Dhyana in Buddhism - Wikipedia

Dhyāna may have been the core practice of pre-sectarian Buddhism, in combination with several related practices which together lead to perfected mindfulness and ... DhyanainBuddhism FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Trainingofthemindthroughmeditation Seealso:Samadhi,Samatha,Vipassanā,andDhyanainHinduism DhyānaChinesenameTraditional Chinese禪SimplifiedChinese禅TranscriptionsStandardMandarinHanyuPinyinChánWade–GilesCh’anYue:CantoneseJyutpingsim4TibetannameTibetanབསམ་གཏནTranscriptionsWyliebsamgtanVietnamesenameVietnamesealphabetThiềnHán-Nôm禪KoreannameHangul선Hanja禪TranscriptionsRevisedRomanizationSeonMcCune–ReischauerSŏnJapanesenameKanji禅TranscriptionsRomanizationZenSanskritnameSanskritध्यान(inDevanagari)Dhyāna(Romanised)PālinamePāli𑀛𑀸𑀦(inBrāhmī)ඣාන(inSinhala)ឈាន/ធ្យាន(inKhmer)ဈာန်(inBurmese)ၛာန်(inMon)Jhāna(Romanised)ฌาน(inThai) PartofaseriesonBuddhism History Timeline GautamaBuddha Pre-sectarianBuddhism Councils SilkRoadtransmissionofBuddhism DeclineintheIndiansubcontinent LaterBuddhists Buddhistmodernism DharmaConcepts FourNobleTruths NobleEightfoldPath Dharmawheel FiveAggregates Impermanence Suffering Not-self DependentOrigination MiddleWay Emptiness Morality Karma Rebirth Saṃsāra Cosmology Buddhisttexts Buddhavacana EarlyTexts Tripiṭaka MahayanaSutras PāliCanon Sanskritliterature Tibetancanon Chinesecanon Post-canon Practices ThreeJewels BuddhistPathstoliberation Fiveprecepts Perfections Meditation Philosophicalreasoning Devotionalpractices Meritmaking Recollections Mindfulness Wisdom Sublimeabidings AidstoEnlightenment Monasticism Laylife Buddhistchant Pilgrimage Vegetarianism Nirvāṇa Awakening FourStages Arhat Pratyekabuddha Bodhisattva Buddha Traditions Theravāda Pāli Mahāyāna Hinayana Chinese Vajrayāna Tibetan Navayana Newar Buddhismbycountry Bhutan Cambodia China India Japan Korea Laos Mongolia Myanmar Russia US SriLanka Taiwan Thailand Tibet Vietnam Glossary Index Outline  Religionportalvte Buddhadepictedindhyāna,Amaravati,India IntheoldesttextsofBuddhism,dhyāna(Sanskrit:ध्यान)orjhāna(Pali:𑀛𑀸𑀦)isacomponentofthetrainingofthemind(bhavana),commonlytranslatedasmeditation,towithdrawthemindfromtheautomaticresponsestosense-impressions,"burnup"thedefilements,andleadingtoa"stateofperfectequanimityandawareness(upekkhā-sati-parisuddhi)."[1]Dhyānamayhavebeenthecorepracticeofpre-sectarianBuddhism,incombinationwithseveralrelatedpracticeswhichtogetherleadtoperfectedmindfulnessanddetachment.[2][3][4] Inthelatercommentarialtradition,whichhassurvivedinpresent-dayTheravāda,dhyānaisequatedwith"concentration",astateofone-pointedabsorptioninwhichthereisadiminishedawarenessofthesurroundings.InthecontemporaryTheravāda-basedVipassanamovement,thisabsorbedstateofmindisregardedasunnecessaryandevennon-beneficialforthefirststageofawakening,whichhastobereachedbymindfulnessofthebodyandvipassanā(insightintoimpermanence).Sincethe1980s,scholarsandpractitionershavestartedtoquestionthesepositions,arguingforamorecomprehensiveandintegratedunderstandingandapproach,basedontheoldestdescriptionsofdhyānainthesuttas.[5][6][7][8] InBuddhisttraditionsofChánandZen(thenamesofwhichare,respectively,theChineseandJapanesepronunciationsofdhyāna),asinTheravadaandTiantai,anapanasati(mindfulnessofbreathing),whichistrnsmittedintheBuddhisttraditionasameanstodevelopdhyana,isacentralpractice.IntheChan/Zen-traditionthispracticeisultimatelybasedonSarvastivādameditationtechniquestransmittedsincethebeginningoftheCommonEra. Contents 1Etymology 2Thejhāna/dhyana-stages 2.1Integratedsetofpractices 2.2Therūpajhānas 2.3Thearūpaāyatanas 2.4Nirodha-samāpatti 2.5Broaderdhyana-practices 3EarlyBuddhism 3.1Originsofthejhana/dhyana-stages 3.1.1Textualaccounts 3.1.2PossibleBuddhisttransformationofyogicpractices 3.2Fivepossibilitiesregardingjhānaandliberation 3.2.1Rūpajhānafollowedbyliberatinginsight 3.2.2Rūpajhānaandthearūpas,followedbyliberatinginsight 3.2.3Insightalonesuffices 3.2.4Jhānaitselfisliberating 3.2.5Liberationinnirodha-samāpatti 4Theravada 4.1Thefivehindrances 4.2Jhanaasconcentration 4.2.1Samadhi 4.2.2Developmentandapplicationofconcentration 4.3Criticism 4.3.1Scholarlycriticism 4.3.2ContemporaryTheravadareassessment-the"Jhanawars" 4.3.2.1CriticismofVisudhimagga 4.3.2.2Jhanaasintegratedpractice 5InMahāyānatraditions 5.1Preservationofdhyanaasopenawareness 5.2ChanBuddhism 5.2.1Origins 5.2.2Mindfulness 5.2.2.1Observingthebreath 5.2.2.2Observingthemind 5.2.3Insight 5.2.3.1Pointingtothenatureofthemind 5.2.3.2Kōanpractice 5.3Vajrayāna 6RelatedconceptsinIndianreligions 6.1ParallelswithPatanjali'sAshtangaYoga 7Seealso 8Notes 9References 10Sources 11Furtherreading 12Externallinks Etymology[edit] Dhyāna,Palijhana,fromProto-Indo-Europeanroot*√dheie-,"tosee,tolook","toshow".[9][10]DevelopedintoSanskritroot√dhīandn.dhī,[10]whichintheearliestlayeroftextoftheVedasrefersto"imaginativevision"andassociatedwithgoddessSaraswatiwithpowersofknowledge,wisdomandpoeticeloquence.[11][12]Thistermdevelopedintothevariant√dhyā,"tocontemplate,meditate,think",[13][10]fromwhichdhyānaisderived.[11] AccordingtoBuddhaghosa(5thcenturyCETheravādaexegete),thetermjhāna(Skt.dhyāna)isderivedfromtheverbjhayati,"tothinkormeditate",whiletheverbjhapeti,"toburnup",explicatesitsfunction,namelyburningupopposingstates,burningupordestroying"thementaldefilementspreventing[...]thedevelopmentofserenityandinsight."[14][note1] Commonlytranslatedasmeditation,andoftenequatedwith"concentration",thoughmeditationmayrefertoawiderscalaofexercisesforbhāvanā,development.Dhyānacanalsomean"attention,thought,reflection".[17] Thejhāna/dhyana-stages[edit] ThePāḷicanondescribesfourprogressivestatesofjhānacalledrūpajhāna("formjhāna"),[note2]andfouradditionalmeditativeattainmentscalledarūpa("withoutform"). Integratedsetofpractices[edit] Seealso:BuddhistmeditationandBuddhistpathstoliberation Meditationandcontemplationformanintegratedsetofpracticeswithseveralotherpractices,whicharefullyrealizedwiththeonsetofdhyāna.[2][4]AsdescribedintheNobleEightfoldPath,rightviewleadstoleavingthehouseholdlifeandbecomingawanderingmonk.Sīla(morality)comprisestherulesforrightconduct.Righteffort,orthefourrightefforts,whichalreadycontainselementsofdhyana,[18][note3]aimtopreventthearisingofunwholesomestates,andtogeneratewholesomestates.Thisincludesindriyasamvara(senserestraint),controllingtheresponsetosensualperceptions,notgivingintolustandaversionbutsimplynoticingtheobjectsofperceptionastheyappear.[20]Righteffortandmindfulness("toremembertoobserve"[21]),notablymindfulnessofbreathing,calmthemind-bodycomplex,releasingunwholesomestatesandhabitualpatterns,andencouragingthedevelopmentofwholesomestatesandnon-automaticresponses.[7]Byfollowingthesecumulativestepsandpractices,themindbecomesset,almostnaturally,fortheequanimityofdhyāna,[22][7][note4]reinforcingthedevelopmentofwholesomestates,whichinreturnfurtherreinforcesequanimityandmindfulness.[7][8] Therūpajhānas[edit] Seealso:SevenFactorsofAwakening AccordingtoBuddhisttradition,jhānaisinducedbyānāpānasati,mindfulnessofbreathing,acoremeditativepracticewhichcanbefoundinalmostallschoolsofBuddhism.TheSuttapiṭakaandtheAgamasdescribefourstagesofrūpajhāna.Rūpareferstothematerialrealm,inaneutralstance,asdifferentfromthekāma-realm(lust,desire)andthearūpa-realm(non-materialrealm).[23]Whileusuallyinterpretedasdescribingadeepeningconcentrationandone-pointedness,thejhānascanalsobeinterpretedasdescribingadevelopmentfrominvestigatingbodyandmindandabandoningunwholesomestates,toperfectedequanimityandwatchfulness.[24]Thestockdescriptionofthejhānas,withtraditionalandalternativeinterpretations,isasfollows:[25][note5] Firstjhāna: Separated(vivicceva)fromdesireforsensualpleasures,separated(vivicca)from[other]unwholesomestates(akusalehidhammehi,unwholesomedhammas[26]),abhikkhuentersuponandabidesinthefirstjhana,whichis[mental]pīti("rapture,""joy")and[bodily]sukha("pleasure")"bornofviveka(trad.:"seclusion";altern."discrimination"(ofdhamma's)[27][note6]),accompaniedbyvitarka-vicara(trad.initialandsustainedattentiontoameditativeobject;altern.initialinquiryandsubsequentinvestigation[30][31][32]ofdhammas(defilements[33]andwholesomethoughts[34][note7]);also:"discursivethought"[note8]). Secondjhāna: Again,withthestillingofvitarka-vicara,abhikkhuentersuponandabidesinthesecondjhana,whichis[mental]pītiand[bodily]sukha"bornofsamadhi"(samadhi-ji;trad.bornof"concentration";altern."knowingbutnon-discursive[...]awareness,"[43]"bringingtheburiedlatenciesorsamskarasintofullview"[44][note9]),andhassampasadana("stillness,"[46]"innertranquility"[40][note10])andekaggata(unificationofmind,[46]awareness)withoutvitarka-vicara; Thirdjhāna: Withthefadingawayofpīti,abhikkhuabidesinupekkhā(equanimity,""affectivedetachment"[40][note11]),sato(mindful)and[with]sampajañña("fullyknowing,"[47]"discerningawareness"[48]).