Multilingualism - Wikipedia

More specifically, bilingual and trilingual people are those in comparable situations involving two or three languages, respectively. A multilingual person ... Multilingualism FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Useofmultiplelanguages "Bilingual"redirectshere.Forotheruses,seeBilingual(disambiguation). "Trilingual"redirectshere.Fortheallegedearlymedievalheresy,seeTrilingualheresy. Multilingualsignoutsidethemayor'sofficeinNoviSad,Serbia,writteninthefourofficiallanguagesofthecity:Serbian,Hungarian,Slovak,andPannonianRusyn. AtrashcaninSeattlelabeledinfourlanguages:English,Chinese,Vietnamese,andSpanish(TagalogalsousestheSpanishword). AstencileddangersigninSingaporewritteninEnglish,Chinese,Tamil,andMalay(thefourofficiallanguagesofSingapore). ThelogooftheSwissFederaladministration,inthefournationallanguagesofSwitzerland(German,French,Italian,andRomansh). Multilingualismistheuseofmorethanonelanguage,eitherbyanindividualspeakerorbyagroupofspeakers.Itisbelievedthatmultilingualspeakersoutnumbermonolingualspeakersintheworld'spopulation.[1][2]MorethanhalfofallEuropeansclaimtospeakatleastonelanguageotherthantheirmothertongue;[3]butmanyreadandwriteinonelanguage.Alwaysusefultotraders,multilingualismisadvantageousforpeoplewantingtoparticipateinglobalizationandculturalopenness.[4]OwingtotheeaseofaccesstoinformationfacilitatedbytheInternet,individuals'exposuretomultiplelanguagesisbecomingincreasinglypossible.Peoplewhospeakseverallanguagesarealsocalledpolyglots.[5] Multilingualspeakershaveacquiredandmaintainedatleastonelanguageduringchildhood,theso-calledfirstlanguage(L1).Thefirstlanguage(sometimesalsoreferredtoasthemothertongue)isusuallyacquiredwithoutformaleducation,bymechanismsaboutwhichscholarsdisagree.[6]Childrenacquiringtwolanguagesnativelyfromtheseearlyyearsarecalledsimultaneousbilinguals.Itiscommonforyoungsimultaneousbilingualstobemoreproficientinonelanguagethantheother.[7] Peoplewhospeakmorethanonelanguagehavebeenreportedtobemoreadeptatlanguagelearningcomparedtomonolinguals.[8] Multilingualismincomputingcanbeconsideredpartofacontinuumbetweeninternationalizationandlocalization.DuetothestatusofEnglishincomputing,softwaredevelopmentnearlyalwaysusesit(butnotinthecaseofnon-English-basedprogramminglanguages).SomecommercialsoftwareisinitiallyavailableinanEnglishversion,andmultilingualversions,ifany,maybeproducedasalternativeoptionsbasedontheEnglishoriginal.[citationneeded] Contents 1Definition 2Myths 3Acquisition 3.1Receptivebilingualism 3.2Orderofacquisition 3.2.1Outcomes 4Inindividuals 4.1Cognitiveability 4.2Economicbenefits 4.3Psychology 4.4Personality 4.5Hyperpolyglots 4.6Terms 5Neuroscience 6Incommunities 7Interactionbetweenspeakersofdifferentlanguages 8Computing 8.1Internet 9English-speakingcountries 10Asia 11Africa 12Europe 13Music 14Literature 14.1Fiction 14.2Poetry 15Seealso 15.1Policiesandproposals 15.2Education 15.3Other 16Notes 17References 18Furtherreading 19Externallinks Definition[edit] Thedefinitionofmultilingualismisasubjectofdebateinthesamewayasthatoflanguagefluency.Atoneendofasortoflinguisticcontinuum,onemaydefinemultilingualismascompletecompetenceinandmasteryofmorethanonelanguage.Thespeakerwouldpresumablyhavecompleteknowledgeandcontroloverthelanguagesandthussoundlikeanativespeaker.Attheoppositeendofthespectrumwouldbepeoplewhoknowenoughphrasestogetaroundasatouristusingthealternatelanguage.Since1992,VivianCookhasarguedthatmostmultilingualspeakersfallsomewherebetweenminimalandmaximaldefinitions.Cookcallsthesepeoplemulti-competent.[9][10] Inaddition,thereisnoconsistentdefinitionofwhatconstitutesadistinctlanguage.[11]Forinstance,scholarsoftendisagreewhetherScotsisalanguageinitsownrightormerelyadialectofEnglish.[12]Furthermore,whatisconsideredalanguagecanchange,oftenforpurelypoliticalreasons.OneexampleisthecreationofSerbo-CroatianasastandardlanguageonthebasisoftheEasternHerzegoviniandialecttofunctionasumbrellafornumerousSouthSlavicdialects;afterthebreakupofYugoslaviaitwassplitintoSerbian,Croatian,BosnianandMontenegrin.AnotherexampleisthatUkrainianwasdismissedasaRussiandialectbytheRussiantsarstodiscouragenationalfeelings.[13] Manysmallindependentnations'schoolchildrenaretodaycompelledtolearnmultiplelanguagesbecauseofinternationalinteractions.[14]Forexample,inFinland,allchildrenarerequiredtolearnatleastthreelanguages:thetwonationallanguages(FinnishandSwedish)andoneforeignlanguage(usuallyEnglish).ManyFinnishschoolchildrenalsostudyfurtherlanguages,suchasGermanorRussian.