Fandom and Participatory Culture - Subcultures and Sociology

Fan culture, or fandom, is a term which describes communities built around a shared enjoyment of an aspect of popular culture, such as books, movies, ... Skiptocontent FandomandParticipatoryCulture HomeSubculturalTheoryandTheoristsFandomandParticipatoryCulture MainPage   FandomandParticipatoryCulture Fanculture,orfandom,isatermwhichdescribescommunitiesbuiltaroundasharedenjoymentofanaspectofpopularculture,suchasbooks,movies,TVshows,bands,sportsorsportsteams,etc.Fanculturesareexamplesofparticipatorycultures.Participatoryculturesinvolvefansactingnotonlyasconsumersbutalsoasproducersandcreatorsofsomeformofcreativemedia.Thoughmostfancultures,includingsportsfansandfansofmusicgroups,haveelementsofparticipatoryculture,mediafandominparticularencouragescreativeexpressionandartisticproductionbyitsparticipants. Jenkinsetal.(2009)defineaparticipatoryculturemorespecificallyasonethatconsistsof: Relativelylowbarrierstoartisticexpressionandcivicengagement Strongsupportforcreatingandsharingone’screationswithothers  Sometypeofinformalmentorshipinwhichthemostexperiencedmemberspassalongtheirknowledgetonovices Memberswhobelievetheircontributionsmatter Memberswhofeelsomedegreeofsocialconnectionwithoneanotherandcareaboutothermembers’opinionsabouttheircontributions FansatanAnimeExpo,afanconventionheldinLosAngeles. Infancultures,thesecreationsandartisticexpressionstaketheformoffanfiction,fanart,fanvideos,cosplay,filk songs,andotherinteractionswithaperson,group,orfictionaluniverse.Fanfictionconsistsofstorieswrittenbyfansofaparticularworkoffiction(ratherthantheoriginalcreator)aboutthefictionalcharactersoruniverse.Fanvideos,orfanvids,setclipsofamovieorTVshowtomusicand/orconstructanarrativeusingclipsfrommultiplesourcematerials.Filksongsareatypeoffolkmusic,usuallywithscience-fiction,fantasy,orotherfictionaluniversesasthesubject.Cosplayisthepracticeofwearingcostumesorotherclothingandaccessoriesinanattempttoportrayafictionalcharacter. ModernfancultureoriginatedwithStarTrekfandominthe1960s(HellecksonandBusse,2006).Atthetime,fansgenerallyspreadtheircreationsthroughfanzinesorconventions.Recently,theInternethasallowedfanculturetobecomemorewidespreadandmoreaccessible.Ratherthansubmittingaworkoffanfictiontoazinewhere,ifaccepted,itwouldbephotocopiedalongwithotherworksandsentouttoamailinglist,modernfanscanposttheirworksonline. MediascholarHenryJenkinscontrastsparticipatoryculturewithconsumerculture,suggestingthatfans“poach”frompopularmedia,appropriatingideasfromthetextandrereadingthemincreativewaysfortheirownuses.Onetheoryofpopularcultureholdsthatthecorporate“cultureindustry”(mediaproducerssuchasTVnetworksandfilmstudios)prioritizesprofitattheexpenseofquality,andthatpopcultureisaformofhegemony,usedtospreaddominantideologies.However,thetheoryofparticipatoryculturesuggeststhatratherthanbeing“culturaldupes,socialmisfits,andmindlessconsumers,”mediafanscanbeunderstoodas“activeproducersandmanipulatorsofmeaning”(Jenkins1992:23).Faninteractionwithmediabecomesasocialactivity,andthisprocessallowsfanstobuildtheirowncommunitiesinwhichtheycanexpressthemselves.Indoingso,theycreatespaceswheretheycancritiqueprescriptiveideasofgender,sexuality,andothernormspromotedinpartbythemediaindustry. Jenkinsalsotheorizesthatparticipatoryculturecanbeaformofresistance.Forexample,fanfiction,fanvideos,andfilksongsoftenexplorethemesandaspectsofthesourcematerialwhichareofinteresttothefemale-dominatedpartsofthefancommunity,goingbeyondthestoriesthemale-dominatedmediaindustryisinterestedinorwillingtotell.Hesuggeststhat“fandom’sveryexistencerepresentsacritiqueofconventionalformsofconsumerculture”whilealsoproviding“aspacewithinwhichfansmayarticulatetheirspecificconcernsaboutsexuality,gender,racism,colonialism,militarism,andforcedconformity”(Jenkins1992:283).Notonlydofansactivelygeneratetheirowncreativematerial,buttheyoftendosoinwayswhichcritiquethemediatheyareconsuming.   GeekHierarchies Anexcerptfromthegeekhierarchy,aflowchartcreatedbyLoreSjöbergpurportingtodelineatethegeneralrankingsofwhatmakesaparticulartypeoffanmoreorlessgeeky   Socialhierarchiesexistbetweenandwithinfancultures,whichcanleadtojudgment.Membersofanysubgrouptendtohaveageneralconsensusregardingwhichbehaviorsareacceptable,i.e.,whichbehaviorsconstitutetruefansordesperateoverconformers.Thisdynamicisrepresentedinthegeekhierarchy.Whilemembersbenefitthemselvesbydisplayingcommitment,“toostronganinvestmentisthreateningevenasthatveryaffectiswhatcentrallydefinesfansandgeeks”(Busse2006:79).Forexample,aStarTrekfanwhogoestoafanconventionmightconsiderherselfmoregeekythansomeonewhoseinvolvementwiththeshowendsatwatchingit,butlessgeekythananotherStarTrekfanwhospeaksKlingon(alanguageofoneoftheshow’salienraces).Definingaplaceforoneselfinfanculturedependsonnavigatingthefinelinebetweenprofessionalism,consumerism,expertise,andcommitment.   Fandoms&Identity Participationinfancultureisoftengendered,andagivenfanactivity’splaceininternalhierarchiesisoftencorrelatedtothegenderoftheparticipants.Forexample,thevastmajorityoffanfictionwritersarewomen(Coppa2013).Generally,‘transformative’activities–suchascreatingfanfiction,fanart,fanvids,etc–areassociatedwithfemalefans.Conversely,‘curative’or‘affirmational’activities,suchasmemorizingtriviaorcollectingmerchandise,tendtobeassociatedwithmalefans.Thoughthetwotypesoffanactivityarenotmutuallyexclusive,andthoughpeopleofallgendersengageinanygivenformofactivity,thegenderedstereotypesassociatedwitheachtypeoffandomisreflectedinwhetherthosewhoengageinthoseactivitiesaretreatedas‘serious’fans.HenryJenkinswritesthat“thelargelyfemalecompositionofmediafandomreflectsahistoricalsplitwithinthesciencefictionfancommunitybetweenthetraditionallymale-dominatedliteraryfansandthenewer,morefemininestyleofmediafandom”(1992:48). Thissplitisreflectedinthecreativeoutputproducedby(primarilyfemale)fans:fanfictionoftenbringsfemaleexperiencesintosourcetextswhicharegenerallywrittenbyandaboutmen,oftenchallengingnormsofgenderandsexuality.Inherarticleongeekhierarchiesandgendering,KristinaBusse(2013)delvesfurtherintohowgenderinformstheperceptionsofparticularfanbehaviors.Notonlydocertainbranchesofthesubculturesuchasthoseengagedinfanfictionbecomecodedunfavorablytowardsaparticulargender,butthewayinwhichmediadepictsfemalefanscaststheminadesperateanddisgracefullight.BussedescribeshowthetelevisionprogramSupernatural,whosefanbaseisprimarilyfemale,depictsgenderbiasinitsrepresentationofaparticularfemalefanataconventioninepisode5×09.Ratherthangrantinghercharactertraitssuchasengagement,curiosity,andcommitment,theepisodeillustratesherassexuallyaggressiveandobnoxioustowardstheshow’smalesubjects.AccordingtoBusse,“thismean-spiritedandhatefulrepresentationoffemalefansseemsstrange,andyetitsuggeststheintendedviewer’ssubjectpositionasclearlynotthatofafangirl”(2013:82).         