[Still]experiencingsukhawiththebody,heentersuponandabidesinthethirdjhana,onaccountofwhichthenobleonesannounce:'abdingin[bodily]pleasure,oneisequanimousandmindful'. Fourthjhāna: Withtheabandoningof[thedesirefor]sukha("pleasure")and[aversionto]dukkha("pain"[49][48])andwiththepreviousdisappearanceof[theinnermovementbetween]somanassa("gladness,"[50])anddomanassa("discontent"[50]),abhikkhuentersuponandabidesinthefourthjhana,whichisadukkhamasukham("neither-painfull-nor-pleasurable,"[49]"freedomfrompleasureandpain"[51])andhasupekkhāsatipārisuddhi(completepurityofequanimityandmindfulness).[note12] Thearūpaāyatanas[edit] Seealso:FormlessRealm Groupedintothejhāna-schemearefourmeditativestatesreferredtointheearlytextsasarūpa-āyatanas.Thesearealsoreferredtoincommentarialliteratureasarūpa-jhānas("formless"or"immaterial"jhānas),correspondingtothearūpa-loka(translatedasthe"formlessrealm"orthe"formlessdimensions"),tobedistinguishedfromthefirstfourjhānas(rūpajhānas).IntheBuddhistcanonicaltexts,theword"jhāna"isneverexplicitlyusedtodenotethem;theyareinsteadreferredtoasāyatana.However,theyaresometimesmentionedinsequenceafterthefirstfourjhānas(othertexts,e.g.MN121,treatthemasadistinctsetofattainments)andthuscametobetreatedbylaterexegetesasjhānas.[citationneeded]Theformlessjhānasarerelatedto,orderivedfrom,yogicmeditation,whilethejhānasproperarerelatedtothecultivationofthemind.Thestateofcompletedwellinginemptinessisreachedwhentheeighthjhānaistranscended. Thefourarūpa-āyatanas/arūpa-jhānasare: Fifthjhāna:infinitespace(Pāḷiākāsānañcāyatana,Skt.ākāśānantyāyatana) Sixthjhāna:infiniteconsciousness(Pāḷiviññāṇañcāyatana,Skt.vijñānānantyāyatana) Seventhjhāna:infinitenothingness(Pāḷiākiñcaññāyatana,Skt.ākiṃcanyāyatana) Eighthjhāna:neitherperceptionnornon-perception(Pāḷinevasaññānāsaññāyatana,Skt.naivasaṃjñānāsaṃjñāyatana) Althoughthe"DimensionofNothingness"andthe"DimensionofNeitherPerceptionnorNon-Perception"areincludedinthelistofninejhānastaughtbytheBuddha(seesectiononnirodha-samāpattibelow),theyarenotincludedintheNobleEightfoldPath.NobleTruthnumbereightissammāsamādhi(RightConcentration),andonlythefirstfourjhānasareconsidered"RightConcentration".Ifhetakesadisciplethroughallthejhānas,theemphasisisonthe"CessationofFeelingsandPerceptions"ratherthanstoppingshortatthe"DimensionofNeitherPerceptionnorNon-Perception". Nirodha-samāpatti[edit] Beyondthedimensionofneitherperceptionnornon-perceptionliesastatecallednirodhasamāpatti,the"cessationofperception,feelingsandconsciousness".[53] Onlyincommentarialandscholarlyliterature,thisissometimescalledthe"ninthjhāna".[54][55] Broaderdhyana-practices[edit] Whiledhyanatypicallyreferstothefourjhanas/dhyanas,thetermalsoreferstoasetofpractiveswhichseemtogobacktoaveryearlystageoftheBuddhisttradition.Thesepracticesarethecontemplationonthebody-partsandtheirrepulsiveness(patikulamanasikara);contemplationontheelementsofwhichthebodyiscomposed;contemplationonthestagesofdecayofadeadbody;andmindfulnessofbreathing(anapanasati).ThesepracticesaredescribedintheSatipatthanaSuttaofthePalicanonandtheequivalenttextsoftheChineseagamas,inwhichtheyareinterwovenwiththefactorsofthefourdhyanasorthesevenfactorsofawakening(bojjhanga).ThissetofpracticeswasalsotransmittedviatheDhyanasutras,whicharebasedontheSarvastivada-tradition,formingthebasisoftheChan/Zen-tradition. EarlyBuddhism[edit] Mainarticles:EnlightenmentinBuddhismandNirvana TheBuddhisttraditionhasincorporatedtwotraditionsregardingtheuseofjhāna.[3][page needed]Thereisatraditionthatstressesattaininginsight(vipassanā)asthemeanstoawakening(bodhi,prajñā,kenshō)andliberation(vimutti,nibbāna).[note13]ButtheBuddhisttraditionhasalsoincorporatedtheyogictradition,asreflectedintheuseofjhānaasaconcentrativepractice,whichisrejectedinothersūtrasasnotresultinginthefinalresultofliberation.Onesolutiontothiscontradictionistheconjunctiveuseofvipassanāandsamatha.[58][note14] Originsofthejhana/dhyana-stages[edit] Textualaccounts[edit] TheMahasaccakaSutta,MajjhimaNikaya36,narratesthestoryoftheBuddha'sawakening.Accordingtothisstory,helearnedtwokindsofmeditationfromtwoteachers,UddakaRāmaputtaandĀḷāraKālāma.Theseformsofmeditationdidnotleadtoliberation,andhethenunderwentharshasceticpractices,withwhichheeventuallyalsobecamedisillusioned.TheBuddhathenrecalledameditativestateheenteredbychanceasachild:[3][page needed] Ithought:'Irecallonce,whenmyfathertheSakyanwasworking,andIwassittinginthecoolshadeofarose-appletree,then—quitesecludedfromsensuality,secludedfromunskillfulmentalqualities—Ientered&remainedinthefirstjhana:rapture&pleasurebornfromseclusion,accompaniedbydirectedthought&evaluation.CouldthatbethepathtoAwakening?'Thenfollowingonthatmemorycametherealization:'ThatisthepathtoAwakening.'[60] Originally,thepracticeofdhyānaitselfmayhaveconstitutedthecoreliberatingpracticeofearlyBuddhism,sinceinthisstateall"pleasureandpain"hadwaned.[61]AccordingtoVetter, [P]robablytheword"immortality"(a-mata)wasusedbytheBuddhaforthefirstinterpretationofthisexperienceandnotthetermcessationofsufferingthatbelongstothefournobletruths[...]theBuddhadidnotachievetheexperienceofsalvationbydiscerningthefournobletruthsand/orotherdata.Buthisexperiencemusthavebeenofsuchanaturethatitcouldbeartheinterpretation"achievingimmortality".[62] PossibleBuddhisttransformationofyogicpractices[edit] ThetimeoftheBuddhasawtheriseoftheśramaṇamovement,asceticpractitionerswithabodyofsharedteachingsandpractices.[63][fullcitationneeded]ThestrictdelineationofthismovementintoJainism,Buddhismandbrahmanical/Upanishadictraditionsisalaterdevelopment.[63][fullcitationneeded][note15]AccordingtoCrangle,thedevelopmentofmeditativepracticesinancientIndiawasacomplexinterplaybetweenVedicandnon-Vedictraditions.[67]AccordingtoBronkhorst,thefourrūpajhānamaybeanoriginalcontributionoftheBuddhatothereligiouspracticesofancientIndia,forminganalternativetotheasceticpracticesoftheJainsandsimilarśramaṇatraditions,whilethearūpaāyatanaswereincorporatedfromnon-Buddhistascetictraditions.[68] "Thatmeditation-expert(muni)becomeseternallyfreewho,seekingtheSupremeGoal,isabletowithdrawfromexternalphenomenabyfixinghisgazewithinthemid-spotoftheeyebrowsandbyneutralizingtheevencurrentsofpranaandapana[thatflow]withinthenostrilsandlungs;andtocontrolhissensorymindandintellect;andtobanishdesire,fear,andanger.” —TheBhagavadGitaV:27-28[69] KalupahanaarguesthattheBuddha"revertedtothemeditationalpractices"hehadlearnedfromĀḷāraKālāmaandUddakaRāmaputta,"directedattheappeasementofmindratherthanthedevelopmentofinsight."Movingbeyondtheseinitialpractices,reflectiongavehimtheessentialinsightintoconditioning,andlearnedhimhowtoappeasehis"dispostionaltendencies",withouteitherbeingdominatedbythem,norcompletelyannihilatingthem.[70] WynnearguesthattheattainmentoftheformlessmeditativeabsorptionwasincorporatedfromBrahmanicalpractices,andhaveBrahmnanicalcosmogeniesastheirdoctrinalbackground.[71][note16]WynnethereforeconcludesthatthesepracticeswereborrowedfromaBrahminicsource,namelyUddakaRāmaputtaandĀḷāraKālāma.[74]Yet,theBuddharejectedtheirgoals,astheywerenotliberating,anddiscoveredhisownpathtoawakening,[71]which"consistedoftheadaptationoftheoldyogictechniquestothepracticeofmindfulnessandattainmentofinsight."Thus"radicallytransform[ed]"applicationofyogicpracticeswasconceptualizedintheschemeofthefourjhānas.[71] Yet,accordingtoBronkhorst,theBuddha'steachingsdevelopedprimarilyinresponsetoJainteachings,notBrahmanicalteachings,[3]andtheaccountoftheBuddhapracticingunderUddakaRāmaputtaandĀḷāraKālāmaisentirelyfictitious,andmeanttofleshoutthementioningofthosenamesinthepost-enlightenmentnarrativeinMajjhimaNikaya36.[3][75]VishvapaninotesthattheBrahmanicaltextscitedbyWynneassumedtheirfinalformlongaftertheBuddha'slifetime,withtheMokshadharmapostdatinghim.VishvapanifurthernotesthatUddakaRāmaputtaandĀḷāraKālāmamaywellhavebeensramanicteachers,astheBuddhisttraditionasserts,notBrahmins.[75] Fivepossibilitiesregardingjhānaandliberation[edit] Seealso:BuddhistpathstoawakeningandSubitism Astockphraseinthecanonstatesthatonedevelopsthefourrupadhyanasandthenattainsliberatinginsight.Whilethetextsoftenrefertocomprehendingthefournobletruthsasconstitutingthis"liberatinginsight",Schmithausennotesthatthefournobletruthsasconstituting"liberatinginsight"(herereferringtopaññā[76])isalateradditiontotextssuchasMajjhimaNikaya36.