[citationneeded] Insomelargenationswithmultiplelanguages,suchasIndia,schoolchildrenmayroutinelylearnmultiplelanguagesbasedonwheretheyresideinthecountry. Inmanycountries,bilingualismoccursthroughinternationalrelations,which,withEnglishbeingthegloballinguafranca,sometimesresultsinmajoritybilingualismevenwhenthecountrieshavejustonedomesticofficiallanguage.ThisisoccurringespeciallyinGermanicregionssuchasScandinavia,theBeneluxandamongGermanophones,butitisalsoexpandingintosomenon-Germaniccountries.[15] Myths[edit] Manymythsandmuchprejudicehavegrownaroundthenotionsofbi-andmultilingualisminsomeWesterncountrieswheremonolingualismisthenorm.ResearchersfromtheUKandPolandhavelistedthemostcommonmisconceptions:[10] thattodeservethelabel'bi-/multilingual',oneneedstohaveanequal,'perfect','nativelike'commandofboth/allofone'slanguages; thatchildhoodbilingualismmaybedetrimentaltobothlinguisticandcognitivedevelopmentandconsequentlyleadtopoorerresultsatschool; thatexposingachildtomorethanonelanguagemaycauselanguageimpairmentordeficits,orthatforchildrenalreadydiagnosedwithimpairmentstwolanguagesmeantoomuchunnecessarypressureandeffort; thatchildrendonothaveenoughtimetolearnbothlanguages,thereforeitisbetteriftheyonlyacquirethemajoritylanguage; thatbilingualindividualstendtohaveslightlysmallervocabulariesandareweakerin"verbalfluencytasks"thanmonolingualindividuals. Theseareallharmfulconvictionsthathavelongbeendebunked,[10]yetpersistamongmanyparents.Inreality,bilingualchildrenhavelowerscoresthantheirmonolingualpeerswhentheyareassessedinonlyoneofthelanguagestheyareacquiring,buthavesubstantiallygreatertotallingualresources.[16] Croatian-ItalianbilingualplateonapublicbuildinginPula/Pola(Istria) Acquisition[edit] Mainarticles:Languageacquisition,Languageeducation,Second-languageacquisition,andSimultaneousbilingualism§ Bilingual_acquisition OneviewisthatofthelinguistNoamChomskyinwhathecallsthehumanlanguageacquisitiondevice—amechanismwhichenablesalearnertorecreatecorrectlytherulesandcertainothercharacteristicsoflanguageusedbysurroundingspeakers.[17]Thisdevice,accordingtoChomsky,wearsoutovertime,andisnotnormallyavailablebypuberty,whichheusestoexplainthepoorresultssomeadolescentsandadultshavewhenlearningaspectsofasecondlanguage(L2). Iflanguagelearningisacognitiveprocess,ratherthanalanguageacquisitiondevice,astheschoolledbyStephenKrashensuggests,therewouldonlyberelative,notcategorical,differencesbetweenthetwotypesoflanguagelearning. RodEllisquotesresearchfindingthattheearlierchildrenlearnasecondlanguage,thebetterofftheyare,intermsofpronunciation.[1]Europeanschoolsgenerallyoffersecondarylanguageclassesfortheirstudentsearlyon,duetotheinterconnectednesswithneighborcountrieswithdifferentlanguages.MostEuropeanstudentsnowstudyatleasttwoforeignlanguages,aprocessstronglyencouragedbytheEuropeanUnion.[18] BasedontheresearchinAnnFathman'sTheRelationshipbetweenageandsecondlanguageproductiveability,[19][20]thereisadifferenceintherateoflearningofEnglishmorphology,syntaxandphonologybasedupondifferencesinage,butthattheorderofacquisitioninsecondlanguagelearningdoesnotchangewithage. Insecondlanguageclass,studentswillcommonlyfacedifficultiesinthinkinginthetargetlanguagebecausetheyareinfluencedbytheirnativelanguageandculturepatterns.RobertB.Kaplanthinksthatinsecondlanguageclasses,theforeign-studentpaperisoutoffocusbecausetheforeignstudentisemployingrhetoricandasequenceofthoughtwhichviolatetheexpectationsofthenativereader.[21]Foreignstudentswhohavemasteredsyntacticstructureshavestilldemonstratedaninabilitytocomposeadequatethemes,termpapers,theses,anddissertations.RobertB.Kaplandescribestwokeywordsthataffectpeoplewhentheylearnasecondlanguage.Logicinthepopular,ratherthanthelogician'ssenseoftheword,isthebasisofrhetoric,evolvedoutofaculture;itisnotuniversal.Rhetoric,then,isnotuniversaleither,butvariesfromculturetocultureandevenfromtimetotimewithinagivenculture.[21]Languageteachersknowhowtopredictthedifferencesbetweenpronunciationsorconstructionsindifferentlanguages,buttheymightbelessclearaboutthedifferencesbetweenrhetoric,thatis,inthewaytheyuselanguagetoaccomplishvariouspurposes,particularlyinwriting.[22] Peoplewholearnmultiplelanguagesmayalsoexperiencepositivetransfer–theprocessbywhichitbecomeseasiertolearnadditionallanguagesifthegrammarorvocabularyofthenewlanguageissimilartothoseofthelanguagesalreadyspoken.Ontheotherhand,studentsmayalsoexperiencenegativetransfer–interferencefromlanguageslearnedatanearlierstageofdevelopmentwhilelearninganewlanguagelaterinlife.