Memory span - Wikipedia

In psychology and neuroscience, memory span is the longest list of items that a person can repeat back in correct order immediately after presentation on ... Memoryspan FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Inpsychologyandneuroscience,memoryspanisthelongestlistofitemsthatapersoncanrepeatbackincorrectorderimmediatelyafterpresentationon50%ofalltrials.Itemsmayincludewords,numbers,orletters.Thetaskisknownasdigitspanwhennumbersareused.Memoryspanisacommonmeasureofworkingmemoryandshort-termmemory.ItisalsoacomponentofcognitiveabilitytestssuchastheWAIS.Backwardmemoryspanisamorechallengingvariationwhichinvolvesrecallingitemsinreverseorder. Contents 1Asafunctionalaspect 2Asastructuralaspect 3Digit-span 4Factors 4.1Extrinsicfactors 4.2Intrinsicfactors 5Thememoryspanprocedure 6Fromsimplespantocomplexspan 7Theroleofinterference 8Seealso 9References Asafunctionalaspect[edit] Functionally,memoryspanisusedtomeasurethenumberofdiscreteunitsoverwhichtheindividualcansuccessivelydistributehisattentionandstillorganizethemintoaworkingunit.Togeneralize,itreferstotheabilityofanindividualtoreproduceimmediately,afteronepresentation,aseriesofdiscretestimuliintheiroriginalorder.[1] Experimentsinmemoryspanhavefoundthatthemorefamiliarapersoniswiththetypeofsubjectmatterpresentedtothem,themoretheywillrememberitinanovelsetting.Forexample,apersonwillbetterrememberasequenceintheirfirst-languagethantheirsecond-language;apersonwillalsorememberasequenceofwordsbetterthantheywouldasequenceofnonsensesyllables.[2] AccordingtoatheorybyAlanBaddeleyandGrahamHitch,workingmemoryisundertheinfluenceofthreekeymechanisms:thevisuospatialsketchpad,thecentralexecutive,andthephonologicalloop.Amechanismcalledtheepisodicbufferwaslateraddedtothemodel.Thephonologicalloopisthemechanismthatfacilitateslearningandmemorybystoringinformation(inthearticulatoryloop)andrefreshingorrehearsingitinourmemory(intheacousticstore).[3]Thephonologicalsimilarityeffectiswhenitemsinalisthavesimilarfeatures(e.g.similarsound),theyaremoredifficulttoremember.Likewise,themoredifferenttheitemsinalistare,theeasieritistorecallthem.[4]MemoryspantaskssincetheformulationofBaddeleyandHitch'stheoryhavebeenhelpfulassupportforthephonologicalloopaspartoftheworkingmemory.[5][6] Asastructuralaspect[edit] Astructuraldefinitionofmemoryspanisdifficulttogive,foroneimmediatelyisfacedbythedistinctionsbetweentheprerequisitesformemoryspan,andtheactualprocessesinvolved."Associability”isrequiredinmemoryspan.Thistermreferstotheabilityofthesubjecttogrouptheseriesofelementstogether:toperceiverelationshipsamongtheseriesinordertobetterreproducethem. Stillanotherprocessinvolvedinmemoryspanisthatofimagery.Thesubject,inordertobeabletoreproducetheseriespresented,mustbeabletoimagetheseries.Theactualreproducingoftheseriesofstimuliinvolvestheprocessofmemory.Iftheindividualpossessednomemoryatall,reproductionoftheserieswouldbeimpossible.Itisalsoknownthatmemoryspanandmemoryaredifferentinthelengthoftimeoverwhichreproductionispossible.Memoryspanistransitory;memoryisfairlypermanent.Inaddition,theamountofmaterialinvolvedinmemoryspanisordinarilymuchlessthantheamountofmaterialinvolvedinmemory.Reproductionoftheseriesalsoinvolvescertainother"reproductionfactors,"suchaslanguageabilityandarithmeticalproficiency.[7] Digit-span[edit] Adigit-spantaskisusedtomeasureworkingmemory'snumberstoragecapacity.Participantsseeorhearasequenceofnumericaldigitsandaretaskedtorecallthesequencecorrectly,withincreasinglylongersequencesbeingtestedineachtrial.Theparticipant'sspanisthelongestnumberofsequentialdigitsthatcanaccuratelyberemembered.Digit-spantaskscanbegivenforwardsorbackwards,meaningthatoncethesequenceispresented,theparticipantisaskedtoeitherrecallthesequenceinnormalorreverseorder.[8]Digit-spantasksarethemostcommonlyusedtestformemoryspan,partiallybecauseperformanceonadigit-spantaskcannotbeaffectedbyfactorssuchassemantics,frequencyofappearanceindailylife,complexity,etc.[2]MemoryspanThisisagraphicalrepresentationoftypicalresultsthatmightbeobtainedfromperformingaforward/backwarddigitspanrecalltaskonparticipantsinseveraldifferentagegroups.Thenumbersonthey-axisindicatenumberofdigitssuccessfullyrecalled.MeSHD011581 Verbalworkingmemoryisinvolvedinmanyeverydaytasks,suchasrememberingafriend'stelephonenumberwhileenteringitintoaphoneandunderstandinglonganddifficultsentences.[9][citationneeded]Verbalworkingmemoryisalsothoughttobeoneoftheelementsunderlyingintelligence(oftenreferredtoas'IQ,'meaning"intelligencequotient");thus,thedigitspantaskisacommoncomponentofmanyIQtests,includingthewidelyusedWechslerAdultIntelligenceScale(WAIS).Performanceonthedigitspantaskisalsocloselylinkedtolanguagelearningabilities;improvingverbalmemorycapacitiesmaythereforeaidmasteryofanewlanguage.[10][11][12] Factors[edit] Thereareanumberoffactorswhichaffectmemoryspan.Someofthefactorsareextrinsic,orpresentinthetestingsituationitself.Thesefactors,ifnotcarefullycontrolled,causethememoryspantesttobestatisticallyunreliable.Whiletheexistenceofmanyofthesefactorshavebeenrecognized,extensivestudiesontheirimportancehaveyettobedone.Someoftheseextrinsicfactorsincludestimulusgrouping,responsegrouping,presentationrate,andS-Rcompatibility.[13] Otherfactorsareintrinsicintheindividual,anditisthesefactorswhicharethebasisof"true"memoryspan.Thoughnumerousfactorsaffectmemoryspan,thetestisonethatshowssurprisinglyhighreliability.Resultsobtainedbydifferentinvestigatorsshowthatthereliabilitycoefficientsformemoryspanarequitehigh.[citationneeded] Extrinsicfactors[edit] Characteristicsofmaterialsused:Ifthematerialisallcloselyrelated,itwillbemoreeasilyreproducedthanifitisunrelated.Thisrelationshipofthematerialiscalledthe"coefficientofassociability."[14]Forexample,inspokenword-spantasksifthewordspresentedarephonologicallysimilaralowerspaniselicitedthanifthetaskusesphonologicallydifferentwords.[15] Additionofnon-targetelements:theadditionofirrelevantstimulibetweentargetstimulireducesperformanceonmemoryspantasks.Iftheirrelevantstimuliisarepeatedsyllable(i.e.ba,ba,ba)thespanisreduced(articulatorysuppressioneffect)[15] Rhythmofpresentation:Closelyrelatedtotheproblemofpresentingthestimuliingroups,isthepresentationofthestimuliinrhythmicfashion.Mostinvestigatorspointoutthatthestimuliusedintestingmemoryspanshouldbepresentedwithaslittlerhythmaspossible.Theeffectofrhythmistogrouptheunitsintheseries,againenablingtheindividualtosecureaspanhigherthanhis"true"one.[citationneeded] Rateofpresentation:Thespeedwithwhichthestimuliarepresentedhasaneffectonmemoryspanscore.Whenlisteningtoauditorystimuli,theimpactofspeedismediatedbywhetherthesubjectisactivelyorpassivelylistening.Activelistenersscorebetterwithfasterstimulipresentation.Passivelistenersscorebetterastimeincreases.[16] Modalityofpresentation:Studieshaveshownaconsistentincreaseinmemoryspanforlistspresentedauditorallyoveronespresentedvisually.[17]Thiscanbeseeninperformanceonmemoryspantasksforsigned-languages,whichtypicallyyieldlowerspansthanspoken-languages.[18] Timerequiredtovocalizeresponses:Memoryspanisapproximatelyequaltothenumberofitemswhichanindividualcanarticulateintwoseconds.[19]Withthatinmind,memoryspanisconsistentlyhigherforshortwordsthanforlongwords.[20]Thisfactorhelpsaccountforcross-linguisticdifferencesondigitmemoryspantasks.[21] Methodofscoringresponses:Themethodofscoringresponsesalsohasaneffectupontheperceivedmemoryspanoftheindividual.Variationsinscoringarecommonandshouldbeconsideredwhenlookingatdata. Distraction:Interferencenegativelyeffectsperformanceonmemoryspantasks.Sincedistractionishardertoignoreatayoungage,itispossiblethatinterferencemayhavearoleinthedifferencesofscoresbasedonage.