-BukhārīandTheirRelationshiptoClassicalSalafiIslam".IslamicLawandSociety.13(3):292.doi:10.1163/156851906778946341. ^MansoorMoaddel,IslamicModernism,Nationalism,andFundamentalism:EpisodeandDiscourse,pg.32.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2005. ^El-Gamal,IslamicFinance,2006:p.32 ^Brown,JonathanA.C.(2014).MisquotingMuhammad:TheChallengeandChoicesofInterpretingtheProphet'sLegacy.OneworldPublications.pp. 50-51.ISBN 978-1780744209.Retrieved4June2018. ^Badr,GamalMoursi(Spring1978)."IslamicLaw:ItsRelationtoOtherLegalSystems".TheAmericanJournalofComparativeLaw.AmericanSocietyofComparativeLaw.26(2–ProceedingsofanInternationalConferenceonComparativeLaw,SaltLakeCity,Utah,24–25February1977):187–198[196–98].doi:10.2307/839667.JSTOR 839667. ^Gaudiosi1988harvnberror:notarget:CITEREFGaudiosi1988(help) ^Gaudiosi1988,pp. 1237–40harvnberror:notarget:CITEREFGaudiosi1988(help) ^Hudson2003,p. 32harvnberror:notarget:CITEREFHudson2003(help) ^Gaudiosi1988,pp. 1244–45harvnberror:notarget:CITEREFGaudiosi1988(help) ^abcMakdisi1999 ^El-Gamal,MahmoudA.(2006).IslamicFinance:Law,Economics,andPractice.CambridgeUniversityPress.p. 16.ISBN 0-521-86414-3. Bibliography[edit] Doi,Abdar-RahmanI.,andClarke,Abdassamad(2008).Shari'ah:IslamicLaw.Ta-HaPublishersLtd.,ISBN 978-1-84200-087-8(hardback) Cilardo,Agostino,"Fiqh,Historyof",inMuhammadinHistory,Thought,andCulture:AnEncyclopediaoftheProphetofGod(2vols.),EditedbyC.FitzpatrickandA.Walker,SantaBarbara,ABC-CLIO,2014,VolI,pp. 201–206. Dahlén,Ashk(2003),IslamicLaw,EpistemologyandModernity.LegalPhilosophyinContemporaryIran,NewYork:Routledge,ISBN 9780415945295 El-Gamal,MahmoudA.(2006).IslamicFinance :Law,Economics,andPractice(PDF).CambridgeUniversityPress.Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)on3April2018.Retrieved28February2017. Gaudiosi,MonicaM(April1988)."TheInfluenceoftheIslamicLawofWaqfontheDevelopmentoftheTrustinEngland_TheCaseofMertonCollege".UniversityofPennsylvaniaLawReview.TheUniversityofPennsylvaniaLawReview.136(4):1231–1261.doi:10.2307/3312162.JSTOR 3312162. Hawting,G.R.(2000)."16.JohnWansbrough,Islam,andMonotheism".TheQuestfortheHistoricalMuhammad.NewYork:PrometheusBooks.pp. 489–509. Levy,Reuben(1957).TheSocialStructureofIslam.UK:CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-521-09182-4. Makdisi,JohnA.(June1999)."TheIslamicOriginsoftheCommonLaw".NorthCarolinaLawReview.77(5):1635–1739. Furtherreading[edit] Potz,Richard,IslamicLawandtheTransferofEuropeanLaw,EuropeanHistoryOnline,Mainz:InstituteofEuropeanHistory,2011.(Retrieved28November2011.) 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