[77][3][page needed][2][page needed] Schmithausendiscernsthreepossibleroadstoliberationasdescribedinthesuttas,towhichVetteraddsafourthpossibility,whiletheattainmentofnirodha-samāpattimayconstituteafifthpossibility:[78] Masteringthefourjhānas,whereafter"liberatinginsight"isattained; Masteringthefourjhānasandthefourarūpas,whereafter"liberatinginsight"isattained; Liberatinginsightitselfsuffices; ThefourjhānasthemselvesconstitutedthecoreliberatingpracticeofearlyBuddhism,c.q.theBuddha;[79] Liberationisattainedinnirodha-samāpatti.[80] Rūpajhānafollowedbyliberatinginsight[edit] Mainarticles:VipassanāandSampajañña AccordingtotheTheravada-tradition,themeditatorusesthejhānastatetobringthemindtorest,andtostrengthenandsharpenthemind,inordertoinvestigatethetruenatureofphenomena(dhamma)andtogaininsightintoimpermanence,sufferingandnot-self.AccordingtotheTheravada-tradition,thearahantisawarethatthejhānasareultimatelyunsatisfactory,realizingthatthemeditativeattainmentsarealsoanicca,impermanent.[81] IntheMahasaccakaSutta(MajjhimaNikaya36),whichnarratesthestoryoftheBuddha'sawakening,dhyānaisfollowedbyinsightintothefournobletruths.Thementionofthefournobletruthsasconstituting"liberatinginsight"isprobablyalateraddition.[77][62][3][page needed]Vetternotesthatsuchinsightisnotpossibleinastateofdhyāna,wheninterpretedasconcentration,sincediscursivethinkingiseliminatedinsuchastate.[82]Healsonotesthattheemphasison"liberatinginsight"developedonlyafterthefournobletruthswereintroducedasanexpressionofwhatthis"liberatinginsight"constituted.[83]Intime,otherexpressionstookoverthisfunction,suchaspratītyasamutpādaandtheemptinessoftheself.[84] Rūpajhānaandthearūpas,followedbyliberatinginsight[edit] Thisschemeisrejectedbyscholarsasalaterdevelopment,sincethearūpasareakintonon-Buddhistpractices,andrejectedelsewhereinthecanon. Insightalonesuffices[edit] Theemphasison"liberatinginsight"aloneseemstobealaterdevelopment,inresponsetodevelopmentsinIndianreligiousthought,whichsaw"liberatinginsight"asessentialtoliberation.[85][79]Thismayalsohavebeenduetoanover-literalinterpretationbylaterscholasticsoftheterminologyusedbytheBuddha,[86]andtotheproblemsinvolvedwiththepracticeofdhyana,andtheneedtodevelopaneasiermethod.[87] ContemporaryscholarshavediscernedabroaderapplicationofjhānainhistoricalBuddhistpractice.AccordingtoAlexanderWynne,theultimateaimofdhyānawastheattainmentofinsight,[88]andtheapplicationofthemeditativestatetothepracticeofmindfulness.[88]AccordingtoFrauwallner,mindfulnesswasameanstopreventthearisingofcraving,whichresultedsimplyfromcontactbetweenthesensesandtheirobjects.AccordingtoFrauwallner,thismayhavebeentheBuddha'soriginalidea.[89]AccordingtoWynne,thisstressonmindfulnessmayhaveledtotheintellectualismwhichfavouredinsightoverthepracticeofdhyāna.[90] Jhānaitselfisliberating[edit] BothSchmithausenandBronkhorstnotethattheattainmentofinsight,whichisacognitiveactivity,cannotbepossibleinastatewhereinallcognitiveactivityhasceased.[3]AccordingtoVetter,thepracticeofRupaJhānaitselfmayhaveconstitutedthecorepracticeofearlyBuddhism,withpracticessuchassilaandmindfulnessaidingitsdevelopment.[79]Itisthe"middleway"betweenself-mortification,ascribedbyBronkhorsttoJainism,[3]andindulgenceinsensualpleasure.[91]Vetteremphasizesthatdhyanaisaformofnon-sensualhappiness.[92]Theeightfoldpathcanbeseenasapathofpreparationwhichleadstothepracticeofsamadhi.[93] Liberationinnirodha-samāpatti[edit] Accordingtosometexts,afterprogressingthroughtheeightjhānasandthestageofnirodha-samāpatti,apersonisliberated.[53]Accordingtosometraditionssomeoneattainingthestateofnirodha-samāpattiisananagamioranarahant.[80]IntheAnupaddasutra,theBuddhanarratesthatSariputtabecameanarahantuponreachingit.[94] Theravada[edit] BuddhainDhyana,whichinthiscontextmeans:ThemeditativetrainingstageonthepathtoSamadhi. Thefivehindrances[edit] Inthecommentarialtradition,thedevelopmentofjhānaisdescribedasthedevelopmentoffivementalfactors(Sanskrit:caitasika;Pali:cetasika)thatcounteractthefivehindrances:[note17] Table:Rūpajhāna Cetasika(mentalfactors) Firstjhāna Secondjhāna Thirdjhāna Fourthjhāna Kāma/Akusaladhamma(sensuality/unskillfulqualities) secludedfrom;withdrawn doesnotoccur doesnotoccur doesnotoccur Pīti(rapture) seclusion-born;pervadesbody samādhi-born;pervadesbody fadesaway(alongwithdistress) doesnotoccur Sukha(non-sensualpleasure) pervadesphysicalbody abandoned(nopleasurenorpain) Vitakka("appliedthought") accompaniesjhāna unificationofawarenessfreefromvitakkaandvicāra doesnotoccur doesnotoccur Vicāra("sustainedthought") Upekkhāsatipārisuddhi(pure,mindfulequanimity) doesnotoccur internalconfidence equanimous;mindful purityofequanimityandmindfulness Sources:[95][96][97]Thisbox:viewtalkedit vitakka("appliedthought")counteractsslothandtorpor(lethargyanddrowsiness) vicāra("sustainedthought")counteractsdoubt(uncertainty) pīti(rapture)counteractsill-will(malice) sukha(non-sensualpleasure)counteractsrestlessness-worry(excitationandanxiety) ekaggata(one-pointedness)counteractssensorydesire Jhanaasconcentration[edit] Buddhagosa'sVisuddhimaggaconsidersjhanatobeanexerciseinconcentration-meditation.Hisviews,togetherwiththeSatipatthanaSutta,inspiredthedevelopment,inthe19thand20thcentury,ofnewmeditationtechniqueswhichgainedagreatpopularityamonglayaudiencesinthesecondhalfofthe20thcentury.[98] Samadhi[edit] Furtherinformation:SamadhiinBuddhism AccordingtoHenepolaGunaratana,theterm"jhana"iscloselyconnectedwith"samadhi",whichisgenerallyrenderedas"concentration".Theword"samadhi"isalmostinterchangeablewiththeword"samatha",serenity.[14]AccordingtoGunaratana,inthewidestsensethewordsamadhiisbeingusedforthepracticeswhichleadtothedevelopmentofserenity.Inthissense,samadhiandjhanaarecloseinmeaning.[note18]Nevertheless,theyarenotexactlyidentical,since"certaindifferencesintheirsuggestedandcontextualmeaningspreventunqualifiedidentificationofthetwoterms."Samadhisignifiesonlyonementalfactor,namelyone-pointedness,whiletheword"jhana"encompassesthewholestateofconsciousness,"oratleastthewholegroupofmentalfactorsindividuatingthatmeditativestateasajhana."[14]Furthermore,accordingtoGunaratana,samadhiinvolves"awiderrangeofreferencethanjhana",notingthat"thePaliexegeticaltraditionrecognizesthreelevelsofsamadhi:preliminaryconcentration(parikammasamadhi)[...]accessconcentration(upacarasamadhi)[...]andabsorptionconcentration(appanasamadhi)."[14] Developmentandapplicationofconcentration[edit] AccordingtothePālicanoncommentary,access/neighbourhoodconcentration(upacāra-samādhi)isastageofmeditationthatthemeditatorreachesbeforeenteringintojhāna.Theovercomingofthefivehindrances[note19]marktheentryintoaccessconcentration.[citationneeded]AccessconcentrationisnotmentionedinthediscoursesoftheBuddha,butthereareseveralsuttaswhereapersongainsinsightintotheDhammaonhearingateachingfromtheBuddha.[note20][note21] AccordingtoTse-fuKuan,atthestateofaccessconcentration,somemeditatorsmayexperiencevividmentalimagery,[note22]whichissimilartoavividdream.Theyareasvividasifseenbytheeye,butinthiscasethemeditatorisfullyawareandconsciousthattheyareseeingmentalimages.AccordingtoTse-fuKuan,thisisdiscussedintheearlytexts,andexpandeduponinTheravādacommentaries.[100] AccordingtoVenerableSujivo,astheconcentrationbecomesstronger,thefeelingsofbreathingandofhavingaphysicalbodywillcompletelydisappear,leavingonlypureawareness.Atthisstageinexperiencedmeditatorsmaybecomeafraid,thinkingthattheyaregoingtodieiftheycontinuetheconcentration,becausethefeelingofbreathingandthefeelingofhavingaphysicalbodyhascompletelydisappeared.Theyshouldnotbesoafraidandshouldcontinuetheirconcentrationinordertoreach"fullconcentration"(jhāna).[101] Ameditatorshouldfirstmasterthelowerjhānas,beforetheycangointothehigherjhānas.AccordingtoNathanKatz,theearlysuttasstatethat"themostexquisiteofrecluses"isabletoattainanyofthejhānasandabideinthemwithoutdifficulty.[81][note23] AccordingtothecontemporaryVipassana-movement,thejhānastatecannotbyitselfleadtoenlightenmentasitonlysuppressesthedefilements.Meditatorsmustusethejhānastateasaninstrumentfordevelopingwisdombycultivatinginsight,anduseittopenetratethetruenatureofphenomenathroughdirectcognition,whichwillleadtocuttingoffthedefilementsandnibbana.[citationneeded] AccordingtothelaterTheravādacommentorialtraditionasoutlinedbyBuddhagoṣainhisVisuddhimagga,aftercomingoutofthestateofjhānathemeditatorwillbeinthestateofpost-jhānaaccessconcentration.Inthisstatetheinvestigationandanalysisofthetruenatureofphenomenabegins,whichleadstoinsightintothecharacteristicsofimpermanence,sufferingandnot-selfarises.