[23] Receptivebilingualism[edit] Mainarticle:Passivespeakers(language) Receptivebilingualsarethosewhocanunderstandasecondlanguagebutwhocannotspeakitorwhoseabilitiestospeakitareinhibitedbypsychologicalbarriers.ReceptivebilingualismisfrequentlyencounteredamongadultimmigrantstotheU.S.whodonotspeakEnglishasanativelanguagebutwhohavechildrenwhodospeakEnglishnatively,usuallyinpartbecausethosechildren'seducationhasbeenconductedinEnglish;whiletheimmigrantparentscanunderstandboththeirnativelanguageandEnglish,theyspeakonlytheirnativelanguagetotheirchildren.IftheirchildrenarelikewisereceptivelybilingualbutproductivelyEnglish-monolingual,throughouttheconversationtheparentswillspeaktheirnativelanguageandthechildrenwillspeakEnglish.Iftheirchildrenareproductivelybilingual,however,thosechildrenmayanswerintheparents'nativelanguage,inEnglish,orinacombinationofbothlanguages,varyingtheirchoiceoflanguagedependingonfactorssuchasthecommunication'scontent,context,and/oremotionalintensityandthepresenceorabsenceofthird-partyspeakersofonelanguageortheother.Thethirdalternativerepresentsthephenomenonof"code-switching"inwhichtheproductivelybilingualpartytoacommunicationswitcheslanguagesinthecourseofthatcommunication.Receptivelybilingualpersons,especiallychildren,mayrapidlyachieveoralfluencybyspendingextendedtimeinsituationswheretheyarerequiredtospeakthelanguagethattheytheretoforeunderstoodonlypassively.Untilbothgenerationsachieveoralfluency,notalldefinitionsofbilingualismaccuratelycharacterizethefamilyasawhole,butthelinguisticdifferencesbetweenthefamily'sgenerationsoftenconstitutelittleornoimpairmenttothefamily'sfunctionality.[citationneeded]Receptivebilingualisminonelanguageasexhibitedbyaspeakerofanotherlanguage,orevenasexhibitedbymostspeakersofthatlanguage,isnotthesameasmutualintelligibilityoflanguages;thelatterisapropertyofapairoflanguages,namelyaconsequenceofobjectivelyhighlexicalandgrammaticalsimilaritiesbetweenthelanguagesthemselves(e.g.,NorwegianandSwedish),whereastheformerisapropertyofoneormorepersonsandisdeterminedbysubjectiveorintersubjectivefactorssuchastherespectivelanguages'prevalenceinthelifehistory(includingfamilyupbringing,educationalsetting,andambientculture)ofthepersonorpersons.[24] Orderofacquisition[edit] Insequentialbilingualism,learnersreceiveliteracyinstructionintheirnativelanguageuntiltheyacquirea"threshold"literacyproficiency.Someresearchersuseagethreeastheagewhenachildhasbasiccommunicativecompetenceintheirfirstlanguage(Kessler,1984).[25]Childrenmaygothroughaprocessofsequentialacquisitioniftheymigrateatayoungagetoacountrywhereadifferentlanguageisspoken,orifthechildexclusivelyspeakshisorherheritagelanguageathomeuntilhe/sheisimmersedinaschoolsettingwhereinstructionisofferedinadifferentlanguage. Insimultaneousbilingualism,thenativelanguageandthecommunitylanguagearesimultaneouslytaught.Theadvantageisliteracyintwolanguagesastheoutcome.However,theteachermustbewell-versedinbothlanguagesandalsointechniquesforteachingasecondlanguage. Thephaseschildrengothroughduringsequentialacquisitionarelesslinearthanforsimultaneousacquisitionandcanvarygreatlyamongchildren.Sequentialacquisitionisamorecomplexandlengthierprocess,althoughthereisnoindicationthatnon-language-delayedchildrenenduplessproficientthansimultaneousbilinguals,solongastheyreceiveadequateinputinbothlanguages.[citationneeded] Acoordinatemodelpositsthatequaltimeshouldbespentinseparateinstructionofthenativelanguageandthecommunitylanguage.Thenativelanguageclass,however,focusesonbasicliteracywhilethecommunitylanguageclassfocusesonlisteningandspeakingskills.Beingbilingualdoesnotnecessarilymeanthatonecanspeak,forexample,EnglishandFrench. Outcomes[edit] Researchhasfoundthatthedevelopmentofcompetenceinthenativelanguageservesasafoundationofproficiencythatcanbetransposedtothesecondlanguage–thecommonunderlyingproficiencyhypothesis.[26][27]Cummins'worksoughttoovercometheperceptionpropagatedinthe1960sthatlearningtwolanguagesmadefortwocompetingaims.Thebeliefwasthatthetwolanguagesweremutuallyexclusiveandthatlearningasecondrequiredunlearningelementsanddynamicsofthefirsttoaccommodatethesecond.[28]Theevidenceforthisperspectivereliedonthefactthatsomeerrorsinacquiringthesecondlanguagewererelatedtotherulesofthefirstlanguage.[28]HowthishypothesisholdsunderdifferenttypesoflanguagessuchasRomanceversusnon-Westernlanguageshasyettoundergoresearch.[citationneeded] Anothernewdevelopmentthathasinfluencedthelinguisticargumentforbilingualliteracyisthelengthoftimenecessarytoacquirethesecondlanguage.Whilepreviouslychildrenwerebelievedtohavetheabilitytolearnalanguagewithinayear,todayresearchersbelievethatwithinandacrossacademicsettings,theperiodisnearertofiveyears.