[22] Intrinsicfactors[edit] Therearecertainintrinsicfactorsspecifictoeachindividualthatmayaffecttheextent,orspan,ofone'sworkingmemory. Age Anindividual'sageaffectstheirworkingmemoryspan.Duringchildhoodandadolescentdevelopment,memoryspanimproveswithage.Afteradulthoodisreached,memoryspanslowlydecreasesasanindividualprogressestowardsoldage.Thedeclineinmemoryspanwitholdagehasbeenassociatedwithadecreaseofworkingmemorystorageandprocessing,andtheagedifferenceinworkingmemorybecomesgreaterasthememorytasksperformedbecomemoredifficult.[23]Generally,thedeclineinworkingmemoryandmemoryspantasksinoldageisattributedtoadeclineinoverallcognitivecontrol.Oneofthekeyaspectsofworkingmemoryistheabilitytoinhibitdistractionsandtofocusonstimuluscues.Asapersonages,theseabilitiesdiminish,whichreduceseffectivememory.[24] Practiceofmusic Musicaltrainingimprovestheverbalmemoryspan,butthereisnoconsensusamongresearchersifitimprovesvisualworkingmemorycapacity.Themoretrainingreceivedthebetterthememoryimprovement.[25][26]Preschoolersgivenshort-termmusicaltrainingshowedimprovementintheirexecutivefunctionandverbalmemoryspan.[27]Sixtytoeighty-fiveyear-oldswhoreceivedpianolessonsshowedadecreaseofage-basedmemorydecline,aswellasimprovedexecutivefunctionandworkingmemory.[28]Musiciansalsoperformsignificantlybetterontherhythmspantest(theresultsofwhichcorrelatesignificantlywithresultsofthedigitspantest).[29][30]Musiciansperformbetteronverbaltone-basedmemoryspantasksthannon-musicians;howevertheydonotperformbetterthannon-musiciansifthetonesinaverbaltaskareacrossmultiplewords.[31] Thememoryspanprocedure[edit] Inatypicaltestofmemoryspan,alistofrandomnumbersorlettersisreadoutloudorpresentedonacomputerscreenattherateofonepersecond.Thetestbeginswithtwotothreenumbers,increasinguntilthepersoncommitserrors.Recognizablepatterns(forexample2,4,6,8)shouldbeavoided.Attheendofasequence,thepersonbeingtestedisaskedtorecalltheitemsinorder.Theaveragedigitspanfornormaladultswithouterrorissevenplusorminustwo.[32]However,memoryspancanbeexpandeddramatically-inonecaseto80digits-bylearningasophisticatedmnemonicsystemofrecodingrulesbywhichsubstringsof5to10digitsaretranslatedintoonenewchunk.[33]InDecember2015,LanceTschirhartenteredtheGuinnessBookofWorldRecordsformemorizingasequenceof456digitsspokenaloudattherateofonepersecondattheWorldMemoryChampionshipinChengdu,China. Inabackwarddigitspantask,theprocedureislargelythesame,exceptthatsubjectsbeingtestedareaskedtorecallthedigitsinbackwardorder(e.g.,ifpresentedwiththefollowingstringofnumbers"15923,"thesubjectwouldbeaskedtorecallthedigitsinreverseorder;inthecase,thecorrectresponsewouldbe"32951"). Othermemoryspantestsfocusonbothaprocessingtaskandamemorystoragetask.Generally,thetaskinvolvesalternatingbetweenataskthatrequiresmentalprocessingandcognition,andawordordigitthatneedstobememorized.Forexample,theprocessingquestionmightinvolvetheparticipantcheckingifanarithmeticproblemiscorrect,orreadingasentenceandansweringacomprehensionquestionaboutitsmeaning.Theparticipantwouldthenbepresentedwithawordtomemorize,beforemovingontothenextprocessingquestion.Whentheexerciseiscomplete,theparticipantwilltrytorecallasmanywordsaspossible.WhenDanemanandCarpenterinvestigatedthismethodin1980,theyfoundastrongcorrelationbetweenthenumberofwordsmemorizedandthecomprehensionperformancefortheprocessingquestions.Inotherwords,thosewhohadahighmemoryspanscoreandcouldrecallmanyofthewordsalsoperformedwellontheprocessingquestions.[34] Fromsimplespantocomplexspan[edit] Researchinthe1970shasshownthatmemoryspanwithdigitsandwordsisonlyweaklyrelatedtoperformanceincomplexcognitivetaskssuchastextcomprehension,whichareassumedtodependonshort-termmemory.[35]Thisquestionedtheinterpretationofmemoryspanasameasureofthecapacityofacentralshort-termmemoryorworkingmemory.DanemanandCarpenterintroducedanextendedversionofthememoryspantaskwhichtheycalledreadingspan.