[citationneeded] Criticism[edit] Whilethejhānasareoftenunderstoodasdeepeningstatesofconcentration,duetoitsdescriptionassuchintheAbhidhamma,[103]andtheVisuddhimagga,[40]sincethe1980sbothacademicscholarsandcontemporaryTheravādinshavestartedtoquestionthisunderstanding,raisingquestionsabouttheinterpretationofthejhanasasbeingstatesofabsorptionwhicharenotnecessaryfortheattainmentofliberation.WhilegroundbreakingresearchonthistopichasbeendonebyBareau,Schmithausen,Stuart-Fox,Bucknell,Vetter,Bronkhorst,andWynne,Theravadapractitionershavealsoscrutinizedandcriticisedthesamatha-vipassanadistinction.[104]Reassessmentsofthedescriptionofjhanainthesuttasconsiderjhanaandvipassanatobeanintegratedpractice,leadingtoa"tranquilandequanimousawarenessofwhateverarisesinthefieldofexperience."[5][6][7][8] Scholarlycriticism[edit] Whilethecommentarialtraditionregardsvitarkaandvicaraasinitialandsustainedconcentrationonameditationobject,RoderickS.Bucknellnotesthatvitarkaandvicaramayreferto"probablynothingotherthanthenormalprocessofdiscursivethought,thefamiliarbutusuallyunnoticedstreamofmentalimageryandverbalization."Bucknellfurthernotesthat"[t]heseconclusionsconflictwiththewidespreadconceptionofthefirstjhānaasastateofdeepconcentration."[40] AccordingtoStuart-Fox,theAbhidhammaseparatedvitarkafromvicara,andekaggata(one-pointedness)wasaddedtothedescriptionofthefirstdhyānatogiveanequalnumberoffivehindrancesandfiveantidotes.[105]Thecommentarialtraditionregardsthequalitiesofthefirstdhyānatobeantidotestothefivehindrances,andekaggatamayhavebeenaddedtothefirstdhyānatogiveexactlyfiveantidotesforthefivehindrances.[106]Stuart-Foxfurthernotesthatvitarka,beingdiscursivethought,willdoverylittleasanantidoteforslothandtorpor,reflectingtheinconsistencieswhichwereintroducedbythescholastics.[106] Vetter,GombrichandWynnenotethatthefirstandsecondjhanarepresenttheonsetofdhyānaduetowithdrawalandrighteffortc.q.thefourrightefforts,followedbyconcentration,whereasthethirdandfourthjhānacombineconcentrationwithmindfulness.[45][107]Polak,elaboratingonVetter,notesthattheonsetofthefirstdhyānaisdescribedasaquitenaturalprocess,duetotheprecedingeffortstorestrainthesensesandthenurturingofwholesomestates.[7][22]RegardingsamādhiastheeighthstepoftheNobleEightfoldPath,Vetternotesthatsamādhiconsistsofthefourstagesofdhyānameditation,but ...toputitmoreaccurately,thefirstdhyanaseemstoprovide,aftersometime,astateofstrongconcentration,fromwhichtheotherstagescomeforth;thesecondstageiscalledsamadhija"[108][...]"bornfromsamadhi."[45] AccordingtoRichardGombrich,thesequenceofthefourrūpajhānasdescribestwodifferentcognitivestates:"Iknowthisiscontroversial,butitseemstomethatthethirdandfourthjhanasarethusquiteunlikethesecond."[109][note24]GombrichandWynnenotethat,whilethesecondjhānadenotesastateofabsorption,inthethirdandfourthjhānaonecomesoutofthisabsorption,beingmindfullyawareofobjectswhilebeingindifferenttothem.[110][note25]AccordingtoGombrich,"thelatertraditionhasfalsifiedthejhanabyclassifyingthemasthequintessenceoftheconcentrated,calmingkindofmeditation,ignoringtheother—andindeedhigher—element.[109]AccordingtoLusthaus,"mindfulnessin[thefourthdhyana]isanalert,relaxedawarenessdetachedfrompositiveandnegativeconditioning."[111] Gethin,followedbyPolakandArbel,furthernotesthatthereisa"definiteaffinity"betweenthefourjhānasandthebojjhaṅgā,thesevenfactorsofawakening.[112][113][114][8]AccordingtoGethin,theearlyBuddhisttextshave"abroadlyconsistentvision"regardingmeditationpractice.Variouspracticesleadtothedevelopmentofthefactorsofawakening,whicharenotonlythemeansto,butalsotheconstituentsof,awakening.[115]AccordingtoGethin,satipaṭṭhānaandānāpānasatiarerelatedtoaformulathatsummarizestheBuddhistpathtoawakeningas"abandoningthehindrances,establishing[...]mindfulness,anddevelopingthesevenfactorsofawakening."[116]Thisresultsina"heightenedawareness","overcomingdistractinganddisturbingemotions",[117]whicharenotparticularelementsofthepathtoawakening,butrathercommondisturbinganddistractingemotions.[118]Gethinfurtherstatesthat"theexegeticalliteratureisessentiallytruetothevisionofmeditationpresentedintheNikayas,"[119]applyingthe"perfectmindfulness,stillnessandlucidity"ofthejhanastothecontemplationof"reality",ofthewaythingsreallyare,[120]astemporaryandever-changing.[119]Itisinthissensethat"thejhanastatehasthetranscendent,transformingqualityofawakening."[121] AlexanderWynnestatesthatthedhyāna-schemeispoorlyunderstood.[90]AccordingtoWynne,wordsexpressingtheinculcationofawareness,suchassati,sampajāno,andupekkhā,aremistranslatedorunderstoodasparticularfactorsofmeditativestates,[90]whereastheyrefertoaparticularwayofperceivingthesenseobjects:[90] Thustheexpressionsatosampajānointhethirdjhānamustdenoteastateofawarenessdifferentfromthemeditativeabsorptionofthesecondjhāna(cetasoekodibhāva).Itsuggeststhatthesubjectisdoingsomethingdifferentfromremaininginameditativestate,i.e.thathehascomeoutofhisabsorptionandisnowonceagainawareofobjects.Thesameistrueofthewordupek(k)hā:itdoesnotdenoteanabstract'equanimity',[but]itmeanstobeawareofsomethingandindifferenttoit[...]Thethirdandfourthjhāna-s,asitseemstome,describetheprocessofdirectingstatesofmeditativeabsorptiontowardsthemindfulawarenessofobjects.[122] Upekkhā,equanimity,whichisperfectedinthefourthdhyāna,isoneofthefourBrahmā-vihāra.WhilethecommentarialtraditiondownplayedtheimportanceoftheBrahmā-vihāra,GombrichnotesthattheBuddhistusageofthetermBrahmā-vihāraoriginallyreferredtoanawakenedstateofmind,andaconcreteattitudetowardotherbeingswhichwasequalto"livingwithBrahman"hereandnow.Thelatertraditiontookthosedescriptionstooliterally,linkingthemtocosmologyandunderstandingthemas"livingwithBrahman"byrebirthintheBrahmā-world.[123]AccordingtoGombrich,"theBuddhataughtthatkindness—whatChristianstendtocalllove—wasawaytosalvation.[124] ContemporaryTheravadareassessment-the"Jhanawars"[edit] WhileTheravada-meditationwasintroducedtothewestasvipassana-meditation,whichrejectedtheusefulnessofjhana,thereisagrowinginterestamongwesternvipassana-practitionersinjhana.[125][126]ThenatureandpracticeofjhanaisatopicofdebateandcontentionamongwesternconvertTheravadins,totheextentthatthedisputeshaveevenbeencalled"theJhanawars."[5][note26] CriticismofVisudhimagga[edit] TheVisuddhimagga,andthe"pioneeringpopularizingworkofDanielGoleman",[126][note27]hasbeeninfluentialinthe(mis)understandingofdhyanabeingaformofconcentration-meditation.TheVisuddhimaggaiscenteredaroundkasina-meditation,aformofconcentration-meditationinwhichthemindisfocusedona(mental)object.[128]AccordingtoThanissaroBhikkhu,"[t]hetextthentriestofitallothermeditationmethodsintothemoldofkasinapractice,sothattheytoogiverisetocountersigns,butevenbyitsownadmission,breathmeditationdoesnotfitwellintothemold."[128]AccordingtoThanissaroBhikkhu,"theVisuddhimaggausesaverydifferentparadigmforconcentrationfromwhatyoufindintheCanon."[129]Initsemphasisonkasina-meditation,theVisuddhimaggadepartsfromthePaliCanon,inwhichdhyanaisthecentralmeditativepractice,indicatingthatwhat"jhanameansinthecommentariesissomethingquitedifferentfromwhatitmeansintheCanon."[128] BhanteHenepolaGunaratanaalsonotesthatwhat"thesuttassayisnotthesameaswhattheVisuddhimaggasays[...]theyareactuallydifferent,"leadingtoadivergencebetweena[traditional]scholarlyunderstandingandapracticalunderstandingbasedonmeditativeexperience.[130]GunaratanafurthernotesthatBuddhaghosainventedseveralkeymeditationtermswhicharenottobefoundinthesuttas,suchas"parikammasamadhi(preparatoryconcentration),upacarasamadhi(accessconcentration),appanasamadhi(absorptionconcentration)."[131]GunaratanaalsonotesthatBuddhaghosa'semphasisonkasina-meditationisnottobefoundinthesuttas,wheredhyanaisalwayscombinedwithmindfulness.[132][note28] AccordingtoscholarTilmanVetter,dhyanaasapreparationofdiscriminatinginsightmusthavebeendifferentfromthedhyana-practiceintroducedbytheBuddha,usingkasina-exercisestoproducea"moreartificiallyproduceddhyana",resultinginthecessationofapperceptionsandfeelings.[133]Shankmannotesthatkasina-exercisesarepropagatedinBuddhaghosa'sVisuddhimagga,whichisconsideredtheauthoritativecommentaryonmeditationpracticeintheTheravadatradition,butdiffersfromthePalicanoninitsdescriptionofjhana.Whilethesuttasconnectsamadhitomindfulnessandawarenessofthebody,forBuddhaghosajhanaisapurelymentalexercise,inwhichone-pointedconcentrationleadstoanarrowingofattention.[134] Jhanaasintegratedpractice[edit] Severalwesternteachers(ThanissaroBhikkhu,LeighBrasington,RichardShankman)makeadistinctionbetween"sutta-oriented"jhanaand"Visuddhimagga-oriented"jhana,[125][135]dubbed"minimalists"and"maximalists"byKennethRose.