Synthetic biology - Wikipedia

Synthetic biology (SynBio) is a multidisciplinary area of research that seeks to create new biological parts, devices, and systems, or to redesign systems ... Syntheticbiology FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Interdisciplinarybranchofbiologyandengineering "Artificiallifeform"redirectshere.Forsimulatedlifeforms,seeArtificiallife. SyntheticBiologyResearchatNASAAmesResearchCenter. PartofaseriesofarticlesonSyntheticbiology Syntheticbiologicalcircuits Syntheticgenedatabase BioBrick RegistryofStandardBiologicalParts Genomeediting CRISPR Genetherapy Syntheticimmunology Artificialcells Artificialgenesynthesis Syntheticgenomics Mycoplasmalaboratorium Protocell Xenobiology Nucleicacidanalogue Xenonucleicacid Unnaturalbasepair Expandedgeneticcode Mirrorlife Othertopics Hazards Opensyntheticbiology Do-it-yourselfbiology vte Syntheticbiology(SynBio)isamultidisciplinaryareaofresearchthatseekstocreatenewbiologicalparts,devices,andsystems,ortoredesignsystemsthatarealreadyfoundinnature. Itisabranchofsciencethatencompassesabroadrangeofmethodologiesfromvariousdisciplines,suchasbiotechnology,geneticengineering,molecularbiology,molecularengineering,systemsbiology,membranescience,biophysics,chemicalandbiologicalengineering,electricalandcomputerengineering,controlengineeringandevolutionarybiology. DuetomorepowerfulgeneticengineeringcapabilitiesanddecreasedDNAsynthesisandsequencingcosts,thefieldofsyntheticbiologyisrapidlygrowing.In2016,morethan350companiesacross40countrieswereactivelyengagedinsyntheticbiologyapplications;allthesecompanieshadanestimatednetworthof$3.9billionintheglobalmarket.[1] Contents 1Definition 2History 3Perspectives 4Enablingtechnologies 4.1DNAandgenesynthesis 4.2Sequencing 4.3Modularity 4.4Modeling 4.5Microfluidics 4.6Synthetictranscriptionfactors 5Applications 5.1Biosensors 5.2Foodanddrink 5.3Materials 5.4Biologicalcomputers 5.5Celltransformation 5.6Designedproteins 5.7Designednucleicacidsystems 5.8Spaceexploration 5.9Syntheticlife 5.10Drugdeliveryplatforms 5.10.1Engineeredbacteria-basedplatform 5.10.2Cell-basedplatform 5.11Organoids 5.12Bioprintedorgans 5.13Othertransplantsandinducedregeneration 5.14Nanoparticles,artificialcellsandmicro-droplets 6Ethics 6.1The"creation"oflife 6.2Ethicalsupportforsyntheticbiology 6.3Biosafetyandbiocontainment 6.4Biosecurity 6.5EuropeanUnion 6.6UnitedStates 6.7Opposition 7Healthandsafety 8Seealso 9References 10Bibliography 11Externallinks Definition[edit] Syntheticbiologycurrentlyhasnogenerallyaccepteddefinition.Hereareafewexamples: "theuseofamixtureofphysicalengineeringandgeneticengineeringtocreatenew(and,therefore,synthetic)lifeforms"[2] "anemergingfieldofresearchthataimstocombinetheknowledgeandmethodsofbiology,engineeringandrelateddisciplinesinthedesignofchemicallysynthesizedDNAtocreateorganismswithnovelorenhancedcharacteristicsandtraits"[3] "designingandconstructingbiologicalmodules,biologicalsystems,andbiologicalmachinesor,re-designofexistingbiologicalsystemsforusefulpurposes"[4] “applyingtheengineeringparadigmofsystemsdesigntobiologicalsystemsinordertoproducepredictableandrobustsystemswithnovelfunctionalitiesthatdonotexistinnature”(TheEuropeanCommission,2005)Thiscanincludethepossibilityofamolecularassembler,baseduponbiomolecularsystemssuchastheribosome[5] Syntheticbiologyhastraditionallybeendividedintotwodifferentapproaches:topdownandbottomup. Thetopdownapproachinvolvesusingmetabolicandgeneticengineeringtechniquestoimpartnewfunctionstolivingcells. Thebottomupapproachinvolvescreatingnewbiologicalsystemsinvitrobybringingtogether'non-living'biomolecularcomponents,[6]oftenwiththeaimofconstructinganartificialcell. Biologicalsystemsarethusassembledmodule-by-module.Cell-freeproteinexpressionsystemsareoftenemployed,[7][8][9]asaremembrane-basedmolecularmachinery.Thereareincreasingeffortstobridgethedividebetweentheseapproachesbyforminghybridliving/syntheticcells,[10]andengineeringcommunicationbetweenlivingandsyntheticcellpopulations.[11] History[edit] Furtherinformation:Timelineofbiotechnology 1910:Firstidentifiableuseoftheterm"syntheticbiology"inStéphaneLeduc'spublicationThéoriephysico-chimiquedelavieetgénérationsspontanées.[12]Healsonotedthisterminanotherpublication,LaBiologieSynthétiquein1912.[13] 1961:JacobandMonodpostulatecellularregulationbymolecularnetworksfromtheirstudyofthelacoperoninE.coliandenvisionedtheabilitytoassemblenewsystemsfrommolecularcomponents.[14] 1973:FirstmolecularcloningandamplificationofDNAinaplasmidispublishedinP.N.A.S.byCohen,Boyeretal.constitutingthedawnofsyntheticbiology.[15] 1978:Arber,NathansandSmithwintheNobelPrizeinPhysiologyorMedicineforthediscoveryofrestrictionenzymes,leadingSzybalskitoofferaneditorialcommentinthejournalGene: TheworkonrestrictionnucleasesnotonlypermitsuseasilytoconstructrecombinantDNAmoleculesandtoanalyzeindividualgenes,butalsohasledusintotheneweraofsyntheticbiologywherenotonlyexistinggenesaredescribedandanalyzedbutalsonewgenearrangementscanbeconstructedandevaluated.[16] 1988:FirstDNAamplificationbythepolymerasechainreaction(PCR)usingathermostableDNApolymeraseispublishedinSciencebyMullisetal.[17]ThisobviatedaddingnewDNApolymeraseaftereachPCRcycle,thusgreatlysimplifyingDNAmutagenesisandassembly. 2000:TwopapersinNaturereportsyntheticbiologicalcircuits,agenetictoggleswitchandabiologicalclock,bycombininggeneswithinE.colicells.[18][19] 2003:ThemostwidelyusedstandardizedDNAparts,BioBrickplasmids,areinventedbyTomKnight.