[29][30] Aninterestingoutcomeofstudiesduringtheearly1990s,however,confirmedthatstudentswhodocompletebilingualinstructionperformbetteracademically.[29][30]Thesestudentsexhibitmorecognitiveelasticityincludingabetterabilitytoanalyzeabstractvisualpatterns.Studentswhoreceivebidirectionalbilingualinstructionwhereequalproficiencyinbothlanguagesisrequiredperformatanevenhigherlevel.Examplesofsuchprogramsincludeinternationalandmulti-nationaleducationschools. Inindividuals[edit] "Polyglot"redirectshere.Forotheruses,seePolyglot(disambiguation). Amultilingualpersonissomeonewhocancommunicateinmorethanonelanguageactively(throughspeaking,writing,orsigning).Multilingualpeoplecanspeakanylanguagetheywritein,butcannotnecessarilywriteinanylanguagetheyspeak.Morespecifically,bilingualandtrilingualpeoplearethoseincomparablesituationsinvolvingtwoorthreelanguages,respectively.Amultilingualpersonisgenerallyreferredtoasapolyglot,atermthatmayalsorefertopeoplewholearnmultiplelanguagesasahobby.[31][32] Multilingualspeakershaveacquiredandmaintainedatleastonelanguageduringchildhood,theso-calledfirstlanguage(L1).Thefirstlanguage(sometimesalsoreferredtoasthemothertongue)isacquiredwithoutformaleducation,bymechanismsheavilydisputed.Childrenacquiringtwolanguagesinthiswayarecalledsimultaneousbilinguals.Eveninthecaseofsimultaneousbilinguals,onelanguageusuallydominatesovertheother.[33] Inlinguistics,firstlanguageacquisitioniscloselyrelatedtotheconceptofa"nativespeaker".Accordingtoaviewwidelyheldbylinguists,anativespeakerofagivenlanguagehasinsomerespectsalevelofskillwhichasecond(orsubsequent)languagelearnercannoteasilyaccomplish.Consequently,descriptiveempiricalstudiesoflanguagesareusuallycarriedoutusingonlynativespeakers.Thisviewis,however,slightlyproblematic,particularlyasmanynon-nativespeakersdemonstrablynotonlysuccessfullyengagewithandintheirnon-nativelanguagesocieties,butinfactmaybecomeculturallyandevenlinguisticallyimportantcontributors(as,forexample,writers,politicians,mediapersonalitiesandperformingartists)intheirnon-nativelanguage.Inrecentyears,linguisticresearchhasfocusedattentionontheuseofwidelyknownworldlanguages,suchasEnglish,asalinguafrancaorasharedcommonlanguageofprofessionalandcommercialcommunities.Inlinguafrancasituations,mostspeakersofthecommonlanguagearefunctionallymultilingual. Thereversephenomenon,wherepeoplewhoknowmorethanonelanguageenduplosingcommandofsomeoralloftheiradditionallanguages,iscalledlanguageattrition.Ithasbeendocumentedthat,undercertainconditions,individualsmaylosetheirL1languageproficiencycompletely,afterswitchingtotheexclusiveuseofanotherlanguage,andeffectively"becomenative"inalanguagethatwasoncesecondaryaftertheL1undergoestotalattrition. Thisismostcommonlyseenamongimmigrantcommunitiesandhasbeenthesubjectofsubstantialacademicstudy.Themostimportantfactorinspontaneous,totalL1lossappearstobeage;intheabsenceofneurologicaldysfunctionorinjury,onlyyoungchildrentypicallyareatriskofforgettingtheirnativelanguageandswitchingtoanewone.[34]Oncetheypassanagethatseemstocorrelatecloselywiththecriticalperiod,aroundtheageof12,totallossofanativelanguageisnottypical,althoughitisstillpossibleforspeakerstoexperiencediminishedexpressivecapacityifthelanguageisneverpracticed.[35] Cognitiveability[edit] Mainarticle:Cognitiveeffectsofmultilingualism Peoplewhousemorethanonelanguagehavebeenreportedtobemoreadeptatlanguagelearningcomparedtomonolinguals.[8]Individualswhoarehighlyproficientintwoormorelanguageshavebeenreportedtohaveenhancedexecutivefunctionorevenhavereduced-riskfordementia.[36][37][38][39][40]Morerecently,however,thisclaimhascomeunderstrongcriticism[41][42]withrepeatedfailurestoreplicate.[43][44]Onepossiblereasonforthisdiscrepancyisthatbilingualismisrichanddiverse;bilingualismcantakedifferentformsaccordingtothecontextandgeographiclocationinwhichitisstudied.[45] Yet,manypriorstudiesdonotreliablyquantifysamplesofbilingualsunderinvestigation.[46]Anemergingperspectiveisthatstudiesonbilingualandmultilingualcognitiveabilitiesneedtoaccountforvalidatedandgranularquantificationsoflanguageexperienceinordertoidentifyboundaryconditionsofpossiblecognitiveeffects.[47][48][49][50] Economicbenefits[edit] Bilingualsmighthaveimportantlabormarketadvantagesovermonolingualindividualsasbilingualpeoplecancarryoutdutiesthatmonolingualscannot,[51]suchasinteractingwithcustomerswhoonlyspeakaminoritylanguage.AstudyinSwitzerlandhasfoundthatmultilingualismispositivelycorrelatedwithanindividual'ssalary,theproductivityoffirms,andthegrossdomesticproduction(GDP);theauthorsstatethatSwitzerland'sGDPisaugmentedby10%bymultilingualism.