[135] ṬhānissaroBhikkhu,awesternteacherintheThaiForestTradition,hasrepeatedlyarguedthatthePaliCanonandtheVisuddhimaggagivedifferentdescriptionsofthejhanas,regardingtheVisuddhimagga-descriptiontobeincorrect.[125]AccordingtoṬhānissaroBhikkhuwarnsagainstthedevelopmentofstrongstatesofconcentration.[125]Arbeldescribesthefourthjhānaas"non-reactiveandlucidawareness",notasastateofdeepconcentration.[8] AccordingtoRichardShankman,thesuttadescriptionsofjhānapracticeexplainthatthemeditatordoesnotemergefromjhānatopracticevipassanabutrathertheworkofinsightisdonewhilstinjhānaitself.Inparticularthemeditatorisinstructedto"enterandremaininthefourthjhāna"beforecommencingtheworkofinsightinordertouprootthementaldefilements.[136][note29] KerenArbelhasconductedextensiveresearchonthejhanasandthecontemporarycriticismsofthecommentarialinterpretation.Basedonthisresearch,andherownexperienceasaseniormeditation-teacher,shegivesareconstructedaccountoftheoriginalmeaningofthedhyanas.Shearguesthatjhanaisanintegratedpractice,describingthefourthjhanaas"non-reactiveandlucidawareness",notasastateofdeepconcentration.[8]AccordingtoArbel,itdevelops"amindwhichisnotconditionedbyhabitualreaction-patternsoflikesanddislikes[...]aprofoundlywiserelationtoexperience,nottaintedbyanykindofwrongperceptionandmentalreactivityrootedincraving(tanha).[138] AccordingtoKennethRose,theVisuddhimagga-oriented"maximalist"approachisareturntoancientIndian"mainstreampractices",inwhichphysicalandmentalimmobilitywasthoughttoleadtoliberationfromsamsaraandrebirth.ThisapproachwasrejectedbytheBuddha,turningtoagentlerapproachwhichresultsinupekkhaandsati,equanimousawarenessofexperience.[5] InMahāyānatraditions[edit] Bodhisattvaseatedinmeditation.Afghanistan,2ndcenturyCE. MahāyānaBuddhismincludesnumerousschoolsofpractice.EachdrawuponvariousBuddhistsūtras,philosophicaltreatises,andcommentaries,andeachhasitsownemphasis,modeofexpression,andphilosophicaloutlook.Accordingly,eachschoolhasitsownmeditationmethodsforthepurposeofdevelopingsamādhiandprajñā,withthegoalofultimatelyattainingenlightenment. Preservationofdhyanaasopenawareness[edit] BothPolakandArbelsuggestthatthetraditionsofDzogchen,[139][140]MahamudraandChan[139]preserveorresembledhyanaasanopenawarenessofbodyandmind,thustranscendingthedichotomybetweenvipassanaandsamatha.[139][140][note30] ChanBuddhism[edit] Seealso:Zen,ChanBuddhism,Zazen,KoreanSeon,VietnameseThiền,andZenintheUnitedStates AnapanasatianddhyānaareacentralaspectofBuddhistpracticeinChan,necessaryforprogressonthepathand"trueentryintotheDharma".[note31] Origins[edit] InChina,theworddhyānawasoriginallytransliteratedwithChinese:禪那;pinyin:chánnàandshortenedtojustpinyin:chánincommonusage.ThewordandthepracticeofmeditationenteredintoChinesethroughthetranslationsofAnShigao(fl.c.148–180CE),andKumārajīva(334–413CE),whotranslatedDhyānasutras,whichwereinfluentialearlymeditationtextsmostlybasedontheYogacarameditationteachingsoftheSarvāstivādaschoolofKashmircirca1st-4thcenturiesCE.[147]ThewordchánbecamethedesignationforChanBuddhism(KoreanSeon,VietnameseThiền,JapaneseZen). InChineseBuddhism,followingtheUr-textoftheSatipatthanaSutraandthedhyanasutras,dhyānareferstovariouskindsofmeditationtechniquesandtheirpreparatorypractices,whicharenecessarytopracticedhyana.[148]ThefivemaintypesofmeditationintheDhyanasutrasareanapanasati(mindfulnessofbreathing);paṭikūlamanasikārameditation,mindfulnessoftheimpuritiesofthebody;loving-kindnessmaitrīmeditation;thecontemplationonthetwelvelinksofpratītyasamutpāda;andthecontemplationontheBuddha'sthirty-twoCharacteristics.[149] Downplayingthebody-recollections[150](butmaintainingtheawarenessofimminentdeath),theearlyChan-traditiondevelopedthenotionsorpracticesofwunian("nothought,no"fixationonthought,suchasone'sownviews,experiences,andknowledge")[151][152]andfēisīliàng(非思量,Japanese:hishiryō,"nonthinking");[153]andkanxin("observingthemind")[154]andshou-ipui(守一不移,"maintainingtheonewithoutwavering")[155]turningtheattentionfromtheobjectsofexperience,tothenatureofmind,theperceivingsubjectitself,whichisequatedwithBuddha-nature.[156] Mindfulness[edit] Observingthebreath[edit] VenerableHsuanHuameditatingintheLotusPosition.HongKong,1953 Duringsittingmeditation,practitionersusuallyassumeapositionsuchasthelotusposition,half-lotus,Burmese,oryogapostures,usingthedhyānamudrā.Toregulatethemind,awarenessisdirectedtowardscountingorwatchingthebreathorbybringingthatawarenesstotheenergycenterbelowthenavel(seealsoānāpānasati).[157]Often,asquareorroundcushionplacedonapaddedmatisusedtositon;insomeothercases,achairmaybeused.Thispracticemaysimplybecalledsittingdhyāna,whichiszuòchán(坐禅)inChinese,zazen(坐禅)inJapanese,jwaseon(坐禅)inKorean,andtọathiềninVietnamese. Observingthemind[edit] IntheSōtōschoolofZen,meditationwithnoobjects,anchors,orcontent,istheprimaryformofpractice.Themeditatorstrivestobeawareofthestreamofthoughts,allowingthemtoariseandpassawaywithoutinterference.Considerabletextual,philosophical,andphenomenologicaljustificationofthispracticecanbefoundthroughoutDōgen'sShōbōgenzō,asforexampleinthe"PrinciplesofZazen"[158]andthe"UniversallyRecommendedInstructionsforZazen".[159]IntheJapaneselanguage,thispracticeiscalledShikantaza. Insight[edit] Pointingtothenatureofthemind[edit] AccordingtoCharlesLuk,intheearliesttraditionsofChán,therewasnofixedmethodorformulaforteachingmeditation,andallinstructionsweresimplyheuristicmethods,topointtothetruenatureofthemind,alsoknownasBuddha-nature.[160]AccordingtoLuk,thismethodisreferredtoasthe"MindDharma",andexemplifiedinthestoryofŚākyamuniBuddhaholdingupaflowersilently,andMahākāśyapasmilingasheunderstood.[note32][160]Atraditionalformulaofthisis,"Chánpointsdirectlytothehumanmind,toenablepeopletoseetheirtruenatureandbecomebuddhas."[161] Kōanpractice[edit] Mainarticle:Kōan Chinesecharacterfor"nothing"(HanyuPinyin:wú;Japanesepronunciation:mu;Koreanpronunciation:mu;Vietnamese:vô).ItfiguresinthefamousZhaozhou'sdogkōan. AtthebeginningoftheSòngdynasty,practicewiththekōanmethodbecamepopular,whereasotherspracticed"silentillumination".[162]ThisbecamethesourceofsomedifferencesinpracticebetweentheLínjìandCáodòngschools. Akōan,literally"publiccase",isastoryordialogue,describinganinteractionbetweenaZenmasterandastudent.Theseanecdotesgiveademonstrationofthemaster'sinsight.Koansemphasizethenon-conceptionalinsightthattheBuddhistteachingsarepointingto.Koanscanbeusedtoprovokethe"greatdoubt",andtestastudent'sprogressinZenpractice. Kōan-inquirymaybepracticedduringzazen(sittingmeditation),kinhin(walkingmeditation),andthroughoutalltheactivitiesofdailylife.KōanpracticeisparticularlyemphasizedbytheJapaneseRinzaischool,butitalsooccursinotherschoolsorbranchesofZendependingontheteachingline.[163] TheZenstudent'smasteryofagivenkōanispresentedtotheteacherinaprivateinterview(referredtoinJapaneseasdokusan(独参),daisan(代参),orsanzen(参禅)).Whilethereisnouniqueanswertoakōan,practitionersareexpectedtodemonstratetheirunderstandingofthekōanandofZenthroughtheirresponses.Theteachermayapproveordisapproveoftheanswerandguidethestudentintherightdirection.TheinteractionwithaZenteacheriscentralinZen,butmakesZenpracticealsovulnerabletomisunderstandingandexploitation.[164] Vajrayāna[edit] B.AlanWallaceholdsthatmodernTibetanBuddhismlacksemphasisonachievinglevelsofconcentrationhigherthanaccessconcentration.[165][166]AccordingtoWallace,onepossibleexplanationforthissituationisthatvirtuallyallTibetanBuddhistmeditatorsseektobecomeenlightenedthroughtheuseoftantricpractices.Theserequirethepresenceofsensedesireandpassioninone'sconsciousness,butjhānaeffectivelyinhibitsthesephenomena.[165] WhilefewTibetanBuddhists,eitherinsideoroutsideTibet,devotethemselvestothepracticeofconcentration,TibetanBuddhistliteraturedoesprovideextensiveinstructionsonit,andgreatTibetanmeditatorsofearliertimesstresseditsimportance.[167] RelatedconceptsinIndianreligions[edit] Seealso:DhyanainHinduism DhyanaisanimportantancientpracticementionedintheVedicandpost-VedicliteratureofHinduism,aswellasearlytextsofJainism.[168][169][170]DhyanainBuddhisminfluencedthesepracticesaswellaswasinfluencedbythem,likelyinitsoriginsanditslaterdevelopment.[168] ParallelswithPatanjali'sAshtangaYoga[edit] Seealso:YogaSutrasofPatanjali ThereareparallelswiththefourthtoeighthstagesofPatanjali'sAshtangaYoga,asmentionedinhisclassicalwork,YogaSutrasofPatanjali,whichwerecompiledaround400CEby,takingmaterialsaboutyogafromoldertraditions.