TheastronautSamanthaCristoforettiperformingaVulcansalutewhilewearingaStarTrekt-shirt.   AccordingtoSarahGatsonandRobinReid,the“defaultfanboyhasapresumedrace,class,andsexuality:white,middle-class,male,heterosexual”(Gatson&Reid2012).Thisstereotyped(andoftenuntrue)profileoffandomparticipantsisappliedtomanyfandoms,suchastheBronyfandomandsciencefictionfandom.Whyisitthatwhite,heterosexualmales,whoarguablehavethehigheststatusinourpatriarchalsociety,voluntarilychoosetolowertheirsocialstatusbyparticipatinginfandoms?MelStanfill,inhisarticle,“DoingFandom,(Mis)doingWhiteness:Heteronormativity,Racialization,andtheDiscursiveConstructionofFandom,”arguesthatoneofthequalitiesoffandomparticipationisthatitisconstructedasultimately“correctable”(Stanfill2011).Thenotionofneedingto“growup”isverypresentinoursociety,andthisisonelenswithwhichsocietyoftenusestoviewparticipantsoffandoms:theysimplyneedtogrowup.Therefore,especiallyamongstwhiteparticipants,fandomisviewedasasafewaytoexperimentwithanewidentitywhilestillhavingtheopportunitytoreturntothewhitenormsfromwhichtheyhaddeviated.Stanfillfurtherstatesthattheoveralltrendoffansbeingportrayedaswhiteinpopularcultureservetoreinforcethatwhitenessistheexpectationforfans(Stanfill2011).Thestereotypeoffansaswhitemalesisfrequentlyinaccurate.Inmanyfandoms,womenratherthanmenmakeupthemajorityoffans(asintheTwilightandTheHungerGames fandoms).Inaddition,womenoftenmakeupthemajorityofatransformative-work-centeredsubsetoffansevenformediaaimedatmen;forinstance,womenweretheprimarydriversoftheearlyStarTrekfandom,whichisgenerallyconsideredtobethefirstmodernmediafandom. Similarly,manypeopleofcolordoparticipateinfandom;however,exceptincaseswheretheoriginalsourcematerialisnon-Western,theexistenceandcontributionsoffansofcolorareoftenlessrecognizedthenthoseoftheirwhitecounterparts.   FandomasaConsumerCulture Ararevintagecomicbook,oneexampleofacollectorsitemthatsomefansvalueaspartoftheirauthenticityandidentity. Inhisworkonfanandparticipatoryculture,MattHillsexaminestheinterplaybetweenproductionandtheconsumerismthatfanculturescriticize.Althoughfandomhasgenerallybifurcateditsparticipantsinto“amoraldualismof‘good’fandomversus‘bad’consumption,”Hillsarguesforalessdividedclassificationoffanculture(Hills2002).Furthermore,severaldifferentfancultureshaveturnedthosewhosubscribetotraditionalworkingsofcapitalismintotheother;peoplewhobuytoomanyitemsautomaticallyloseauthenticitybycontributingtostructuresthataligntoostronglywithdominantcapitalistsociety,thereforealienatingthemselvesfromsupposedlycommittedfans.Conversely,“wearepresentedwiththeviewoffansas(specialist)consumers,whosefandomisexpressedthroughkeepingupwiththenewreleaseofbooks,comics,andvideos”(Hills2002).Therefore,fansmustperpetuallyoccupyaspaceinwhichtheycarveouttheirownuniqueidentity,separatefromconventionalconsumerismbutalsobolstertheircredibilitywithparticularcollectorsitems. AccordingtoHills,thisnegotiationleadstothedichotomybetween“usevalue”and“exchangevalue,”orthedifferencebetweenthesymbolicsignificanceandmonetaryworthofanobject.Althoughthetwoconceptsseembasedinopposition,Hillsarguesthattheyareinherentlyrelatedanddependentupononeanother.Usingtheexampleofthepopularchildren’sfableTheVelveteenRabbit,hedescribesachild’