[52]AstudyintheUnitedStatesbyAgirdagfoundthatbilingualismhassubstantialeconomicbenefitsasbilingualpersonswerefoundtohavearound$3,000peryearmoresalarythanmonolinguals.[53] Psychology[edit] Astudyin2012hasshownthatusingaforeignlanguagereducesdecision-makingbiases.Itwassurmisedthattheframingeffectdisappearedwhenchoicesarepresentedinasecondlanguage.Ashumanreasoningisshapedbytwodistinctmodesofthought:onethatissystematic,analyticalandcognition-intensive,andanotherthatisfast,unconsciousandemotionallycharged,itwasbelievedthatasecondlanguageprovidesausefulcognitivedistancefromautomaticprocesses,promotinganalyticalthoughtandreducingunthinking,emotionalreaction.Therefore,thosewhospeaktwolanguageshavebettercriticalthinkinganddecisionmakingskills.[54]Astudypublishedayearlaterfoundthatswitchingintoasecondlanguageseemstoexemptbilingualsfromthesocialnormsandconstraintssuchaspoliticalcorrectness.[55]In2014,anotherstudyhasshownthatpeopleusingaforeignlanguagearemorelikelytomakeutilitariandecisionswhenfacedwithamoraldilemma,asinthetrolleyproblem.Theutilitarianoptionwaschosenmoreofteninthefatmancasewhenpresentedinaforeignlanguage.However,therewasnodifferenceintheswitchtrackcase.Itwassurmisedthataforeignlanguagelackstheemotionalimpactofone'snativelanguage.[56] Personality[edit] Becauseitisdifficultorimpossibletomastermanyofthehigh-levelsemanticaspectsofalanguage(includingbutnotlimitedtoitsidiomsandeponyms)withoutfirstunderstandingthecultureandhistoryoftheregioninwhichthatlanguageevolved,asapracticalmatteranin-depthfamiliaritywithmultipleculturesisaprerequisiteforhigh-levelmultilingualism.Thisknowledgeofculturesindividuallyandcomparatively,orindeedthemerefactofone'shavingthatknowledge,oftenformsanimportantpartofbothwhatoneconsidersone'sidentitytobeandwhatothersconsiderthatidentitytobe.[33][57]Somestudieshavefoundthatgroupsofmultilingualindividualsgethigheraveragescoresontestsforcertainpersonalitytraitssuchasculturalempathy,open-mindednessandsocialinitiative.[58][59]Theideaoflinguisticrelativity,whichclaimsthatthelanguagepeoplespeakinfluencesthewaytheyseetheworld,canbeinterpretedtomeanthatindividualswhospeakmultiplelanguageshaveabroader,morediverseviewoftheworld,evenwhenspeakingonlyonelanguageatatime.[60]Somebilingualsfeelthattheirpersonalitychangesdependingonwhichlanguagetheyarespeaking;[61][62]thusmultilingualismissaidtocreatemultiplepersonalities.Xiao-leiWangstatesinherbookGrowingupwithThreeLanguages:BirthtoEleven:"Languagesusedbyspeakerswithoneormorethanonelanguageareusednotjusttorepresentaunitaryself,buttoenactdifferentkindsofselves,anddifferentlinguisticcontextscreatedifferentkindsofself-expressionandexperiencesforthesameperson."However,therehasbeenlittlerigorousresearchdoneonthistopicanditisdifficulttodefine"personality"inthiscontext.FrançoisGrosjeanwrote:"Whatisseenasachangeinpersonalityismostprobablysimplyashiftinattitudesandbehaviorsthatcorrespondtoashiftinsituationorcontext,independentoflanguage."[63]However,theSapir-Whorfhypothesis,whichstatesthatalanguageshapesourvisionoftheworld,maysuggestthatalanguagelearnedbyagrown-upmayhavemuchfeweremotionalconnotationsandthereforeallowamoreserenediscussionthanalanguagelearnedbyachildandtothatrespectmoreorlessboundtoachild'sperceptionoftheworld.A2013studyfoundthatratherthananemotion-basedexplanation,switchingintothesecondlanguageseemstoexemptbilingualsfromthesocialnormsandconstraintssuchaspoliticalcorrectness.[55] Hyperpolyglots[edit] Mainarticle:Listofpolyglots Whilemanypolyglotsknowuptosixlanguages,thenumberdropsoffsharplypastthispoint.[64][32]Peoplewhospeakmanymorethanthis—MichaelErardsuggestselevenormore—aresometimesclassedashyperpolyglots.[65][66]GiuseppeCasparMezzofanti,forexample,wasanItalianpriestreputedtohavespokenanywherefrom30to72languages.[32][66]Thecausesofadvancedlanguageaptitudearestillunderresearch;onetheorysuggeststhataspikeinababy'stestosteronelevelswhileintheuteruscanincreasebrainasymmetry,whichmayrelatetomusicandlanguageability,amongothereffects.[67] Whiletheterm"savant"generallyreferstoanindividualwithanaturaland/orinnatetalentforaparticularfield,peoplediagnosedwithsavantsyndromearetypicallyindividualswithsignificantmentaldisabilitieswhodemonstrateprofoundandprodigiouscapacitiesand/orabilitiesfarinexcessofwhatwouldbeconsiderednormal,[68][69]occasionallyincludingthecapacityforlanguages.Theconditionisassociatedwithanincreasedmemorycapacity,whichwouldaidinthestorageandretrievalofknowledgeofalanguage.[70]In1991,forexample,NeilSmithandIanthi-MariaTsimplidescribedChristopher,amanwithnon-verbalIQscoresbetween40and70,wholearnedsixteenlanguages.Christopherwasbornin1962andapproximatelysixmonthsafterhisbirthwasdiagnosedwithbraindamage.