[171][172][173] Patanjalidiscernsbahiranga(external)aspectsofyoganamely,yama,niyama,asana,pranayama,andtheantaranga(internal)yoga.Havingactualizedthepratyaharastage,apractitionerisabletoeffectivelyengageintothepracticeofSamyama.Atthestageofpratyahara,theconsciousnessoftheindividualisinternalizedinorderthatthesensationsfromthesensesoftaste,touch,sight,hearingandsmelldon'treachtheirrespectivecentersinthebrainandtakesthesadhaka(practitioner)tonextstagesofYoga,namelyDharana(concentration),Dhyana(meditation),andSamadhi(mysticalabsorption),beingtheaimofallYogicpractices.[174] TheEightLimbsoftheyogasutrasshowSamadhiasoneofitslimbs.TheEightlimbsoftheYogaSutrawasinfluencedbyBuddhism.[175][176]Vyasa'sYogabhashya,thecommentarytotheYogasutras,andVacaspatiMisra'ssubcommentarystatedirectlythatthesamadhitechniquesaredirectlyborrowedfromtheBuddhists'Jhana,withtheadditionofthemysticalanddivineinterpretationsofmentalabsorption.[177][failedverification]TheYogaSutra,especiallythefourthsegmentofKaivalyaPada,containsseveralpolemicalversescriticalofBuddhism,particularlytheVijñānavādaschoolofVasubandhu.[178] ThesuttasshowthatduringthetimeoftheBuddha,NiganthaNataputta,theJainleader,didnotevenbelievethatitispossibletoenterastatewherethethoughtsandexaminationstop.[179] Seealso[edit] Researchonmeditation Neuroplasticity Alteredstateofconsciousness Jñāna Notes[edit] ^BronkhorstandWynne,amongothers,havediscussedtheinfluenceofVedicandJainthoughtandpracticesonBuddhism.The"burningup"ofdefilementsbymeansofausteritiesisatypicalJainpractice,whichwasrejectedbytheBuddha.[15][16] ^Thoughrūpamayalsorefertothebody.Arbel(2017)referstothejhanaaspsycho-somaticexperiences. ^Shankman2008,p. 15quotestoMN117.14,Mahācattārīsakasutta:[19]“Andwhat,bhikkhus,isrightintentionthatisnoble,taintless,supramundane,afactorofthepath?Thethinking,thought,intention,mentalabsorption,mentalfixity,directingofmind,verbalformationinonewhosemindisnoble,whosemindistaintless,whopossessesthenoblepathandisdevelopingthenoblepath:thisisrightintentionthatisnoble…afactorofthepath." ^PolakreferstoVetter,whonotedthatinthesuttasrighteffortleadstoacalmstateofmind.Whenthiscalmandself-restrainthadbeenreached,theBuddhaisdescribedassittingdownandattainingthefirstjhana,inanalmostnaturalway.[7] ^KerenArbelreferstoMajjhimaNikaya26,AriyapariyesanaSutta,TheNobleSearchSeealso:*MajjhimaNikaya111,AnuppadaSutta*AN05.028,SamadhangaSutta:TheFactorsofConcentration.SeeJohansson(1981),PaliBuddhisttextsExplainedtoBeginnersforaword-by-wordtranslation. ^Arbelexplainsthat"viveka"isusuallytranslatedas"detachment,""separation,"or"seclusion,"buttheprimarymeaningis"discrimination."AccordingtoArbel,theusageofvivicca/viviccevaandvivekainthedescriptionofthefirstdhyana"playswithbothmeaningsoftheverb;namely,it'smeaningasdiscernmentandtheconsequent'seclusion'andlettinggo,"inlinewiththe"discenmentofthenatureofexperience"developedbythefoursatipatthanas.[27]CompareDogen:"Beingapartfromalldisturbancesanddwellingaloneinaquietplaceiscalled"enjoyingserenityandtranquility.""[28]Arbelfurtherarguesthatvivekaresemblesdhammavicaya,whichismentionedinthebojjhanga,analternativedescriptionofthedhyanas,buttheonlybojjhanga-termnotmentionedinthestockdhyana-description.[29] ^Chen2017:"Samadhiwithgeneralexaminationandspecificin-depthinvestigationmeansgettingridofthenotvirtuousdharmas,suchasgreedydesireandhatred,tostayinjoyandpleasurecausedbynonarising,andtoenterthefirstmeditationandfullydwellinit."Arbel2016,p. 73harvnberror:notarget:CITEREFArbel2016(help):"Thus,mysuggestionisthatweshouldinterprettheexistenceofvitakkaandvicarainthefirstjhanaaswholesome'residues'ofapreviousdevelopmentofwholesomethoughts.Theydenotethe'echo'ofthesewholesomethoughts,whichreverberatesinonewhoentersthefirstjhanaaswholesomeattitudestowardwhatisexperienced." ^InthePalicanon,Vitakka-vicāraformoneexpression,whichreferstodirectingone'sthoughtorattentiononanobject(vitarka)andinvestigateit(vicāra).[32][35][36][37][38]AccordingtoDanLusthaus,vitarka-vicāraisanalyticscrutiny,aformofprajna.It"involvesfocusingon[something]andthenbreakingitdownintoitsfunctionalcomponents"tounderstandit,"distinguishingthemultitudeofconditioningfactorsimplicatedinaphenomenalevent."[39]TheTheravadacommentarialtradition,asrepresentedbyBuddhaghosa'sVisuddhimagga,interpretsvitarkaandvicāraastheinitialandsustainedapplicationofattentiontoameditationalobject,whichculminatesinthestillingofthemindwhenmovingontotheseconddhyana.[40][41]AccordingtoFoxandBucknellitmayalsoreferto"thenormalprocessofdiscursivethought,"whichisquietedthroughabsorptioninthesecondjhāna.[42][40] ^Thestandardtranslationforsamadhiis"concentration";yet,thistranslation/interpretationisbasedoncommentarialinterpretations,asexplainedbyanumberofcontemporaryauthors.[24]TilmannVetternotesthatsamadhihasabroadrangeofmeanings,and"concentration"isjustoneofthem.Vetterarguesthatthesecond,thirdandfourthdhyanaaresamma-samadhi,"rightsamadhi,"buildingona"spontaneousawareness"(sati)andequanimitywhichisperfectedinthefourthdhyana.[45] ^Thecommontranslation,basedonthecommentarialinterpretationofdhyanaasexpandingstatesofabsorption,translatessampasadanaas"internalassurance."Yet,asBucknellexplains,italsomeans"tranquilizing,"whichismoreaptinthiscontext.[40]SeealsoPassaddhi. ^UpekkhāisoneoftheBrahmaviharas. ^Withthefourthjhānacomestheattainmentofhigherknowledge(abhijñā),thatis,theextinctionofallmentalintoxicants(āsava),butalsopsychicpowers.[52]ForinstanceinAN5.28,theBuddhastates(Thanissaro,1997.):"Whenamonkhasdevelopedandpursuedthefive-factorednoblerightconcentrationinthisway,thenwhicheverofthesixhigherknowledgesheturnshismindtoknowandrealize,hecanwitnessthemforhimselfwheneverthereisanopening....""Ifhewants,hewieldsmanifoldsupranormalpowers.Havingbeenonehebecomesmany;havingbeenmanyhebecomesone.Heappears.Hevanishes.Hegoesunimpededthroughwalls,ramparts,andmountainsasifthroughspace.Hedivesinandoutoftheearthasifitwerewater.Hewalksonwaterwithoutsinkingasifitweredryland.Sittingcrossleggedhefliesthroughtheairlikeawingedbird.Withhishandhetouchesandstrokeseventhesunandmoon,somightyandpowerful.HeexercisesinfluencewithhisbodyevenasfarastheBrahmaworlds.Hecanwitnessthisforhimselfwheneverthereisanopening..." ^AccordingtotheTheravadatraditiondhyanamustbecombinedwithvipassanā,[56]whichgivesinsightintothethreemarksofexistenceandleadstodetachmentand"themanifestationofthepath".[57] ^InZenBuddhism,thisproblemhasappearedoverthecenturiesinthedisputesoversuddenversusgradualenlightenment.[59][page needed] ^ThomasWilliamRhysDavidsandMauriceWalsheagreedthatthetermsamādhiisnotfoundinanypre-BuddhisttextbutisfirstmentionedintheTipiṭaka.ItwassubsequentlyincorporatedintolatertextssuchastheMaitrayaniyaUpanishad.[64]ButaccordingtoMatsumoto,"thetermsdhyanaandsamahita(enteringsamadhi)appearalreadyinUpanishadictextsthatpredatetheoriginsofBuddhism".[65]Notethatofthe200orsoUpanishads,onlythefirst10or12areconsideredtheoldestandprincipalUpanishads.Amongthese10or12principalUpanishads,theTaittiriya,AitareyaandKausitakishowBuddhistinfluence.[66]TheBrihadaranyaka,Jaiminiya-Upanisad-BrahmanaandtheChandogyaUpanishadswerecomposedduringthepre-Buddhisterawhiletherestofthese12oldestUpanishadsaredatedtothelastfewcenturiesBCE. ^WynneclaimedthatBrahmanicpassagesonmeditationsuggestthatthemostbasicpresuppositionofearlyBrahmanicalyogaisthatthecreationoftheworldmustbereversed,throughaseriesofmeditativestates,bytheyoginwhoseekstherealizationoftheself.[72]ThesestatesweregivendoctrinalbackgroundinearlyBrahminiccosmogenies,whichclassifiedtheworldintosuccessivelycoarserstrata.OnesuchstratificationisfoundatTUII.1andMbhXII.195,andproceedsasfollows:self,space,wind,fire,water,earth.MbhXII.224givesalternatively:Brahman,mind,space,wind,fire,water,earth.[73] ^See,forinstance,SamādhaṅgaSutta(a/k/a,PañcaṅgikasamādhiSutta,AN5.28)(Thanissaro,1997b). ^GunarathanareferstoBuddhaghosa,whoexplainssamadhietymologicallyas"thecenteringofconsciousnessandconsciousnessconcomitantsevenlyandrightlyonasingleobject[...]thestateinvirtueofwhichconsciousnessanditsconcomitantsremainevenlyandrightlyonasingleobject,undistractedandunscattered(Vism.84–85;PP.85)."[14] ^Sensualdesire,illwill,slothandtorpor,restlessnessandworryanddoubt ^AccordingtoPeterHarvey,accessconcentrationisdescribedatDighaNikayaI,110,amongotherplaces:"ThesituationatDI,110,then,canbeseenasonewherethehearerofadiscourseentersastatewhich,whilenotanactualjhana,couldbeborderingonit.Asitisfreefromhindrances,itcouldbeseenas'access'concentrationwithadegreeofwisdom."PeterHarvey,ConsciousnessMysticismintheDiscoursesoftheBuddha.InKarelWerner,ed.,TheYogiandtheMystic.CurzonPress1989,page95.Seealso:PeterHarvey,TheSelflessMind,page170. ^Theequivalentofupacāra-samādhiusedinTibetancommentariesisnyer-bsdogs.