[20]ThesepartswillbecomecentraltotheinternationalGeneticallyEngineeredMachinecompetition(iGEM)foundedatMITinthefollowingyear. SyntheticBiologyOpenLanguage(SBOL)standardvisualsymbolsforusewithBioBricksStandard 2003:ResearchersengineeranartemisininprecursorpathwayinE.coli.[21] 2004:Firstinternationalconferenceforsyntheticbiology,SyntheticBiology1.0(SB1.0)isheldattheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnology,USA. 2005:Researchersdevelopalight-sensingcircuitinE.coli.[22]Anothergroupdesignscircuitscapableofmulticellularpatternformation.[23] 2006:Researchersengineerasyntheticcircuitthatpromotesbacterialinvasionoftumourcells.[24] 2010:ResearcherspublishinSciencethefirstsyntheticbacterialgenome,calledM.mycoidesJCVI-syn1.0.[25][26]Thegenomeismadefromchemically-synthesizedDNAusingyeastrecombination. 2011:Functionalsyntheticchromosomearmsareengineeredinyeast.[27] 2012:CharpentierandDoudnalabspublishinSciencetheprogrammingofCRISPR-Cas9bacterialimmunityfortargetingDNAcleavage.[28]Thistechnologygreatlysimplifiedandexpandedeukaryoticgeneediting. 2019:ScientistsatETHZurichreportthecreationofthefirstbacterialgenome,namedCaulobacterethensis-2.0,madeentirelybyacomputer,althougharelatedviableformofC.ethensis-2.0doesnotyetexist.[29][30] 2019:Researchersreporttheproductionofanewsynthetic(possiblyartificial)formofviablelife,avariantofthebacteriaEscherichiacoli,byreducingthenaturalnumberof64codonsinthebacterialgenometo59codonsinstead,inordertoencode20aminoacids.[31][32] Perspectives[edit] Engineersviewbiologyasatechnology(inotherwords,agivensystemincludesbiotechnologyoritsbiologicalengineering)[33]Syntheticbiologyincludesthebroadredefinitionandexpansionofbiotechnology,withtheultimategoalsofbeingabletodesignandbuildengineeredlivebiologicalsystemsthatprocessinformation,manipulatechemicals,fabricatematerialsandstructures,produceenergy,providefood,andmaintainandenhancehumanhealth,aswellasadvancefundamentalknowledgeofbiologicalsystems(seeBiomedicalEngineering)andourenvironment.[34] Studiesinsyntheticbiologycanbesubdividedintobroadclassificationsaccordingtotheapproachtheytaketotheproblemathand:standardizationofbiologicalparts,biomolecularengineering,genomeengineering,metabolicengineering.[citationneeded] Biomolecularengineeringincludesapproachesthataimtocreateatoolkitoffunctionalunitsthatcanbeintroducedtopresentnewtechnologicalfunctionsinlivingcells.GeneticengineeringincludesapproachestoconstructsyntheticchromosomesorminimalorganismslikeMycoplasmalaboratorium. Biomoleculardesignreferstothegeneralideaofdenovodesignandadditivecombinationofbiomolecularcomponents.Eachoftheseapproachesshareasimilartask:todevelopamoresyntheticentityatahigherlevelofcomplexitybyinventivelymanipulatingasimplerpartattheprecedinglevel.[35][36]Optimizingtheseexogenouspathwaysinunnaturalsystemstakesiterativefinetuningoftheindividualbiomolecularcomponentstoselectforthehighestconcentrationsofthedesiredproduct.[37] Ontheotherhand,"re-writers"aresyntheticbiologistsinterestedintestingtheirreducibilityofbiologicalsystems.Duetothecomplexityofnaturalbiologicalsystems,itwouldbesimplertorebuildthenaturalsystemsofinterestfromthegroundup;Inordertoprovideengineeredsurrogatesthatareeasiertocomprehend,controlandmanipulate.[38]Re-writersdrawinspirationfromrefactoring,aprocesssometimesusedtoimprovecomputersoftware. Enablingtechnologies[edit] Severalnovelenablingtechnologieswerecriticaltothesuccessofsyntheticbiology.Conceptsincludestandardizationofbiologicalpartsandhierarchicalabstractiontopermitusingthosepartsinsyntheticsystems.[39]BasictechnologiesincludereadingandwritingDNA(sequencingandfabrication).Measurementsundermultipleconditionsareneededforaccuratemodelingandcomputer-aideddesign(CAD). DNAandgenesynthesis[edit] Mainarticles:ArtificialgenesynthesisandSyntheticgenomicsDrivenbydramaticdecreasesincostsofoligonucleotide("oligos")synthesisandtheadventofPCR,thesizesofDNAconstructionsfromoligoshaveincreasedtothegenomiclevel.[40]In2000,researchersreportedsynthesisofthe9.6kbp(kilobp)HepatitisCvirusgenomefromchemicallysynthesized60to80-mers.[41]In2002researchersatStonyBrookUniversitysucceededinsynthesizingthe7741bppoliovirusgenomefromitspublishedsequence,producingthesecondsyntheticgenome,spanningtwoyears.[42]In2003the5386bpgenomeofthebacteriophagePhiX174wasassembledinabouttwoweeks.[43]In2006,thesameteam,attheJ.CraigVenterInstitute,constructedandpatentedasyntheticgenomeofanovelminimalbacterium,Mycoplasmalaboratoriumandwereworkingongettingitfunctioninginalivingcell.[44][45][46] In2007itwasreportedthatseveralcompanieswereofferingsynthesisofgeneticsequencesupto2000basepairs(bp)long,forapriceofabout$1perbpandaturnaroundtimeoflessthantwoweeks.[47]Oligonucleotidesharvestedfromaphotolithographic-orinkjet-manufacturedDNAchipcombinedwithPCRandDNAmismatcherror-correctionallowsinexpensivelarge-scalechangesofcodonsingeneticsystemstoimprovegeneexpressionorincorporatenovelamino-acids(seeGeorgeM.Church'sandAnthonyForster'ssyntheticcellprojects.[48][49])Thisfavorsasynthesis-from-scratchapproach. Additionally,theCRISPR/Cassystemhasemergedasapromisingtechniqueforgeneediting.Itwasdescribedas"themostimportantinnovationinthesyntheticbiologyspaceinnearly30years".[50]Whileothermethodstakemonthsoryearstoeditgenesequences,CRISPRspeedsthattimeuptoweeks.[50]Duetoitseaseofuseandaccessibility,however,ithasraisedethicalconcerns,especiallysurroundingitsuseinbiohacking.