[71]Despitebeinginstitutionalizedbecausehewasunabletotakecareofhimself,ChristopherhadaverbalIQof89,wasabletospeakEnglishwithnoimpairment,andcouldlearnsubsequentlanguageswithapparentease.Thisfacilitywithlanguageandcommunicationisconsideredunusualamongsavants.[72] Terms[edit] monolingual,monoglot-1languagespoken bilingual,diglot-2languagesspoken trilingual,triglot-3languagesspoken quadrilingual,tetraglot-4languagesspoken quinquelingual,pentaglot-5languagesspoken sexalingual,hexaglot-6languagesspoken septilingualorseptalingual,heptaglot-7languagesspoken octolingualoroctalingual,octoglot-8languagesspoken novelingualornonalingual,enneaglot-9languagesspoken decalingual,decaglot-10languagesspoken undecalingual,hendecaglot-11languagesspoken duodecalingual,dodecaglot-12languagesspoken Itisimportanttonotethattermspasttrilingualarerarelyused.Peoplewhospeakfourormorelanguagesaregenerallyjustreferredtoasmultilingual. Neuroscience[edit] Mainarticle:Neuroscienceofmultilingualism Incommunities[edit] Furtherinformation:Listofmultilingualcountriesandregions AbilingualsigninBrussels,thecapitalofBelgium.InBrussels,bothDutchandFrenchareofficiallanguages. AmultilingualsignattheHongKong-MacauFerryPierinMacau.AtthetoparePortugueseandChinese,whicharetheofficiallanguagesofMacau,whileatthebottomareJapaneseandEnglish,whicharecommonlanguagesusedbytourists(EnglishisalsooneofHongKong'stwoofficiallanguages). AcautionmessageinEnglish,KannadaandHindifoundinBangalore,India Thethree-language(Tamil,EnglishandHindi)nameboardattheTirusulamsuburbanrailwaystationinChennai(Madras).AlmostallrailwaystationsinIndiahavesignsliketheseinthreeormorelanguages(English,Hindiandthelocallanguage). MultilingualsignatVancouverInternationalAirport,internationalarrivalsarea.TextinEnglish,French,andChineseisapermanentfeatureofthissign,whiletherightpanelofthesignisavideoscreenthatrotatesthroughadditionallanguages. MultilingualsignatanexitofSMMallofAsiainPasay,Philippines.Threeorfourlanguagesareshown:Japanese/MandarinChinese("deguchi"or"chūkǒu",respectively),English("exit")andKorean("chulgu").WhileFilipinosthemselvesareanglophone,suchsignscatertothegrowingnumberofKoreansandotherforeignersinthecountry. MultilingualmessageatacomfortroominPuertoPrincesa,Palawan,thePhilippinesthatprohibitsfootwashing.Textiswritteninsixlanguages:English,Filipino,Cebuano,Chinese,Korean,andRussianrespectively. ATrainnamefoundinSouthIndiawritteninfourlanguages:Kannada,Hindi,Tamil,andEnglish.Boardslikethisarecommonontrainswhichpassthroughtwoormorestateswherethelanguagesarespokenaredifferent. Atrilingual(Arabic,EnglishandUrdu)signintheUAEinthethreewidelyspokenlanguagesintheUAE Amultilingual(Hebrew,Arabic,English,andRussian)signattheIsraelMinistryoftheInterior/MinistryofImmigrantAbsorptioninHaifa. Widespreadmultilingualismisoneformoflanguagecontact.Multilingualismwascommoninthepast:inearlytimes,whenmostpeopleweremembersofsmalllanguagecommunities,itwasnecessarytoknowtwoormorelanguagesfortradeoranyotherdealingsoutsideone'stownorvillage,andthisholdsgoodtodayinplacesofhighlinguisticdiversitysuchasSub-SaharanAfricaandIndia.LinguistEkkehardWolffestimatesthat50%ofthepopulationofAfricaismultilingual.[73] Inmultilingualsocieties,notallspeakersneedtobemultilingual.Somestatescanhavemultilingualpoliciesandrecognizeseveralofficiallanguages,suchasCanada(EnglishandFrench).Insomestates,particularlanguagesmaybeassociatedwithparticularregionsinthestate(e.g.,Canada)orwithparticularethnicities(e.g.,MalaysiaandSingapore).Whenallspeakersaremultilingual,linguistsclassifythecommunityaccordingtothefunctionaldistributionofthelanguagesinvolved: Diglossia:ifthereisastructural-functionaldistributionofthelanguagesinvolved,thesocietyistermed'diglossic'.TypicaldiglossicareasarethoseareasinEuropewherearegionallanguageisusedininformal,usuallyoral,contexts,whilethestatelanguageisusedinmoreformalsituations.Frisia(withFrisianandGermanorDutch)andLusatia(withSorbianandGerman)arewell-knownexamples.Somewriterslimitdiglossiatosituationswherethelanguagesarecloselyrelatedandcouldbeconsidereddialectsofeachother.ThiscanalsobeobservedinScotlandwhere,informalsituations,Englishisused.However,ininformalsituationsinmanyareas,Scotsisthepreferredlanguageofchoice.AsimilarphenomenonisalsoobservedinArabic-speakingregions.TheeffectsofdiglossiacouldbeseeninthedifferencebetweenwrittenArabic(ModernStandardArabic)andcolloquialArabic.However,astimegoes,theArabiclanguagesomewherebetweenthetwohasbeencreatedwhatsomehavedeemed"MiddleArabic"or"CommonArabic".Becauseofthisdiversificationofthelanguage,