[99] ^Pāli:nimitta ^AccordingtoSujiva,therearefiveaspectsofjhānamastery:[102] Masteryinadverting:theabilitytoadvert[clarificationneeded]tothejhānafactorsonebyoneafteremergingfromthejhāna,whereverdesired,whenevershe/hewants,andforaslongasonewants. Masteryinattaining:theabilitytoenteruponjhānaquickly. Masteryinresolving:theabilitytoremaininthejhānaforexactlythepre-determinedlengthoftime. Masteryinemerging:theabilitytoemergefromjhānaquicklywithoutdifficulty. Masteryinreviewing:theabilitytoreviewthejhānaanditsfactorswithretrospectiveknowledgeimmediatelyafteradvertingtothem. ^Originalpublication:Gombrich,Richard(2007),ReligiousExperienceinEarlyBuddhism,OCHSLibrary ^Originalpublication:Gombrich,Richard(2007),ReligiousExperienceinEarlyBuddhism,OCHSLibrary ^Seealso:*LeighBrasington,InterpretationsoftheJhanas*Simple|Sutta,JhanaWars!*DhammaWheel,ThegreatJhanadebate[127] ^SeeGolman'sTheVarietiesofMeditativeExperience,publishedearly1970s,whichpraisestheVisuddhimaggaasamasterguideforthepracticeofmeditation. ^SeealsoBronkhorst(1993),TwoTraditionsofMeditationinancientIndia;Wynne(2007),TheOriginofBuddhistMeditation;andPolak(2011),ReexamingJhana. ^SamaññaphalaSutta:"Withtheabandoningofpleasureandpain—aswiththeearlierdisappearanceofelationanddistress—heentersandremainsinthefourthjhāna:purityofequanimityandmindfulness,neither-pleasurenorpain...Withhismindthusconcentrated,purified,andbright,unblemished,freefromdefects,pliant,malleable,steady,andattainedtoimperturbability,themonkdirectsandinclinesittotheknowledgeoftheendingofthementalfermentations.Hediscerns,asithascometobe,that'Thisissuffering...Thisistheoriginationofsuffering...Thisisthecessationofsuffering...Thisisthewayleadingtothecessationofsuffering...Thesearementalfermentations...Thisistheoriginationoffermentations...Thisisthecessationoffermentations...Thisisthewayleadingtothecessationoffermentations."[137] ^ArbelreferstoBodhi(2011)WhatDoesMinfulnessreallyMean?ACanonicalperspective.ContemporaryBuddhism12,no.1,p.25:"...astanceofobservationorwtachfulnesstowardsone'sownexperience.Onemightevencallthisastanceofsatia'bendingback'ofthelightofconsciousnessupontheexperiencingsubjectinitsphysical,sensoryandpsychologicaldimensions."[141]"'Bendingback'ofthelight"resemblesChinul's"turningbacktheradiance,"inwhichthelightofconsciousnessisturnedbacktoapprehendthesourceofawareness;andDogeninFukanZazen-gi,"RecommendingZazentoAllPeople:"Takethebackwardstepandturnthelightinward.Yourbody-mindofitselfwilldropoffandyouroriginalfacewillappear."[142]ThisgoesbacktotheXinxinMing,"FaithinMind,"attributedtothethirdZen-patriarchSengcan,whichstates"Turningthelightaroundforaninstant/routsbecoming,abiding,anddecay,"[143]andisexpressedintheChineseChanpracticeofObservingthemind.[144] ^DhyānaisacentralaspectofBuddhistpracticeinChan:*NanHuai-Chin:"Intellectualreasoningisjustanotherspinningofthesixthconsciousness,whereasthepracticeofmeditationisthetrueentryintotheDharma."[145]*AccordingtoShengYen,meditativeconcentrationisnecessary,callingsamādhioneoftherequisitefactorsforprogressonthepathtowardenlightenment.[146] ^SeeFlowerSermon References[edit] ^Vetter1988,p. 5. ^abcVetter1988. ^abcdefghiBronkhorst1993. ^abGethin1992. ^abcdRose2016,p. 60. ^abShankman2008. ^abcdefgPolak2011. ^abcdefArbel2017. ^OnlineEtymologyDictionary,Zen(n.) ^abcJayarava,Nāmapada:aguidetonamesintheTriratnaBuddhistOrder ^abWilliamMahony(1997),TheArtfulUniverse:AnIntroductiontotheVedicReligiousImagination,StateUniversityofNewYorkPress,ISBN 978-0791435809,pages171-177,222 ^JanGonda(1963),TheVisionofVedicPoets,WalterdeGruyter,ISBN 978-3110153156,pages289-301 ^GeorgeFeuerstein,YogaandMeditation(Dhyana) ^abcdeHenepolaGunaratana,TheJhanasinTheravadaBuddhistMeditation ^Bronkhorst1993,p. 62. ^Wynne2007. ^SanskritDictionaryforSpokenSanskrit,dhyana ^Shankman2008,p. 16. ^Mahācattārīsakasutta ^Analayo,EarlyBuddhistMeditationStudies,p.69-70,80 ^Vimalaramsi2015,p. 4. ^abVetter1988,p. XXV. ^RuthFuller-Sasaki,TheRecordofLin-Ji ^abArbel2016.sfnerror:notarget:CITEREFArbel2016(help) ^Abdel2016.sfnerror:notarget:CITEREFAbdel2016(help) ^Johansson1981,p. 83. ^abArbel2016,p. 50-51.sfnerror:notarget:CITEREFArbel2016(help) ^Maezumi&Cook(2007),p. 63. ^Arbel2016,p. 106.sfnerror:notarget:CITEREFArbel2016(help) ^Wayman1997,p. 48. ^Sangpo&Dhammajoti2012,p. 2413. ^abLusthaus2002,p. 89. ^Chen2017,p. "samadhi:Acalm,stableandconcentrativestateofmind". ^Arbel2016,p. 73.sfnerror:notarget:CITEREFArbel2016(help) ^Rhys-Davids&Stede1921–25. ^Guenther&Kawamura1975,p. KindleLocations1030-1033. ^Kunsang2004,p. 30. ^Berzin2006. ^Lusthaus2002,p. 116. ^abcdefgBucknell1993,p. 375-376. ^Stuart-Fox1989,p. 82.sfnerror:notarget:CITEREFStuart-Fox1989(help) ^Fox1989,p. 82. ^Arbel2016,p. 94.sfnerror:notarget:CITEREFArbel2016(help) ^Lusthaus2002,p. 113. ^abcVetter1988,p. XXVI,note9. ^abArbel2016,p. 86.sfnerror:notarget:CITEREFArbel2016(help) ^Arbel2016,p. 115.sfnerror:notarget:CITEREFArbel2016(help) ^abLusthaus2002,p. 90. ^abArbel2016,p. 124.sfnerror:notarget:CITEREFArbel2016(help) ^abArbel2016,p. 125.sfnerror:notarget:CITEREFArbel2016(help) ^Johansson1981,p. 98. ^Sarbacker2021,p. entry:"abhijñā". ^abMajjhimaNIkaya111,AnuppadaSutta ^StevenSutcliffe,Religion:EmpiricalStudies.AshgatePublishing,Ltd.,2004,page135. ^ChandimaWijebandara,EarlyBuddhism,ItsReligiousandIntellectualMilieu.PostgraduateInstituteofPaliandBuddhistStudies,UniversityofKelaniya,1993,page22.. ^Wynne2007,p. 73. ^King1992,p. 90. ^ThanissaroBhikkhu,OneToolAmongMany.ThePlaceofVipassanainBuddhistPractice ^Gregory1991. ^Nanamoli1995. ^Vetter1988,p. 6-7. ^abVetter1988,pp. 5–6. ^abSamuel2008. ^Walshe,Maurice(trans.)(1995).TheLongDiscoursesoftheBuddha:ATranslationoftheDighaNikaya.Boston:WisdomPublications.ISBN 0-86171-103-3. ^Matsumoto1997,p. 242. ^King1995,p. 52. ^Crangle1994,p. 267-274.sfnerror:notarget:CITEREFCrangle1994(help) ^Bronkhorst1993,p. 95;122–123. ^ParamahansaYogananda,AutobiographyofaYogi ^Kalupahana1994,p. 24-25. ^abcWynne2007,p. 94. ^Wynne2007,p. 41,56. ^Wynne2007,p. 49. ^Wynne2007,p. 44,seealso45–49. ^abVishvapani(rev.)(1997).Review:OriginofBuddhistMeditation.Retrieved2011-2-17from"WesternBuddhistReview"athttp://www.westernbuddhistreview.com/vol5/the-origin-of-buddhist-meditation.html. ^Polak,Grzegorz(2016-05-01)."HowWasLiberatingInsightRelatedtotheDevelopmentoftheFourJhānasinEarlyBuddhism?ANewPerspectivethroughanInterdisciplinaryApproach".{{citejournal}}:Citejournalrequires|journal=(help) ^abSchmithausen1981. ^Vetter1988,pp. xxi–xxii. ^abcVetter1988,pp. xxi–xxxvii. ^abPeterHarvey,AnIntroductiontoBuddhism.CambridgeUniversityPress,1990,page252. 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^B.AlanWallace,Thebridgeofquiescence:experiencingTibetanBuddhistmeditation.CarusPublishingCompany,1998,page92.Wallacetranslatesbothas"thefirstproximatemeditativestabilization". ^Tse-fuKuan,MindfulnessinEarlyBuddhism:NewApproachesThroughPsychologyandTextualAnalysisofPali,ChineseandSanskritSources.Routledge,2008,pages65–67. ^VenerableSujivo,AccessandFixedConcentration.VipassanaTribune,Vol4No2,July1996,BuddhistWisdomCentre,Malaysia.Availablehere. ^Sujiva,MasteringanAbsorption,Buddhanet ^Fox1989,p. 83-87. ^Buddhadasa;BhikkhuTanissaro;Arbel2017 ^Fox1989,p. 85-87. ^abFox1989. ^Wynne2007,p. 106;140,note58. ^Vetter1988,p. 13. ^abWynne2007,p. 140,note58. ^Wynne2007,p. 106-107;140,note58. ^Lusthaus2022,p. 91.sfnerror:notarget:CITEREFLusthaus2022(help) ^Gethin1992,p. 162-182. ^Gethin2004,p. 217,note26. ^Polak2011,p. 25. ^Gethin2004,p. 217-218. ^Gethin2004,p. 203-204. ^Gethin2004,p. 204. ^Gethin2004,p. 208. ^abGethin2004,p. 216. ^Gethin2004,p. 215. ^Gethin2004,p. 217. ^Wynne2007,p. 106-107. 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^StudyandPracticeofMeditation:TibetanInterpretationsoftheConcentrationsandFormlessAbsorptionsbyLeahZahler.SnowLionPublications:2009pg264-5 ^B.AlanWallace,TheAttentionRevolution:UnlockingthePoweroftheFocusedMind.WisdomPublications,2006,pagexii. ^abJohannesBronkhorst(1993).TheTwoTraditionsofMeditationinAncientIndia.MotilalBanarsidass.pp. 45–49,68–70,78–81,96–98,112–119.ISBN 978-81-208-1114-0. ^ConstanceJones;JamesD.Ryan(2006).EncyclopediaofHinduism.Infobase.pp. 283–284.ISBN 978-0-8160-7564-5. ^JamesG.Lochtefeld,Ph.D.(2001).TheIllustratedEncyclopediaofHinduism,Volume1.TheRosenPublishingGroup,Inc.p. 196.ISBN 978-0-8239-3179-8. ^Wujastyk2011,p. 33. ^Feuerstein1978,p. 108. ^Tola,Dragonetti&Prithipaul1987,p. x. ^MovingInward:TheJourneyfromAsanatoPratyaharaArchivedJuly19,2011,attheWaybackMachineHimalayanInstituteofYogaScienceandPhilosophy. ^KarelWerner,TheYogiandtheMystic.Routledge1994,page27. ^RobertThurman,TheCentralPhilosophyofTibet.PrincetonUniversityPress,1984,page34. ^Woods,JamesHaughton,trans.