[51][52][53] Sequencing[edit] DNAsequencingdeterminestheorderofnucleotidebasesinaDNAmolecule.SyntheticbiologistsuseDNAsequencingintheirworkinseveralways.First,large-scalegenomesequencingeffortscontinuetoprovideinformationonnaturallyoccurringorganisms.Thisinformationprovidesarichsubstratefromwhichsyntheticbiologistscanconstructpartsanddevices.Second,sequencingcanverifythatthefabricatedsystemisasintended.Third,fast,cheap,andreliablesequencingcanfacilitaterapiddetectionandidentificationofsyntheticsystemsandorganisms.[54] Modularity[edit] Themostused[55]: 22–23 standardizedDNApartsareBioBrickplasmids,inventedbyTomKnightin2003.[20]BiobricksarestoredattheRegistryofStandardBiologicalPartsinCambridge,Massachusetts.TheBioBrickstandardhasbeenusedbytensofthousandsofstudentsworldwideintheinternationalGeneticallyEngineeredMachine(iGEM)competition.[55]: 22–23  Sequenceoverlapbetweentwogeneticelements(genesorcodingsequences),calledoverlappinggenes,canpreventtheirindividualmanipulation.[56]Toincreasegenomemodularity,thepracticeofgenomerefactoringorimproving"theinternalstructureofanexistingsystemforfutureuse,whilesimultaneouslymaintainingexternalsystemfunction"[57]hasbeenadoptedacrosssyntheticbiologydisciplines.[56]Somenotableexamplesofrefactoringincludingthenitrogenfixationcluster[58]andtypeIIIsecretionsystem[59]alongwithbacteriophagesT7[57]andΦX174.[60] WhileDNAismostimportantforinformationstorage,alargefractionofthecell'sactivitiesarecarriedoutbyproteins.Toolscansendproteinstospecificregionsofthecellandtolinkdifferentproteinstogether.Theinteractionstrengthbetweenproteinpartnersshouldbetunablebetweenalifetimeofseconds(desirablefordynamicsignalingevents)uptoanirreversibleinteraction(desirablefordevicestabilityorresilienttoharshconditions).Interactionssuchascoiledcoils,[61]SH3domain-peptidebinding[62]orSpyTag/SpyCatcher[63]offersuchcontrol.Inadditionitisnecessarytoregulateprotein-proteininteractionsincells,suchaswithlight(usinglight-oxygen-voltage-sensingdomains)orcell-permeablesmallmoleculesbychemicallyinduceddimerization.[64] Inalivingcell,molecularmotifsareembeddedinabiggernetworkwithupstreamanddownstreamcomponents.Thesecomponentsmayalterthesignalingcapabilityofthemodelingmodule.Inthecaseofultrasensitivemodules,thesensitivitycontributionofamodulecandifferfromthesensitivitythatthemodulesustainsinisolation.[65][66] Modeling[edit] Modelsinformthedesignofengineeredbiologicalsystemsbybetterpredictingsystembehaviorpriortofabrication.Syntheticbiologybenefitsfrombettermodelsofhowbiologicalmoleculesbindsubstratesandcatalyzereactions,howDNAencodestheinformationneededtospecifythecellandhowmulti-componentintegratedsystemsbehave.Multiscalemodelsofgeneregulatorynetworksfocusonsyntheticbiologyapplications.Simulationscanmodelallbiomolecularinteractionsintranscription,translation,regulationandinductionofgeneregulatorynetworks.[67] [68] [69] Microfluidics[edit] Microfluidics,inparticulardropletmicrofluidics,isanemergingtoolusedtoconstructnewcomponents,andtoanalyseandcharacterizethem.[70][71]Itiswidelyemployedinscreeningassays.[72] Synthetictranscriptionfactors[edit] StudieshaveconsideredthecomponentsoftheDNAtranscriptionmechanism.OnedesireofscientistscreatingsyntheticbiologicalcircuitsistobeabletocontrolthetranscriptionofsyntheticDNAinunicellularorganisms(prokaryotes)andinmulticellularorganisms(eukaryotes).Onestudytestedtheadjustabilityofsynthetictranscriptionfactors(sTFs)inareasoftranscriptionoutputandcooperativeabilityamongmultipletranscriptionfactorcomplexes.[73]Researcherswereabletomutatefunctionalregionscalledzincfingers,theDNAspecificcomponentofsTFs,todecreasetheiraffinityforspecificoperatorDNAsequencesites,andthusdecreasetheassociatedsite-specificactivityofthesTF(usuallytranscriptionalregulation).Theyfurtherusedthezincfingersascomponentsofcomplex-formingsTFs,whicharetheeukaryotictranslationmechanisms.[73] Applications[edit] Biosensors[edit] Abiosensorreferstoanengineeredorganism,usuallyabacterium,thatiscapableofreportingsomeambientphenomenonsuchasthepresenceofheavymetalsortoxins.OnesuchsystemistheLuxoperonofAliivibriofischeri,[74]whichcodesfortheenzymethatisthesourceofbacterialbioluminescence,andcanbeplacedafterarespondentpromotertoexpresstheluminescencegenesinresponsetoaspecificenvironmentalstimulus.[75]Onesuchsensorcreated,consistedofabioluminescentbacterialcoatingonaphotosensitivecomputerchiptodetectcertainpetroleumpollutants.Whenthebacteriasensethepollutant,theyluminesce.[76]AnotherexampleofasimilarmechanismisthedetectionoflandminesbyanengineeredE.colireporterstraincapableofdetectingTNTanditsmaindegradationproductDNT,andconsequentlyproducingagreenfluorescentprotein(GFP).[77] Modifiedorganismscansenseenvironmentalsignalsandsendoutputsignalsthatcanbedetectedandservediagnosticpurposes.Microbecohortshavebeenused.[78] Biosensorscouldalsobeusedtodetectpathogenicsignatures–suchasofSARS-CoV-2–andcanbewearable.[79][80] Foodanddrink[edit] In2021,researcherspresentedabioprintingmethodtoproducesteak-likeculturedmeat.[81][82] Cellularagriculturefocusesontheproductionofagricultureproductsfromcellculturesusingacombinationofbiotechnology,tissueengineering,molecularbiology,andsyntheticbiologytocreateanddesignnewmethodsofproducingproteins,fats,andtissuesthatwouldotherwisecomefromtraditionalagriculture.Mostoftheindustryisfocusedonanimalproductssuchasmeat,milk,andeggs,producedincellcultureratherthanraisingandslaughteringfarmedlivestockwhichisassociatedwithsubstantialglobalproblemsofdetrimentalenvironmentalimpacts(e.g.ofmeatproduction),animalwelfare,foodsecurityandhumanhealth.Cellularagricultureisfieldofthebiobasedeconomy.Themostwellknowncellularagricultureconceptisculturedmeat.