theconceptofspectroglossia[74]hasbeensuggested. Ambilingualism:aregioniscalledambilingualifthisfunctionaldistributionisnotobserved.Inatypicalambilingualareaitisnearlyimpossibletopredictwhichlanguagewillbeusedinagivensetting.Trueambilingualismisrare.AmbilingualtendenciescanbefoundinsmallstateswithmultipleheritageslikeLuxembourg,whichhasacombinedFranco-Germanicheritage,orMalaysiaandSingapore,whichfusestheculturesofMalays,China,andIndiaorcommunitieswithhighratesofdeafnesslikeMartha'sVineyardwherehistoricallymostinhabitantsspokebothMVSLandEnglishorinsouthernIsraelwherelocalsspeakbothAl-SayyidBedouinSignLanguageandeitherArabicorHebrew.Ambilingualismalsocanmanifestinspecificregionsoflargerstatesthathavebothadominantstatelanguage(beitdejureordefacto)andaprotectedminoritylanguagethatislimitedintermsofthedistributionofspeakerswithinthecountry.Thistendencyisespeciallypronouncedwhen,eventhoughthelocallanguageiswidelyspoken,thereisareasonableassumptionthatallcitizensspeakthepredominantstatetongue(e.g.,EnglishinQuebecvs.Canada;SpanishinCataloniavs.Spain).Thisphenomenoncanalsooccurinborderregionswithmanycross-bordercontacts. Bipart-lingualism:ifmorethanonelanguagecanbeheardinasmallarea,butthelargemajorityofspeakersaremonolinguals,whohavelittlecontactwithspeakersfromneighboringethnicgroups,anareaiscalled'bipart-lingual'.AnexampleofthisistheBalkans. N.B.thetermsgivenaboveallrefertosituationsdescribingonlytwolanguages.Incasesofanunspecifiednumberoflanguages,thetermspolyglossia,omnilingualism,andmultipart-lingualismaremoreappropriate. Interactionbetweenspeakersofdifferentlanguages[edit] Whenevertwopeoplemeet,negotiationstakeplace.Iftheywanttoexpresssolidarityandsympathy,theytendtoseekcommonfeaturesintheirbehavior.Ifspeakerswishtoexpressdistancetowardsorevendislikeofthepersontheyarespeakingto,thereverseistrue,anddifferencesaresought.Thismechanismalsoextendstolanguage,asdescribedintheCommunicationAccommodationTheory. Somemultilingualsusecode-switching,whichinvolvesswappingbetweenlanguages.Inmanycases,code-switchingismotivatedbythewishtoexpressloyaltytomorethanoneculturalgroup,[citationneeded]asholdsformanyimmigrantcommunitiesintheNewWorld.Code-switchingmayalsofunctionasastrategywhereproficiencyislacking.Suchstrategiesarecommonifthevocabularyofoneofthelanguagesisnotveryelaboratedforcertainfields,orifthespeakershavenotdevelopedproficiencyincertainlexicaldomains,asinthecaseofimmigrantlanguages. Thiscode-switchingappearsinmanyforms.Ifaspeakerhasapositiveattitudetowardsbothlanguagesandtowardscode-switching,manyswitchescanbefound,evenwithinthesamesentence.[75]Ifhowever,thespeakerisreluctanttousecode-switching,asinthecaseofalackofproficiency,hemightknowinglyorunknowinglytrytocamouflagehisattemptbyconvertingelementsofonelanguageintoelementsoftheotherlanguagethroughcalquing.Thisresultsinspeakersusingwordslikecourriernoir(literallymailthatisblack)inFrench,insteadoftheproperwordforblackmail,chantage. Sometimesapidginlanguagemaydevelop.Apidginlanguageisafusionoftwolanguagesthatismutuallyunderstandableforbothspeakers.Somepidginlanguagesdevelopintoreallanguages(suchasPapiamentoinCuraçaoorSinglishinSingapore)whileothersremainasslangsorjargons(suchasHelsinkislang,whichismoreorlessmutuallyintelligiblebothinFinnishandSwedish).[clarificationneeded]Inothercases,prolongedinfluenceoflanguagesoneachothermayhavetheeffectofchangingoneorbothtothepointwhereitmaybeconsideredthatanewlanguageisborn.Forexample,manylinguistsbelievethattheOccitanlanguageandtheCatalanlanguagewereformedbecauseofapopulationspeakingasingleOccitano-RomancelanguagewasdividedintopoliticalspheresofinfluenceofFranceandSpain,respectively.YiddishisacomplexblendofMiddleHighGermanwithHebrewandborrowingsfromSlaviclanguages. Bilingualinteractioncaneventakeplacewithoutthespeakerswitching.Incertainareas,itisnotuncommonforspeakerstouseadifferentlanguagewithinthesameconversation.Thisphenomenonisfound,amongstotherplaces,inScandinavia.MostspeakersofSwedish,NorwegianandDanishcancommunicatewitheachotherspeakingtheirrespectivelanguages,whilefewcanspeakboth(peopleusedtothesesituationsoftenadjusttheirlanguage,avoidingwordsthatarenotfoundintheotherlanguageorthatcanbemisunderstood).Usingdifferentlanguagesisusuallycallednon-convergentdiscourse,atermintroducedbytheDutchlinguistReitzeJonkman.