stoythathasundergoneconsiderablewearandtearthroughouttheyearsbutstillholdssignificanceintheeyesofthebeholder.Whiletherabbitnolongercontainsmeritinitscapacitytobetradedandthereforelacks“exchangevalue”,thechildstilldeemsitvaluablebecauseoftheemotionsandrecollectionsattached.However,Hillsthengoesontosuggestthatfansubculturistsmustacceptsuchapolarityasaninnatecontradiction.Insteadof“usevalue”and“exchangevalue”existinginstarkcontrast,thetwoconceptsoverlapandinformoneanother.Duetomanyobjects“beingintenselysubjectivelyvaluedbyfans,suchcommoditiestakeonanew‘exchangevalue’”thatis“createdthroughthedurabilityoffans’attachments”(Hills2002).Therefore,participantsnormallyfallsomewhereonthespectrumofconsumerandproducer,creatingmonetaryvaluewiththeiroverinvestmentinspecificobjectswhilealsoformingresistanceagainstthetypicaltrappingstheyfindinconsumerism.                     TheFandomGiftEconomy TashaTurkhasdiscussedfandomasa“gifteconomy,”basednotonmoneyoronexplicitexchangesofgoodsorservices,butongiving,receiving,andreciprocating.Shearguesthattheprocessofgiftexchange “ispartofwhatmakesitpossibletoexperienceandanalyzefandomasacommunity,orratheranoverlappingseriesofcommunities,ratherthansimplyalargeandshiftingnumberofpeopleoccupyingthesameaffinityspace”(Turk2014).Infandom,Turkarguesthatthemostvaluedgiftsarethosewhichtaketimeand/orskilltocreate.Thevalueofthosegifts,then,“liesnotsimplyinthecontentofthegift,norinthesocialgestureofgiving,butinthelaborthatwentintotheircreation”(Turk2014). AccordingtoTurk,fannishgiftsincludenotonlythemostvisibleformsofcreativeoutput–fic,art,vids,etc.–butthe“widerangeofcreativelaborsthatsurroundandinsomecasesunderlietheseartobjects”(Turk2014).Theseincludecommentingonothers’artorwriting,volunteeringone’seditingskillstohelpafanwriter,writingrecommendationsorreviews,organizingonlinechallengesorexchanges,editingzines,planningconventions,creatingwebsitesforfannishactivity,etc.Theworkwhichgoesintomaintainingthefandom‘economy’isrelatedtotheformationoffandomasacommunity:Turkdescribesfandomasasystem“notjustofreciprocalgivingbutofcirculargiving”(Turk2014).Sincemostofthe“gifts”describedabovearepostedonline(orpublishedinazine),notjustsenttoaspecificperson,theentirecommunity(orwhicheversubsetisinterested)canbeconsideredtherecipientofthegift. Turkfurtherrelatestheconceptof“circulargiving”tofandomeconomybyexplainingthatmostfansreceivemorethingsthantheyproduce:mostreadmoreficsthantheywrite,orwatchfewervidsthantheycreate(Turk2014).Thisasymmetry,Turkargues,is“criticaltofandom’sfunctioningbecauseitbalancesouttheasymmetryintheotherdirection:noteverygiftrecipientwillreciprocatewith‘thegiftofreaction,’”whereareactionmighttaketheformofacommentorareblogofthework(Turk2014).Thisalsodemonstrateshowfanscancontributetothe“gifteconomy,”eveniftheyarenotproducers,throughfeedbackandredistribution.Fromthisviewpoint,then,fandom’sgifteconomyisnotjustan“accumulationofcontiguousreciprocalrelationshipsbetweenindividuals,”buta“complexsysteminwhichthereciprocationofgifts,andbyextensiontherewardforlabor,isdistributedacrossthecommunityratherthanconcentratedinasingletransaction”(Turk2014).Thishelpsexplainwhyfanschoosetoparticipateinthesubculture:thevalueliesnotjustinthecreationofartorwritingabouttheirfavoriteTVshowormovie,butintheconsumptionofthoseworksbyotherfans,andthesenseofcommunitycreatedwhengiftsareacceptedintheformofbeingread,watched,orotherwiseappreciated.Theconceptoffandom’sgifteconomyhasalsobeenexploredbyKarenHellekson.   