(Fullarticle...) However,notallsyntheticnutritionproductsareanimalfoodproducts–forinstance,asof2021therearealsoproductsofsyntheticcoffeethatarereportedtobeclosetocommercialization.[83][84][85]Similarfieldsofresearchandproductionbasedonsyntheticbiologythatcanbeusedfortheproductionoffoodanddrinkare: Geneticallyengineeredmicrobialfoodcultures(e.g.forsolar-energy-basedproteinpowder)[86][87] Cell-freeartificialsynthesis(e.g.syntheticstarch;[88][89]seeBiobasedeconomy#Agriculture) Materials[edit] Photosyntheticmicrobialcellshavebeenusedasasteptosyntheticproductionofspidersilk.[90][91] Biologicalcomputers[edit] Abiologicalcomputerreferstoanengineeredbiologicalsystemthatcanperformcomputer-likeoperations,whichisadominantparadigminsyntheticbiology.Researchersbuiltandcharacterizedavarietyoflogicgatesinanumberoforganisms,[92]anddemonstratedbothanaloganddigitalcomputationinlivingcells.Theydemonstratedthatbacteriacanbeengineeredtoperformbothanalogand/ordigitalcomputation.[93][94]Inhumancellsresearchdemonstratedauniversallogicevaluatorthatoperatesinmammaliancellsin2007.[95]Subsequently,researchersutilizedthisparadigmtodemonstrateaproof-of-concepttherapythatusesbiologicaldigitalcomputationtodetectandkillhumancancercellsin2011.[96]Anothergroupofresearchersdemonstratedin2016thatprinciplesofcomputerengineering,canbeusedtoautomatedigitalcircuitdesigninbacterialcells.[97]In2017,researchersdemonstratedthe'BooleanlogicandarithmeticthroughDNAexcision'(BLADE)systemtoengineerdigitalcomputationinhumancells.[98]In2019,researchersimplementedaperceptroninbiologicalsystemsopeningthewayformachinelearninginthesesystems.[99] Celltransformation[edit] Mainarticle:Transformation(genetics)Cellsuseinteractinggenesandproteins,whicharecalledgenecircuits,toimplementdiversefunction,suchasrespondingtoenvironmentalsignals,decisionmakingandcommunication.Threekeycomponentsareinvolved:DNA,RNAandSyntheticbiologistdesignedgenecircuitsthatcancontrolgeneexpressionfromseverallevelsincludingtranscriptional,post-transcriptionalandtranslationallevels. Traditionalmetabolicengineeringhasbeenbolsteredbytheintroductionofcombinationsofforeigngenesandoptimizationbydirectedevolution.ThisincludesengineeringE.coliandyeastforcommercialproductionofaprecursoroftheantimalarialdrug,Artemisinin.[100] Entireorganismshaveyettobecreatedfromscratch,althoughlivingcellscanbetransformedwithnewDNA.SeveralwaysallowconstructingsyntheticDNAcomponentsandevenentiresyntheticgenomes,butoncethedesiredgeneticcodeisobtained,itisintegratedintoalivingcellthatisexpectedtomanifestthedesirednewcapabilitiesorphenotypeswhilegrowingandthriving.[101]Celltransformationisusedtocreatebiologicalcircuits,whichcanbemanipulatedtoyielddesiredoutputs.[18][19] Byintegratingsyntheticbiologywithmaterialsscience,itwouldbepossibletousecellsasmicroscopicmolecularfoundriestoproducematerialswithpropertieswhosepropertiesweregeneticallyencoded.Re-engineeringhasproducedCurlifibers,theamyloidcomponentofextracellularmaterialofbiofilms,asaplatformforprogrammablenanomaterial.Thesenanofibersweregeneticallyconstructedforspecificfunctions,includingadhesiontosubstrates,nanoparticletemplatingandproteinimmobilization.[102] Designedproteins[edit] TheTop7proteinwasoneofthefirstproteinsdesignedforafoldthathadneverbeenseenbeforeinnature[103] Naturalproteinscanbeengineered,forexample,bydirectedevolution,novelproteinstructuresthatmatchorimproveonthefunctionalityofexistingproteinscanbeproduced.Onegroupgeneratedahelixbundlethatwascapableofbindingoxygenwithsimilarpropertiesashemoglobin,yetdidnotbindcarbonmonoxide.[104]Asimilarproteinstructurewasgeneratedtosupportavarietyofoxidoreductaseactivities[105]whileanotherformedastructurallyandsequentiallynovelATPase.[106]AnothergroupgeneratedafamilyofG-proteincoupledreceptorsthatcouldbeactivatedbytheinertsmallmoleculeclozapineN-oxidebutinsensitivetothenativeligand,acetylcholine;thesereceptorsareknownasDREADDs.[107]Novelfunctionalitiesorproteinspecificitycanalsobeengineeredusingcomputationalapproaches.Onestudywasabletousetwodifferentcomputationalmethods–abioinformaticsandmolecularmodelingmethodtominesequencedatabases,andacomputationalenzymedesignmethodtoreprogramenzymespecificity.Bothmethodsresultedindesignedenzymeswithgreaterthan100foldspecificityforproductionoflongerchainalcoholsfromsugar.[108] Anothercommoninvestigationisexpansionofthenaturalsetof20aminoacids.Excludingstopcodons,61codonshavebeenidentified,butonly20aminoacidsarecodedgenerallyinallorganisms.Certaincodonsareengineeredtocodeforalternativeaminoacidsincluding:nonstandardaminoacidssuchasO-methyltyrosine;orexogenousaminoacidssuchas4-fluorophenylalanine.Typically,theseprojectsmakeuseofre-codednonsensesuppressortRNA-AminoacyltRNAsynthetasepairsfromotherorganisms,thoughinmostcasessubstantialengineeringisrequired.[109] Otherresearchersinvestigatedproteinstructureandfunctionbyreducingthenormalsetof20aminoacids.Limitedproteinsequencelibrariesaremadebygeneratingproteinswheregroupsofaminoacidsmaybereplacedbyasingleaminoacid.[110]Forinstance,severalnon-polaraminoacidswithinaproteincanallbereplacedwithasinglenon-polaraminoacid.[111]OneprojectdemonstratedthatanengineeredversionofChorismatemutasestillhadcatalyticactivitywhenonly9aminoacidswereused.[112] Researchersandcompaniespracticesyntheticbiologytosynthesizeindustrialenzymeswithhighactivity,optimalyieldsandeffectiveness.Thesesynthesizedenzymesaimtoimproveproductssuchasdetergentsandlactose-freedairyproducts,aswellasmakethemmorecosteffective.