[36] Thereadingspantaskwasthefirstinstanceofthefamilyofcomplexspantasks,whichdifferfromthetraditionalsimplespantasksbyaddingaprocessingdemandtotherequirementtorememberalistofitems.Incomplexspantasksencodingofthememoryitems(e.g.,words)alternateswithbriefprocessingepisodes(e.g.,readingsentences).Forexample,theoperationspantaskcombinesverificationofbriefmathematicalequationssuchas"2+6/2=5?"withmemoryforawordoraletterthatfollowsimmediatelyaftereachequation.[37]Complex-spantaskshavealsobeenshowntobecloselyrelatedtomanyotheraspectsofcomplexcognitiveperformancebesideslanguagecomprehension,amongotherthingstomeasuresoffluidintelligence.[38][39] Theroleofinterference[edit] Thereisthepossibilitythatsusceptibilitytoproactiveinterference(PI)affectsperformanceonmemoryspanmeasures.Forolderadults,spanestimatesincreasedwitheachPI-reducingmanipulation;foryoungeradults,scoresincreasedwhenmultiplePImanipulationswerecombinedorwhenPI-reducingmanipulationswereusedinparadigmsinwhichwithin-taskPIwasespeciallyhigh.ItissuggestedthatPIcriticallyinfluencesspanperformance.Theremightbethepossibilitythatinterference-pronenessmayinfluencecognitivebehaviorspreviouslythoughttobegovernedbycapacity. PI-reducingproceduresdidacttoimprovespanscoresinmanyinstances.TheimpactofPIisgreaterforolderadultsthanforyoungeradults.OlderadultsshowedrelativelypoorspanperformancewhenPIwasmaximal.Bycontrast,youngeradultsimprovedonlywhenPIreductionswerecombined,suggestingthattheyarerelativelyresistanttoPI.ThefactthatPIcontributestospanperformanceraisesanumberofinterestingpossibilitieswithrespecttopreviouslyheldassumptionsbasedonmemoryspanperformance.Workingmemoryspantasksmaymeasureinterference-pronenessinadditiontocapacityforbotholderandyoungeradults,suggestthatresistancetointerferencemayalsoaffectperformanceonmanycognitivetasks.Indeed,otherstudiesshowthatindividualdifferencesinsusceptibilitytoPIarepredictiveofscoresonstandardachievementtests.[40] Seealso[edit] TheMagicalNumberSeven,PlusorMinusTwo References[edit] ^AlbertB.Blankenship(1938).Thepsychologicalbulletin,Vol.35,No.1,2-3. 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^Baddeley,A.D.(1966-11-01)."Short-termmemoryforwordsequencesasafunctionofacoustic,semanticandformalsimilarity".QuarterlyJournalofExperimentalPsychology.18(4):362–365.doi:10.1080/14640746608400055.ISSN 0033-555X.PMID 5956080.S2CID 32498516. ^Humstone,H.J.(1919)."MemorySpanTests".Psychol.Clin.12(5–9):196–200.PMC 5076260.PMID 28909279. ^"NeurobehavioralSystems". ^SchweringSC,MacDonaldMC(12March2020)."VerbalWorkingMemoryasEmergentfromLanguageComprehensionandProduction".FrontiersinHumanNeuroscience.14:68.doi:10.3389/fnhum.2020.00068.PMC 7081770.PMID 32226368. ^CambridgeBrainScience.Aboutthistest:Improveyourdigit-spanperformanceby'chunking'.MedicalResearchCouncil.http://www.cambridgebrainsciences.com/browse/memory/test/digit-span ^SageJournals.ReliableDigitSpanASystematicReviewandCross-ValidationStudy.RyanW.Schroeder,PhilipTwumasi-Ankrah,LyleE.BaadeandPaulS.Marshall.6December2011.http://asm.sagepub.com/content/19/1/21.abstract ^SageJournals.WAISDigitSpan-BasedIndicatorsofMalingeredNeurocognitiveDysfunctionClassificationAccuracyinTraumaticBrainInjury.MatthewT.Heinly,KevinW.Greve,KevinJ.Bianchini,JefferyM.LoveandAdrianneBrennan.http://asm.sagepub.com/content/12/4/429.short ^Buffardi,Louis(1972-01-01)."FactorsAffectingMemorySpaninBinaryandOctalResponding".TheAmericanJournalofPsychology.85(3):377–391.doi:10.2307/1420838.JSTOR 1420838. ^Hockey,Robert(1973-02-01)."Rateofpresentationinrunningmemoryanddirectmanipulationofinput-processingstrategies".QuarterlyJournalofExperimentalPsychology.25(1):104–111.doi:10.1080/14640747308400328.ISSN 0033-555X.S2CID 144647200. ^abCecchetto,Carlo;Giustolisi,Beatrice;Mantovan,Lara(2016-09-01)."Short-termmemoryandsignlanguages:signspananditslinguisticimplications".Linguística:RevistadeEstudosLinguísticosdaUniversidadedoPorto.11(a11).ISSN 1646-6195. 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