Society’sPerceptionofFandom JoliJensen hasaddressedtheroleofclassandelitisminfanandparticipatoryculture.Shearguesthatbecausetheword“fan”comesfromtheword“fanatic,”meaningcrazy,thereisan“usvsthem”dividebetweenfancultureandmainstreamsociety.Oncedefinedasdeviantthroughtheirfanaticism,thosewhoareapartoffanculturesbecomecharacterizedas“disreputable,evendangerous‘others’”(Jensen1992).Jensendescribestwocharacterizationsofpathologicalfans:the“obsessedloner,”whohasbeeninfluencedbythemediatothepointofenteringintoan“intensefantasyrelationshipwithacelebrityfigure”andthe“frenziedfan,”whorepresentsthescreamingandcryingteenagersinacrowdorthe“roaring,maniacalsportsfan”riotingatagame(Jensen1992).Thesecharacterizationsultimatelyresultinstigmatizingfanculture,astheparticipantsareeasilystereotyped.Jensenstatesthatalthoughthesestereotypesarenotrepresentativeoffancultureasawhole,theyrevealourbeliefsaboutmodernsocietyandourrelationshiptoit. MembersoftheBronyfandom,knowninparticularforattractingstigmaandthe‘UsvsThem’divide. Jensenhasmultipletheoriesastothereasonsbehindthe“usvsthem”divide.Onetheoryisthe“modernitycritique”whichstatesthatduetotheperceptionofmodernsocietyashavingloose“communalbonds,”themodernindividualisvulnerableto“irrationalappeals”(Jensen1992).Furthermore,societyviewsmodernityastheincreasingroleofmassmediainourlives.Thosewhofallvictimtotheirrationalappealsaremanipulatedbymassmediatoessentiallydisplayirrationalloyaltiestoanaspectofpopculture.Thediscreditationofmembersoffanculturerevealssociety’sfearofmodernity.Theydonotliketheideaofbeingtakenadvantageofbyamarketingfirmorcorporation,sotheyostracizethosewhotheybelievehavebeen. AnothertheoryJensendescribesistheideathatsomefans“usefancultureasaformof‘psychologicalcompensation,’”meaningthatfansmakeupforthelackoffulfillmentintheirliveswithintensefocusonfictionalrealities. However,thispsychologicalcompensationdoesnotapplytoallmembersoffanculture,asthereisadifferencebetweenthosefanswhoreplaceinterpersonalrelationshipswithmedia-audiencerelationshipsandthosewhoseparticipationinfancultureissupplementaltooraidsinmakinginterpersonalrelationships.Infact,makinginterpersonalrelationshipswiththosewhoareapartofthefanculturealsoaidsinfanculture’sparticipants’stigmamanagement.Membersoffanculturecanrefutethestereotypeofthe“obsessedloner”andarguethatfandomisasocialexperience,thereforelesseningthestigmaassociatedwithfanculture.Evenso,ininstancesof“excessivefandom,”fandomsactas“surrogaterelationship[s]”andareoftencharacteristicofsociallyisolatedmembersofsociety(Jensen1992). Jensenstatesthatwithinfanculture,therearefans,fanatics,anddeviants.Whereasfansseekidentityandconnectionswithothersviaasubject,fanaticsviewthesubjectasanimportantaspectoftheiridentitywhichisintegraltotheirself-esteem.Incontrast,researchersstatethatfanswhotheyhavelabeledas“deviants”havelowself-worthandasaresultareproneto“roleengulfment,”orthetendencytousethedeviancerelatedtofandomasawayto“organizeaconceptofself”(Jensen1992).Essentially,Jensenarguesthatthereisaveryfinelinebetweenbeinga“normalfan”and“excessivefandom,”andthislineiscrossedwhenthedifferencebetweenrealityandfantasybecomesunclear(Jensen1992).Furthermore,thislineisconstructed,contextdependent. ThefinalreasoningJensenexplainsforthe“usvsthem”divideisthatthereisan“assumeddichotomybetweenreasonandemotion”(Jensen1992).Basically,othermembersofsocietycanbejustasinterestedinasubjectasfans,butthesubjectandtheapproachtoitiswhatdifferentiatesthetwo.Forinstance,asJensenexplains,apersonwhoispassionateaboutanacademicsubjectcanbejustaspassionateaboutthatsubjectasamemberoffanculture;however,societyviewsacademiaasarationalinterestheldbyeducated,highclassmembersofsocietywhereassocietyviewsfandomasanemotionalobsessionheldbyuneducatedlowclassmembersofsocietywhichisthereforedangerous. Theorists Theorists HenryJenkins HenryJenkinsisanAmericanmediascholar.His1992book,TextualPoachers:TelevisionFansandParticipatoryCulture,isconsideredaseminalworkinfantheoryandthestudyofparticipatoryculture.InTextualPoachers,Jenkinsarguesthatfansshouldberegardednotaspassiveconsumersofpopularmedia,butasactiveproducersofcontentwho‘poach’elementsfrommediainordertocreatetheirownstorieswhichaddressissuestheycareabout.Jenkinshasstudiedhowfanculturesresisttraditionalnarrativesofgenderandsexuality.Hehasalsowrittenmoregenerallyaboutparticipatoryculturebeyondfanculture,includinganalysisofhowonlinecommunicationhasfacilitatedcreativeparticipationbymediausers.Jenkinshasdescribedhimselfasan“aca-fan.”@henryjenkins   JoliJensen JoliJensenisaprofessorofcommunicationsattheUniversityofTulsa.ShereceivedherPhDfromtheInstituteofCommunicationsResearchattheUniversityofIllinoisin1985.SheaddressesherinterestsinAmericanculturalandsocialthoughtthroughherworks.Heressay,“FandomasPathology”(1992)focusesonthe“usvsthem”dividebetweenfandomsandmainstreamsociety,particularlythemacroandmicroreasonsastowhyfandomsareviewedas“others.”   MattHills MattHillshasworkedatCardiffUniversity,AberystwthUniversity,andtheUniversityofHuddersfieldprimarilyasaprofessorofMedia,Journalism,FilmandTVStudies,andfandom.HesupervisesanumberofPhDstudentsinterestedinhisareasofstudyinadditiontowritingbooksandarticlesaboutfandomandparticipatoryculture.InhisfirstbookFanCultures(2002),Hillsoutlinesanumberofcontradictionsinherentinfancommunitiessuchasthenecessityforandresistancetowardsconsumerism,thecomplicatedfactorsassociatedwithhierarchy,andthesearchforauthenticityamongseveraldifferenttypesoffandom.         MediaandScholarship Media CitizenFan.A2014Frenchdocumentaryaboutfanculture,particularlyfanfiction,fanzines,vidding,andcosplay.Watchhere(click‘UK’forEnglishsubtitles). “Furries:WhatAreThey?”AFoxCTspecialreportontheFurryfandom.ContainsexamplesofthepositiveaspectsoftheFurryfandomaswellassomeofthemorestigmatizedaspects,comparisonstomainstreamculture,andthenotionthatfandomisaphasethatcanbeoutgrown.    “InsideComicConSanDiego.”ComicCon2013highlightsvideo,includesexamplesofcosplay,actionfigures,fanart,merchandise,andmoreaspectsoffanculture.  Trekkies(1997):AdocumentaryfeaturinginterviewswithdevotedfansofStarTrek,includingBarbaraAdams(theWhitewaterjurorwhoappearedincourtwearingaStarfleetuniform).Trailer Ringers:LordoftheFans(2005).AdocumentarycoveringthegrowthoftheTolkienfandomallthewayfromtheoriginalbooksbyJ.R.R.Tolkienin1937toPeterJackson’sTheLordoftheRingstrilogy.Trailer. DonetheImpossible(2006).AdocumentaryaboutthefansoftheTVseriesFirefly,inparticularhowfansplayedapartingettingthemovieSerenitymadeaftertheoriginalTVshowwascancelled.Trailer. SignificantScholarship Books     Bacon-Smith,Camille.1992.EnterprisingWomen:TelevisionFandomAndTheCreationOfPopularMyth.Philadelphia:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress.AnearlystudyofthefansofStarTrekandothergenretelevisionshowswithafocusonthefemalefanzineandfanfictioncommunity.      