[113]Theimprovementsofmetabolicengineeringbysyntheticbiologyisanexampleofabiotechnologicaltechniqueutilizedinindustrytodiscoverpharmaceuticalsandfermentivechemicals.Syntheticbiologymayinvestigatemodularpathwaysystemsinbiochemicalproductionandincreaseyieldsofmetabolicproduction.Artificialenzymaticactivityandsubsequenteffectsonmetabolicreactionratesandyieldsmaydevelop"efficientnewstrategiesforimprovingcellularproperties...forindustriallyimportantbiochemicalproduction".[114] Designednucleicacidsystems[edit] ScientistscanencodedigitalinformationontoasinglestrandofsyntheticDNA.In2012,GeorgeM.ChurchencodedoneofhisbooksaboutsyntheticbiologyinDNA.The5.3Mbofdatawasmorethan1000timesgreaterthanthepreviouslargestamountofinformationtobestoredinsynthesizedDNA.[115]AsimilarprojectencodedthecompletesonnetsofWilliamShakespeareinDNA.[116]Moregenerally,algorithmssuchasNUPACK,[117]ViennaRNA,[118]RibosomeBindingSiteCalculator,[119]Cello,[120]andNon-RepetitivePartsCalculator[121]enablesthedesignofnewgeneticsystems. Manytechnologieshavebeendevelopedforincorporatingunnaturalnucleotidesandaminoacidsintonucleicacidsandproteins,bothinvitroandinvivo.Forexample,inMay2014,researchersannouncedthattheyhadsuccessfullyintroducedtwonewartificialnucleotidesintobacterialDNA.Byincludingindividualartificialnucleotidesintheculturemedia,theywereabletoexchangethebacteria24times;theydidnotgeneratemRNAorproteinsabletousetheartificialnucleotides.[122][123][124] Spaceexploration[edit] SyntheticbiologyraisedNASA'sinterestasitcouldhelptoproduceresourcesforastronautsfromarestrictedportfolioofcompoundssentfromEarth.[125][126][127]OnMars,inparticular,syntheticbiologycouldleadtoproductionprocessesbasedonlocalresources,makingitapowerfultoolinthedevelopmentofmannedoutpostswithlessdependenceonEarth.[125]WorkhasgoneintodevelopingplantstrainsthatareabletocopewiththeharshMartianenvironment,usingsimilartechniquestothoseemployedtoincreaseresiliencetocertainenvironmentalfactorsinagriculturalcrops.[128] Syntheticlife[edit] Furtherinformation:ArtificialcellandHypotheticaltypesofbiochemistry Genefunctionsintheminimalgenomeofthesyntheticorganism,Syn3.[129] Oneimportanttopicinsyntheticbiologyissyntheticlife,thatisconcernedwithhypotheticalorganismscreatedinvitrofrombiomoleculesand/orchemicalanaloguesthereof.Syntheticlifeexperimentsattempttoeitherprobetheoriginsoflife,studysomeofthepropertiesoflife,ormoreambitiouslytorecreatelifefromnon-living(abiotic)components.Syntheticlifebiologyattemptstocreatelivingorganismscapableofcarryingoutimportantfunctions,frommanufacturingpharmaceuticalstodetoxifyingpollutedlandandwater.[130]Inmedicine,itoffersprospectsofusingdesignerbiologicalpartsasastartingpointfornewclassesoftherapiesanddiagnostictools.[130] Aliving"artificialcell"hasbeendefinedasacompletelysyntheticcellthatcancaptureenergy,maintainiongradients,containmacromoleculesaswellasstoreinformationandhavetheabilitytomutate.[131]Nobodyhasbeenabletocreatesuchacell.[131] Acompletelysyntheticbacterialchromosomewasproducedin2010byCraigVenter,andhisteamintroducedittogenomicallyemptiedbacterialhostcells.[25]Thehostcellswereabletogrowandreplicate.[132][133]TheMycoplasmalaboratoriumistheonlylivingorganismwithcompletelyengineeredgenome. Thefirstlivingorganismwith'artificial'expandedDNAcodewaspresentedin2014;theteamusedE.colithathaditsgenomeextractedandreplacedwithachromosomewithanexpandedgeneticcode.Thenucleosidesaddedared5SICSanddNaM.[124] InMay2019,researchers,inamilestoneeffort,reportedthecreationofanewsynthetic(possiblyartificial)formofviablelife,avariantofthebacteriaEscherichiacoli,byreducingthenaturalnumberof64codonsinthebacterialgenometo59codonsinstead,inordertoencode20aminoacids.[31][32] In2017theinternationalBuild-a-Celllarge-scaleresearchcollaborationfortheconstructionofsyntheticlivingcellwasstarted,[134]followedbynationalsyntheticcellorganizationsinseveralcountries,includingFabriCell,[135]MaxSynBio[136]andBaSyC.[137]TheEuropeansyntheticcelleffortswereunifiedin2019asSynCellEUinitiative.[138] Drugdeliveryplatforms[edit] Engineeredbacteria-basedplatform[edit] Bacteriahavelongbeenusedincancertreatment.BifidobacteriumandClostridiumselectivelycolonizetumorsandreducetheirsize.[139]Recentlysyntheticbiologistsreprogrammedbacteriatosenseandrespondtoaparticularcancerstate.Mostoftenbacteriaareusedtodeliveratherapeuticmoleculedirectlytothetumortominimizeoff-targeteffects.Totargetthetumorcells,peptidesthatcanspecificallyrecognizeatumorwereexpressedonthesurfacesofbacteria.Peptidesusedincludeanaffibodymoleculethatspecificallytargetshumanepidermalgrowthfactorreceptor2[140]andasyntheticadhesin.[141]Theotherwayistoallowbacteriatosensethetumormicroenvironment,forexamplehypoxia,bybuildinganANDlogicgateintobacteria.[142]Thebacteriathenonlyreleasetargettherapeuticmoleculestothetumorthrougheitherlysis[143]orthebacterialsecretionsystem.[144]Lysishastheadvantagethatitcanstimulatetheimmunesystemandcontrolgrowth.Multipletypesofsecretionsystemscanbeusedandotherstrategiesaswell.Thesystemisinduciblebyexternalsignals.Inducersincludechemicals,electromagneticorlightwaves. Multiplespeciesandstrainsareappliedinthesetherapeutics.MostcommonlyusedbacteriaareSalmonellatyphimurium,EscherichiaColi,Bifidobacteria,Streptococcus,Lactobacillus,ListeriaandBacillussubtilis.Eachofthesespecieshavetheirownpropertyandareuniquetocancertherapyintermsoftissuecolonization,interactionwithimmunesystemandeaseofapplication. Cell-basedplatform[edit] Theimmunesystemplaysanimportantroleincancerandcanbeharnessedtoattackcancercells.Cell-basedtherapiesfocusonimmunotherapies,mostlybyengineeringTcells. Tcellreceptorswereengineeredand‘trained’todetectcancerepitopes.Chimericantigenreceptors(CARs)arecomposedofafragmentofanantibodyfusedtointracellularTcellsignalingdomainsthatcanactivateandtriggerproliferationofthecell.AsecondgenerationCAR-basedtherapywasapprovedbyFDA.