(1914).TheYogaSystemofPatanjaliwithcommentaryYogabhashyaattributedtoVedaVyasaandTattvaVaicharadibyVacaspatiMisra.Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress.[page needed] ^AnOutlineoftheReligiousLiteratureofIndia,ByJohnNicolFarquharp.132 ^Bodhi,Bhikkhu(trans.)(2000).TheConnectedDiscoursesoftheBuddha:ANewTranslationoftheSamyuttaNikaya.Boston:WisdomPublications.ISBN 0-86171-331-1.[page needed] Sources[edit] AjahnBrahm(2006),Mindfulness,Bliss,andBeyond:AMeditator'sHandbook,WisdomPublications AjahnBrahm(2007),SimplyThisMoment Arbel,Keren(2017),EarlyBuddhistMeditation:TheFourJhanasastheActualizationofInsight,Routledge,doi:10.4324/9781315676043,ISBN 9781317383994 Baker,Kenneth(2008),TheLightningField,HolArtBooks Berzin,Alexander(2006),PrimaryMindsandthe51MentalFactors Blyth,R.H.(1966),ZenandZenClassics,Volume4,Tokyo:HokuseidoPress Bronkhorst,Johannes(1993),TheTwoTraditionsOfMeditationInAncientIndia,MotilalBanarsidassPubl. Bucknell,RobertS.(1993),"ReinterpretingtheJhanas",JournaloftheInternationalAssociationofBuddhistStudies,16(2) Chen,Naichen(2017),TheGreatPrajnaParamitaSutra,Volume1,Wheatmark Cousins,L.S.(1996),"Theoriginsofinsightmeditation"(PDF),inSkorupski,T.(ed.),TheBuddhistForumIV,seminarpapers1994–1996(pp.35–58),London,UK:SchoolofOrientalandAfricanStudies Dogen,Kazuaki(1999),Tanahashi(ed.),EnlightenmentUnfolds.TheEssentialTeachingsofZenMasterDogen,Shambhala Dumoulin,Heinrich(2005),ZenBuddhism:AHistory.Volume1:IndiaandChina,WorldWisdomBooks,ISBN 978-0-941532-89-1 Feuerstein,George(1978),HandboekvoorYoga(Dutchtranslation;Englishtitle"TextbookofYoga"),Ankh-Hermes Fischer-Schreiber,Ingrid;Ehrhard,Franz-Karl;Diener,MichaelS.(2008),LexiconBoeddhisme.Wijsbegeerte,religie,psychologie,mystiek,cultuurenliteratuur,Asoka Fox,MartinStuart(1989),"JhanaandBuddhistScholasticism",JournaloftheInternationalAssociationofBuddhistStudies,12(2) Gethin,Rupert(1992),TheBuddhistPathtoAwakening,OneWorldPublications Gethin,Rupert(2004),"OnthePracticeofBuddhistMeditationAccordingtothePaliNikayasandExegeticalSources",BuddhismusinGeschichteundGegenwart,9:201–21 Gombrich,RichardF.(1997),HowBuddhismBegan,MunshiramManoharlal Gregory,PeterN.(1991),SuddenandGradual.ApproachestoEnlightenmentinChineseThought,Delhi:MotilalBanarsidassPublishersPrivateLimited Guenther,HerbertV.;Kawamura,LeslieS.(1975),MindinBuddhistPsychology:ATranslationofYe-shesrgyal-mtshan's"TheNecklaceofClearUnderstanding"(Kindle ed.),DharmaPublishing Johansson,RuneEdvinAnders(1981),PaliBuddhistTexts:ExplainedtotheBeginner,PsychologyPress Kalupahana,DavidJ.(1992),ThePrinciplesofBuddhistPsychology,Delhi:riSatguruPublications Kalupahana,DavidJ.(1994),AhistoryofBuddhistphilosophy,Delhi:MotilalBanarsidassPublishersPrivateLimited King,Richard(1995),EarlyAdvaitaVedāntaandBuddhism:TheMahāyānaContextoftheGauḍapādīya-kārikā,SUNYPress King,WinstonL.(1992),TheravadaMeditation.TheBuddhistTransformationofYoga,Delhi:MotilalBanarsidass Kunsang,ErikPema(2004),GatewaytoKnowledge,Vol.1,NorthAtlanticBooks Lachs,Stuart(2006),TheZenMasterinAmerica:DressingtheDonkeywithBellsandScarves Loori,JohnDaido(2006),SittingwithKoans:EssentialWritingsonZenKoanIntrospection,WisdomPublications,ISBN 0-86171-369-9 Lusthaus,Dan(2002),BuddhistPhenomenology:APhilosophicalInvestigationofYogacaraBuddhismandtheCh'engWei-shihLun,Routledge Maezumi,Taizan;Cook,FrancisDojun(2007),"TheEightAwarenessesoftheEnlightenedPerson":DogenZenji'sHachidainingaku",inMaezumi,Taizan;Glassman,Bernie(eds.),TheHazyMoonofEnlightenment,WisdomPublications Matsumoto,Shirõ(1997)(1997),TheMeaningof"Zen".InJamieHubbard(ed.),PruningtheBodhiTree:TheStormOverCriticalBuddhism(PDF),Honolulu:UniversityofHawaiʻiPress,pp. 242–250,ISBN 082481908X Nanamoli,Bhikkhu(trans.)(1995),TheMiddleLengthDiscoursesoftheBuddha:ANewTranslationoftheMajjhimaNikaya,WisdomPublications,ISBN 0-86171-072-X Polak,Grzegorz(2011),ReexaminingJhana:TowardsaCriticalReconstructionofEarlyBuddhistSoteriology,UMCS Quli,Natalie(2008),"MultipleBuddhistModernisms:JhanainConvertTheravada"(PDF),PacificWorld,10:225–249 Rhys-Davids,T.W.;Stede,William,eds.(1921–25),ThePaliTextSociety'sPali–Englishdictionary,PaliTextSociety) Rose,Kenneth(2016),Yoga,Meditation,andMysticism:ContemplativeUniversalsandMeditativeLandmarks,Bloomsbury Samuel,Geoffrey(2008).TheOriginsofYogaandTantra:IndicReligionstotheThirteenthCentury.CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN 978-1-139-47021-6. Sangpo,GelongLodro;Dhammajoti,BhikkhuK.L.(2012),Abhidharmakosa-BhasyaofVasubandhu:Volume3,MotilalBanarsidass Sarbacker,StuartRay(2021),TracingthePathofYoga:TheHistoryandPhilosophyofIndianMind-BodyDiscipline,StateUniversityofNewYorkPress Schmithausen,Lambert(1981),OnsomeAspectsofDescriptionsorTheoriesof'LiberatingInsight'and'Enlightenment'inEarlyBuddhism".In:StudienzumJainismusundBuddhismus(GedenkschriftfürLudwigAlsdorf),hrsg.vonKlausBruhnundAlbrechtWezler,Wiesbaden1981,199–250 Shankman,Richard(2008),TheExperienceofSamadhi:AnIn-depthExplorationofBuddhistMeditation,Shambhala Sharf,Robert(2014),"MindfullnessandMindlessnessinEarlyChan"(PDF),PhilosophyEast&West,64(4):933–964,doi:10.1353/pew.2014.0074,S2CID 144208166 Sharf,RobertH.(2015),"IsmindfulnessBuddhist?(andwhyitmatters)",TransculturalPsychiatry2015,Vol.52(4),470-484 Suzuki,D.T.(2014),SelectedWorksofD.T.Suzuki,VolumeI:Zen,UniversityofCaliforniaPress Tola,Fernando;Dragonetti,Carmen;Prithipaul,K.Dad(1987),TheYogasūtrasofPatañjalionconcentrationofmind,MotilalBanarsidass Vetter,Tilmann(1988),TheIdeasandMeditativePracticesofEarlyBuddhism,BRILL Vimalaramsi,Bhante(2015),AGuidetoTranquilWisdomInsightMeditation,DhammaSukhaPublishing Wayman,Alex(1997),"Introduction",CalmingtheMindandDiscerningtheReal:BuddhistMeditationandtheMiddleView,fromtheLamRimChenMoTson-kha-pa,MotilalBanarsidassPublishers Williams,Paul(2000),BuddhistThought.AcompleteintroductiontotheIndiantradition,Routledge Wujastyk,Dominik(2011),ThePathtoLiberationthroughYogicMindfulnessinEarlyAyurveda.In:DavidGordonWhite(ed.),"Yogainpractice",PrincetonUniversityPress Wynne,Alexander(2007),TheOriginofBuddhistMeditation,Routledge Zhu,Rui(2005),"DistinguishingSōtōandRinzaiZen:ManasandtheMentalMechanicsofMeditation"(PDF),EastandWest,55(3):426–446 Furtherreading[edit] Scholarly(philological/historical) Analayo(2017),EarlyBuddhistMeditationStudies(defenceoftraditionalTheravadaposition) Bronkhorst,Johannes(1993),TheTwoTraditionsOfMeditationInAncientIndia,MotilalBanarsidassPubl. Bucknell,RobertS.(1993),"ReinterpretingtheJhanas",JournaloftheInternationalAssociationofBuddhistStudies,16(2) Polak(2011),ReexaminingJhana Stuart-Fox,Martin(1989),"JhanaandBuddhistScholasticism",JournaloftheInternationalAssociationofBuddhistStudies,12(2) Wynne,Alexander(2007),TheOriginofBuddhistMeditation,Routledge Re-assessmentofjhanainTheravada Arbel,Keren(2017),EarlyBuddhistMeditation,Taylor&Francis Quli,Natalie(2008),"MultipleBuddhistModernisms:JhanainConvertTheravada"(PDF),PacificWorld,10:225–249 Shankman,Richard(2008),TheExperienceofSamadhi Externallinks[edit] FromSuttaPitaka "Jhana"(2005),descriptionsandsimilesfromthePaliCanon'sAnguttaraNikayaandDhammapada,byJohnT.Bullitt. TheravādinBuddhistperspective HenepolaGunaratana,JhanasinTheravadaBuddhistMeditation AjahnBrahmavamso,TraveloguetothefourJhanas AjahnBrahmavamso,TheJhanas ThanissaroBhikkhu,Jhananotbythenumbers BhanteVimalaramsiMahāthera,MN111OnebyOneasTheyOccurred–AnupadaSutta.Dhamma-TalksontheAnupada-Sutta.Thisprovidesahighlydetailedaccountoftheprogressionthroughthejhānas. Sutta-stylejhanas:awesternphenomenon?,DhammaWheel Mahayana Nagarjuna,CommentaryintheFourDhyanas Others LeighBreighton,InterpretationsoftheJhanas JhanaWars!,Simple|Suttas O'Brien,Barbara."JhanasorDhyanas:AProgressionofBuddhistMeditation."LearnReligions,28Sept.2018. vteTopicsinBuddhism Outline Glossary Index Foundations FourNobleTruths ThreeJewels Buddha Dharma Sangha NobleEightfoldPath Nirvana MiddleWay TheBuddha Tathāgata Birthday Foursights EightGreatEvents GreatRenunciation Physicalcharacteristics Footprint Relics IconographyinLaosandThailand Films Miracles Family Suddhodāna(father) Māyā(mother) MahapajapatiGotamī(aunt,adoptivemother) Yaśodharā(wife) Rāhula(son) Ānanda(cousin) Devadatta(cousin) PlaceswheretheBuddhastayed Buddhainworldreligions Bodhisattvas Avalokiteśvara Guanyin Mañjuśrī Mahāsthāmaprāpta Ākāśagarbha Kṣitigarbha Samantabhadra Vajrapāṇi Skanda Tārā Metteyya/Maitreya Disciples Kaundinya Assaji Sāriputta Mahamoggallāna Ānanda Mahākassapa Aṅgulimāla Anuruddha Mahākaccana 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