Duffett,Mark.2013.UnderstandingFandom.NewYork:BloomsburyAcademic.Looksatthe    fieldoffanresearch andmethodologicalissues.Duffettalsoattemptstomakesenseofthedebatessurroundingotherkeyscholarsonissuesrelatedtofanculture.     Gray,Jonathan,CornelSandvoss,andC.LeeHarrington.2007.Fandom:IdentitiesandCommunitiesinaMediatedWorld.NewYork:NewYorkUniversityPress.Acollectionofessaysexaminingfandomspaces,fandomaroundtheworld,theimpactofnewtechnologies,andthelegalandhistoricalcontextsoffanactivity.   Harris,Cheryl,andAlisonAlexander.1998.TheorizingFandom:Fans,Subculture,andIdentity.Cresskill,N.J.:HamptonPress.Examinestheroleoffandominsocietybyexploringthemessuchasgender,power,andsocialclass.       Hellekson,Karen,andKristinaBusse.2006.FanFictionandFanCommunitiesintheAgeoftheInternet:NewEssays.Jefferson,N.C.:McFarland&Co.AcollectionofessaysonmodernInternetfanfictioncommunities,coveringtopicsincludingcommunity,sexuality,andtheconstructionofnarratives. Hills,Matt.2002.FanCultures.NewYork:Routledge.Examinescentralconceptsandtheoriesoffandomsuchasconsumerism,hierarchy,andresistance.     Jenkins,Henry.1992.TextualPoachers:TelevisionFans&ParticipatoryCulture.NewYork:Routledge.Anethnographicaccountofmediafandomcommunity,practices,andrelationshiptocapitalismandmassmedia.     Articles Busse,Kristina.2013.“GeekHierarchies,BoundaryPolicing,andtheGenderingoftheGoodFan.”JournalofAudienceandReceptionStudies,10(1),73-91.  Coppa,Francisca.2013.“AnArchiveofOurOwn.”InFic:WhyFanfictionIsTakingOvertheWorld,editedbyAnneElizabethJamison.Dallas,Texas:BenBellaBooks,Inc. Falzone,PJ.2005.“TheFinalFrontierIsQueer:Aberrancy,ArchetypeandAudienceGeneratedFolkloreinK/SSlashfiction.”WesternFolklore,64(3/4),243-261. Gatson,SarahN.,andRobinAnneReid.2012.“RaceandEthnicityinFandom.”In“RaceandEthnicityinFandom,”editedbyRobinAnneReidandSarahGatson,specialissue,TransformativeWorksandCultures(8). Gooch,Betsy.2008.“TheCommunicationofFanCulture:TheImpactofNewMediaonScienceFictionandFantasyFandom.”GeorgiaInstituteofTechnology,1-31. Hellekson,Karen.2009.“AFannishFieldofValue:OnlineFanGiftCulture.”CinemaJournal48(4):113-118. Jenkins,Henry,Puroshotma,Ravi,Clinton,Katherine,Weigel,Margaret,&Robison,AliceJ.2005.“ConfrontingtheChallengesofParticipatoryCulture:MediaEducationforthe21stCentury.”Retrievedfromhttp://www.newmedialiteracies.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/NMLWhitePaper.pdf Jensen,Joli.2016.“FandomAsPathology:TheConsequencesOfCharacterization”.Pp.9-29inTheAdoringAudience:FanCultureandPopularMedia,ed.by.LisaLewis.LondonandNewYork:Routledge. Lopes,Paul.2006.“CultureAndStigma:PopularCultureAndTheCaseOfComicBooks”.SociolForum21(3). Stanfill,Mel.2011.“DoingFandom,(Mis)DoingWhiteness:Heteronormativity,Racialization,AndTheDiscursiveConstructionOfFandom”.TransformativeWorksandCultures(8). Turk,Tisha.2014. “FanWork:Labor,Worth,andParticipationinFandom’sGiftEconomy.”TransformativeWorksandCultures(15). PagedesignedbyLindseyByrne,SydneyKasper,andLilySeibert TheviewsandopinionsexpressedonindividualwebpagesarestrictlythoseoftheirauthorsandarenotofficialstatementsofGrinnellCollege. CopyrightStatement.