[citationneeded] Geneswitchesweredesignedtoenhancesafetyofthetreatment.Killswitchesweredevelopedtoterminatethetherapyshouldthepatientshowseveresideeffects.[145]Mechanismscanmorefinelycontrolthesystemandstopandreactivateit.[146][147]SincethenumberofT-cellsareimportantfortherapypersistenceandseverity,growthofT-cellsisalsocontrolledtodialtheeffectivenessandsafetyoftherapeutics.[148] Althoughseveralmechanismscanimprovesafetyandcontrol,limitationsincludethedifficultyofinducinglargeDNAcircuitsintothecellsandrisksassociatedwithintroducingforeigncomponents,especiallyproteins,intocells. Organoids[edit] Syntheticbiologyhasbeenusedfororganoids.[149] Bioprintedorgans[edit] Thissectionistranscludedfrom3Dbioprinting.(edit|history) Thereareseveralapplicationsfor3Dbioprintinginthemedicalfield.Aninfantpatientwithararerespiratorydiseaseknownastracheobronchomalacia(TBM)wasgivenatrachealsplintthatwascreatedwith3Dprinting.[150]3Dbioprintingcanbeusedtoreconstructtissuefromvariousregionsofthebody.Patientswithend-stagebladderdiseasecanbetreatedbyusingengineeredbladdertissuestorebuildthedamagedorgan.[151]Thistechnologycanalsopotentiallybeappliedtobone,skin,cartilageandmuscletissue.[152]Thoughonelong-termgoalof3Dbioprintingtechnologyistoreconstructanentireorgan,therehasbeenlittlesuccessinprintingfullyfunctionalorgans.[153]Unlikeimplantablestents,organshavecomplexshapesandaresignificantlyhardertobioprint.Abioprintedheart,forexample,mustnotonlymeetstructuralrequirements,butalsovascularization,mechanicalload,andelectricalsignalpropagationrequirements.[154]Israeliresearchersconstructedarabbit-sizedheartoutofhumancellsin2019.[155] Forbioprintedfoodlikemeatsee#Foodanddrink. Othertransplantsandinducedregeneration[edit] Thereisongoingresearchanddevelopmentintosyntheticbiologybasedmethodsforinducingregenerationinhumans[relevancequestioned]aswellthecreationoftransplantableartificialorgans. Nanoparticles,artificialcellsandmicro-droplets[edit] Seealso:Brain–computerinterface,Nanomedicine,andPrecisionmedicine Syntheticbiologycanbeusedforcreatingnanoparticleswhichcanbeusedfordrug-deliveryaswellasforotherpurposes.[156]Complementingresearchanddevelopmentseekstoandhascreatedsyntheticcellsthatmimicsfunctionsofbiologicalcells.Applicationsincludemedicinesuchasdesigner-nanoparticlesthatmakebloodcellseataway–fromtheinsideout–portionsofatheroscleroticplaquethatcauseheartattacks.[157][158][159]Syntheticmicro-dropletsforalgalcellsorsynergisticalgal-bacterialmulticellularspheroidmicrobialreactors,forexample,couldbeusedtoproducehydrogenashydrogeneconomybiotechnology.[160][161] Ethics[edit] Thissectionneedstobeupdated.Pleasehelpupdatethisarticletoreflectrecenteventsornewlyavailableinformation.(January2019) Furtherinformation:BioethicsandBioeconomy§ Issues Thecreationofnewlifeandthetamperingofexistinglifehasraisedethicalconcernsinthefieldofsyntheticbiologyandareactivelybeingdiscussed.[162][163] Commonethicalquestionsinclude: Isitmorallyrighttotamperwithnature? IsoneplayingGodwhencreatingnewlife? Whathappensifasyntheticorganismaccidentallyescapes? Whatifanindividualmisusessyntheticbiologyandcreatesaharmfulentity(e.g.,abiologicalweapon)? Whowillhavecontrolofandaccesstotheproductsofsyntheticbiology? Whowillgainfromtheseinnovations?Investors?Medicalpatients?Industrialfarmers? Doesthepatentsystemallowpatentsonlivingorganisms?Whataboutpartsoforganisms,likeHIVresistancegenesinhumans?[164] Whatifanewcreationisdeservingofmoralorlegalstatus? Theethicalaspectsofsyntheticbiologyhas3mainfeatures:biosafety,biosecurity,andthecreationofnewlifeforms.[165]Otherethicalissuesmentionedincludetheregulationofnewcreations,patentmanagementofnewcreations,benefitdistribution,andresearchintegrity.[166][162] EthicalissueshavesurfacedforrecombinantDNAandgeneticallymodifiedorganism(GMO)technologiesandextensiveregulationsofgeneticengineeringandpathogenresearchwereinplaceinmanyjurisdictions.AmyGutmann,formerheadofthePresidentialBioethicsCommission,arguedthatweshouldavoidthetemptationtoover-regulatesyntheticbiologyingeneral,andgeneticengineeringinparticular.AccordingtoGutmann,"Regulatoryparsimonyisespeciallyimportantinemergingtechnologies...wherethetemptationtostifleinnovationonthebasisofuncertaintyandfearoftheunknownisparticularlygreat.Thebluntinstrumentsofstatutoryandregulatoryrestraintmaynotonlyinhibitthedistributionofnewbenefits,butcanbecounterproductivetosecurityandsafetybypreventingresearchersfromdevelopingeffectivesafeguards.".[167] The"creation"oflife[edit] Oneethicalquestioniswhetherornotitisacceptabletocreatenewlifeforms,sometimesknownas"playingGod".Currently,thecreationofnewlifeformsnotpresentinnatureisatsmall-scale,thepotentialbenefitsanddangersremainunknown,andcarefulconsiderationandoversightareensuredformoststudies.[162]Manyadvocatesexpressthegreatpotentialvalue—toagriculture,medicine,andacademicknowledge,amongotherfields—ofcreatingartificiallifeforms.Creationofnewentitiescouldexpandscientificknowledgewellbeyondwhatiscurrentlyknownfromstudyingnaturalphenomena.Yetthereisconcernthatartificiallifeformsmayreducenature's"purity"(i.e.,naturecouldbesomehowcorruptedbyhumaninterventionandmanipulation)andpotentiallyinfluencetheadoptionofmoreengineering-likeprinciplesinsteadofbiodiversity-andnature-focusedideals.Somearealsoconcernedthatifanartificiallifeformweretobereleasedintonature,itcouldhamperbiodiversitybybeatingoutnaturalspeciesforresources(similartohowalgalbloomskillmarinespecies).Anotherconcerninvolvestheethicaltreatmentofnewlycreatedentitiesiftheyhappentosensepain,sentience,andself-perception.Shouldsuchlifebegivenmoralorlegalrights?Ifso,how? Ethicalsupportforsyntheticbiology[edit] Ethicsandmoralrationalesthatsupportcertainapplicationsofsyntheticbiologyincludetheirpotentialmititgationofsubstantialglobalproblemsofdetrimentalenvironmentalimpactsofconventionalagriculture(includingmeatproduction),animalwelfare,foodsecurityandhumanhealth,[168][169][170][171][172]aswellaspotentialreductionofhumanlaborneedsand,viatherapiesofdiseases,reductionofhumansufferingandprolongedlife. Biosafetyandbiocontainment[edit] Whatismostethicallyappropriatewhenconsideringbiosafetymeasures?Howcanaccidentalintroductionofsyntheticlifeinthenaturalenvironmentbeavoided?Muchethicalconsiderationandcriticalthoughthasbeengiventothesequestions.Biosafetynotonlyreferstobiologicalcontainment;italsoreferstostridestakentoprotectthepublicfrompotentiallyhazardousbiologicalagents.Eventhoughsuchconcernsareimportantandremainunanswered,notallproductsofsyntheticbiologypresentconcernforbiologicalsafetyornegativeconsequencesfortheenvironment.Itisarguedthatmostsynthetictechnologiesarebenignandareincapableofflourishingintheoutsideworldduetotheir"unnatural"characteristicsasthereisyettobeanexampleofatransgenicmicrobeconferredwithafitnessadvantageinthewild. Ingeneral,existinghazardcontrols,riskassessmentmethodologies,andregulationsdevelopedfortraditionalgeneticallymodifiedorganisms(GMOs)areconsideredtobesufficientforsyntheticorganisms."Extrinsic"biocontainmentmethodsinalaboratorycontextincludephysicalcontainmentthroughbiosafetycabinetsandgloveboxes,aswellaspersonalprotectiveequipment.Inanagriculturalcontexttheyincludeisolationdistancesandpollenbarriers,similartomethodsforbiocontainmentofGMOs.Syntheticorganismsmayofferincreasedhazardcontrolbecausetheycanbeengineeredwith"intrinsic"biocontainmentmethodsthatlimittheirgrowthinanuncontainedenvironment,orpreventhorizontalgenetransfertonaturalorganisms.Examplesofintrinsicbiocontainmentincludeauxotrophy,biologicalkillswitches,inabilityoftheorganismtoreplicateortopassmodifiedorsyntheticgenestooffspring,andtheuseofxenobiologicalorganismsusingalternativebiochemistry,forexampleusingartificialxenonucleicacids(XNA)insteadofDNA.[173][174]Regardingauxotrophy,bacteriaandyeastcanbeengineeredtobeunabletoproducehistidine,animportantaminoacidforalllife.Suchorganismscanthusonlybegrownonhistidine-richmediainlaboratoryconditions,nullifyingfearsthattheycouldspreadintoundesirableareas. Biosecurity[edit] Someethicalissuesrelatetobiosecurity,wherebiosynthetictechnologiescouldbedeliberatelyusedtocauseharmtosocietyand/ortheenvironment.Sincesyntheticbiologyraisesethicalissuesandbiosecurityissues,humanitymustconsiderandplanonhowtodealwithpotentiallyharmfulcreations,andwhatkindsofethicalmeasurescouldpossiblybeemployedtodeternefariousbiosynthetictechnologies.Withtheexceptionofregulatingsyntheticbiologyandbiotechnologycompanies,[175][176]however,theissuesarenotseenasnewbecausetheywereraisedduringtheearlierrecombinantDNAandgeneticallymodifiedorganism(GMO)debatesandextensiveregulationsofgeneticengineeringandpathogenresearcharealreadyinplaceinmanyjurisdictions.[177] EuropeanUnion[edit] TheEuropeanUnion-fundedprojectSYNBIOSAFE[178]hasissuedreportsonhowtomanagesyntheticbiology.A2007paperidentifiedkeyissuesinsafety,security,ethicsandthescience-societyinterface,whichtheprojectdefinedaspubliceducationandongoingdialogueamongscientists,businesses,governmentandethicists.[179][180]ThekeysecurityissuesthatSYNBIOSAFEidentifiedinvolvedengagingcompaniesthatsellsyntheticDNAandthebiohackingcommunityofamateurbiologists.Keyethicalissuesconcernedthecreationofnewlifeforms. Asubsequentreportfocusedonbiosecurity,especiallytheso-calleddual-usechallenge.Forexample,whilesyntheticbiologymayleadtomoreefficientproductionofmedicaltreatments,itmayalsoleadtosynthesisormodificationofharmfulpathogens(e.g.,smallpox).[181]Thebiohackingcommunityremainsasourceofspecialconcern,asthedistributedanddiffusenatureofopen-sourcebiotechnologymakesitdifficulttotrack,regulateormitigatepotentialconcernsoverbiosafetyandbiosecurity.[182] COSY,anotherEuropeaninitiative,focusesonpublicperceptionandcommunication.[183][184][185]Tobettercommunicatesyntheticbiologyanditssocietalramificationstoabroaderpublic,COSYandSYNBIOSAFEpublishedSYNBIOSAFE,a38-minutedocumentaryfilm,inOctober2009.[186] TheInternationalAssociationSyntheticBiologyhasproposedself-regulation.[187]Thisproposesspecificmeasuresthatthesyntheticbiologyindustry,especiallyDNAsynthesiscompanies,shouldimplement.In2007,agroupledbyscientistsfromleadingDNA-synthesiscompaniespublisheda"practicalplanfordevelopinganeffectiveoversightframeworkfortheDNA-synthesisindustry".[175] UnitedStates[edit] InJanuary2009,theAlfredP.SloanFoundationfundedtheWoodrowWilsonCenter,theHastingsCenter,andtheJ.CraigVenterInstitutetoexaminethepublicperception,ethicsandpolicyimplicationsofsyntheticbiology.[188] OnJuly9–10,2009,theNationalAcademies'CommitteeofScience,Technology&Lawconvenedasymposiumon"OpportunitiesandChallengesintheEmergingFieldofSyntheticBiology".[189] Afterthepublicationofthefirstsyntheticgenomeandtheaccompanyingmediacoverageabout"life"beingcreated,PresidentBarackObamaestablishedthePresidentialCommissionfortheStudyofBioethicalIssuestostudysyntheticbiology.[190]Thecommissionconvenedaseriesofmeetings,andissuedareportinDecember2010titled"NewDirections:TheEthicsofSyntheticBiologyandEmergingTechnologies."Thecommissionstatedthat"whileVenter'sachievementmarkedasignificanttechnicaladvanceindemonstratingthatarelativelylargegenomecouldbeaccuratelysynthesizedandsubstitutedforanother,itdidnotamounttothe“creationoflife”.[191]Itnotedthatsyntheticbiologyisanemergingfield,whichcreatespotentialrisksandrewards.Thecommissiondidnotrecommendpolicyoroversightchangesandcalledforcontinuedfundingoftheresearchandnewfundingformonitoring,studyofemergingethicalissuesandpubliceducation.[177] Syntheticbiology,asamajortoolforbiologicaladvances,resultsinthe"potentialfordevelopingbiologicalweapons,possibleunforeseennegativeimpactsonhumanhealth...andanypotentialenvironmentalimpact".[192]Theproliferationofsuchtechnologycouldalsomaketheproductionofbiologicalandchemicalweaponsavailabletoawiderarrayofstateandnon-stateactors.[193]Thesesecurityissuesmaybeavoidedbyregulatingindustryusesofbiotechnologythroughpolicylegislation.Federalguidelinesongeneticmanipulationarebeingproposedby"thePresident'sBioethicsCommission...inresponsetotheannouncedcreationofaself-replicatingcellfromachemicallysynthesizedgenome,putforward18recommendationsnotonlyforregulatingthescience...foreducatingthepublic".[192] Opposition[edit] OnMarch13,2012,over100environmentalandcivilsocietygroups,includingFriendsoftheEarth,theInternationalCenterforTechnologyAssessmentandtheETCGroupissuedthemanifestoThePrinciplesfortheOversightofSyntheticBiology.Thismanifestocallsforaworldwidemoratoriumonthereleaseandcommercialuseofsyntheticorganismsuntilmorerobustregulationsandrigorousbiosafetymeasuresareestablished.Thegroupsspecificallycallforanoutrightbanontheuseofsyntheticbiologyonthehumangenomeorhumanmicrobiome.[194][195]RichardLewontinwrotethatsomeofthesafetytenetsforoversightdiscussedinThePrinciplesfortheOversightofSyntheticBiologyarereasonable,butthatthemainproblemwiththerecommendationsinthemanifestoisthat"thepublicatlargelackstheabilitytoenforceanymeaningfulrealizationofthoserecommendations".[196] Healthandsafety[edit] Mainarticle:Hazardsofsyntheticbiology Thehazardsofsyntheticbiologyincludebiosafetyhazardstoworkersandthepublic,biosecurityhazardsstemmingfromdeliberateengineeringoforganismstocauseharm,andenvironmentalhazards.Thebiosafetyhazardsaresimilartothoseforexistingfieldsofbiotechnology,mainlyexposuretopathogensandtoxicchemicals,althoughnovelsyntheticorganismsmayhavenovelrisks.[197][173]Forbiosecurity,thereisconcernthatsyntheticorredesignedorganismscouldtheoreticallybeusedforbioterrorism.Potentialrisksincluderecreatingknownpathogensfromscratch,engineeringexistingpathogenstobemoredangerous,andengineeringmicrobestoproduceharmfulbiochemicals.[198]Lastly,environmentalhazardsincludeadverseeffectsonbiodiversityandecosystemservices,includingpotentialchangestolanduseresultingfromagriculturaluseofsyntheticorganisms.[199][200]Syntheticbiologyisanexampleofadual-usetechnologywiththepotentialtobeusedinwaysthatcouldintentionallyorunintentionallyharmhumansand/ordamagetheenvironment.Often"scientists,theirhostinstitutionsandfundingbodies"considerwhethertheplannedresearchcouldbemisusedandsometimesimplementmeasurestoreducethelikelihoodofmisuse.[201] ExistingriskanalysissystemsforGMOsaregenerallyconsideredsufficientforsyntheticorganisms,althoughtheremaybedifficultiesforanorganismbuilt"bottom-up"fromindividualgeneticsequences.[174][202]SyntheticbiologygenerallyfallsunderexistingregulationsforGMOsandbiotechnologyingeneral,andanyregulationsthatexistfordownstreamcommercialproducts,althoughtherearegenerallynoregulationsinanyjurisdictionthatarespecifictosyntheticbiology.[203][204] Seealso[edit] ACSSyntheticBiology(journal) Bioengineering Biomimicry CarlsonCurve Chirallifeconcept Computationalbiology Computationalbiomodeling DNAdigitaldatastorage Engineeringbiology InternationalGeneticallyEngineeredMachine Non-cellularlife Opensyntheticbiology Regenerativemedicine Syntheticintelligence Syntheticmorphology Syntheticvirology SystemsandSyntheticBiology(journal) Tissueengineering Xenobiology References[edit] 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Syntheticbiologybookspopularsciencebookandtextbooks IntroductorySummaryofSyntheticBiology.Conciseoverviewofsyntheticbiologyconcepts,developmentsandapplications CollaborativeoverviewarticleonSyntheticBiology ControversialDNAstartupwantstoletcustomerscreatecreatures(2015-01-03),SanFranciscoChronicle It'sAlive,ButIsItLife:SyntheticBiologyandtheFutureofCreation(28September2016),WorldScienceFestival vteBranchesofbiology Abiogenesis Aerobiology Agrostology Anatomy Astrobiology Bacteriology Biochemistry Biogeography Biogeology Biohistory Bioinformatics Biologicalengineering Biomechanics Biophysics Biosemiotics Biostatistics Biotechnology Botany Cellbiology Cellularmicrobiology Chemicalbiology Chronobiology Cognitivebiology Computationalbiology Conservationbiology Cryobiology Cytogenetics Dendrology Developmentalbiology Ecologicalgenetics Ecology Embryology Epidemiology Epigenetics Evolutionarybiology Freshwaterbiology Genetics Genomics Geobiology Gerontology Herpetology Histology Humanbiology 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