[citationneeded]Toacertainextent,thissituationalsoexistsbetweenDutchandAfrikaans,althougheverydaycontactisfairlyrarebecauseofthedistancebetweenthetworespectivecommunities.AnotherexampleistheformerstateofCzechoslovakia,wheretwocloselyrelatedandmutuallyintelligiblelanguages(CzechandSlovak)wereincommonuse.MostCzechsandSlovaksunderstandbothlanguages,althoughtheywoulduseonlyoneofthem(theirrespectivemothertongue)whenspeaking.Forexample,inCzechoslovakia,itwascommontoheartwopeopletalkingontelevisioneachspeakingadifferentlanguagewithoutanydifficultyunderstandingeachother.Thisbilingualitystillexistsnowadays,althoughithasstartedtodeteriorateafterCzechoslovakiasplitup.[76] Japanese,English,andRussiansigninNorthernJapan Mongolian,Chagatai,Chinese,TibetanandManchulanguagessigninChengde,China AsignattheIsraeliMinistryoftheInteriorandMinistryofImmigrantAbsorptionusesHebrew,Arabic,English,andRussian AmultilingualsigninSingapore'sfourofficiallanguages:English,Chinese,TamilandMalay Urdu,Hindi,andEnglishonaroadsigninIndia Computing[edit] DuallanguageHebrewandEnglishkeyboard Withemergingmarketsandexpandinginternationalcooperation,businessusersexpecttobeabletousesoftwareandapplicationsintheirownlanguage.[77]Multilingualisation(or"m17n",where"17"standsfor17omittedletters)ofcomputersystemscanbeconsideredpartofacontinuumbetweeninternationalizationandlocalization: Alocalizedsystemhasbeenadaptedorconvertedforaparticularlocale(otherthantheoneitwasoriginallydevelopedfor),includingthelanguageoftheuserinterface,input,anddisplay,andfeaturessuchastime/datedisplayandcurrency;buteachinstanceofthesystemonlysupportsasinglelocale. Multilingualisedsoftwaresupportsmultiplelanguagesfordisplayandinputsimultaneously,butgenerallyhasasingleuserinterfacelanguage.Supportforotherlocalefeaturesliketime,date,numberandcurrencyformatsmayvaryasthesystemtendstowardsfullinternationalization.Generally,amultilingualsystemisintendedforuseinaspecificlocale,whilstallowingformultilingualcontent. Aninternationalizedsystemisequippedforuseinarangeoflocales,allowingfortheco-existenceofseverallanguagesandcharactersetsinuserinterfacesanddisplays.Inparticular,asystemmaynotbeconsideredinternationalizedinthefullestsenseunlesstheinterfacelanguageisselectablebytheuseratruntime. Translatingtheuserinterfaceisusuallypartofthesoftwarelocalizationprocess,whichalsoincludesadaptationssuchasunitsanddateconversion.Manysoftwareapplicationsareavailableinseverallanguages,rangingfromahandful(themostspokenlanguages)todozensforthemostpopularapplications(suchasofficesuites,webbrowsers,etc.).DuetothestatusofEnglishincomputing,softwaredevelopmentnearlyalwaysusesit(butseealsoNon-English-basedprogramminglanguages),soalmostallcommercialsoftwareisinitiallyavailableinanEnglishversion,andmultilingualversions,ifany,maybeproducedasalternativeoptionsbasedontheEnglishoriginal. TheMultilingualAppToolkit(MAT)[78]wasfirstreleasedinconcertwiththereleaseofWindows8asawaytoprovidedevelopersasetoffreetoolingthatenabledaddinglanguagestotheirappswithjustafewclicks,inlargepartduetotheintegrationofafree,unlimitedlicensetoboththeMicrosoftTranslatormachinetranslationserviceandtheMicrosoftLanguagePlatformservice,alongwithplatformextensibilitytoenableanyonetoaddtranslationservicesintoMAT.MicrosoftengineersandinventorsofMAT,JanA.Nelson,andCamerumLerumhavecontinuedtodrivedevelopmentofthetools,workingwiththirdpartiesandstandardsbodiestoassurebroadavailabilityofmultilingualappdevelopmentisprovided.[79]WiththereleaseofWindows10,MATisnowdeliveringsupportforcross-platformdevelopmentforWindowsUniversalAppsaswellasIOSandAndroid. Internet[edit] Mainarticle:LanguagesusedontheInternet English-speakingcountries[edit] AccordingtoHewitt(2008)entrepreneursinLondonfromPoland,ChinaorTurkeyuseEnglishmainlyforcommunicationwithcustomers,suppliers,andbanks,buttheirnativelanguagesforworktasksandsocialpurposes. EveninEnglish-speakingcountriesimmigrantsarestillabletousetheirmothertongueintheworkplacethankstootherimmigrantsfromthesameplace.Kovacs(2004)[80]describesthisphenomenoninAustraliawithFinnishimmigrantsintheconstructionindustrywhospokeFinnishduringworkinghours. Buteventhoughforeignlanguagesmaybeusedintheworkplace,Englishisstillamust-knowworkingskill.Mainstreamsocietyjustifiesthedividedjobmarket,arguingthatgettingalow-payingjobisthebestnewcomerscanachieveconsideringtheirlimitedlanguageskills. Asia[edit] WithcompaniesgoinginternationaltheyarenowfocusingmoreandmoreontheEnglishleveloftheiremployees.EspeciallyinSouthKoreasincethe1990s,companiesareusingdifferentEnglishlanguagetestingtoevaluatejobapplicants,andthecriteriainthosetestsareconstantlyupgradingthelevelforgoodEnglish.InIndia,itisevenpossibletoreceivetrainingtoacquireanEnglishaccent,asthenumberofoutsourcedcallcentersinIndiahassoaredinthepastdecades. Meanwhile,Japanranks53rdoutof100countriesin2019EFEnglishProficiencyIndex,amidcallsforthistoimproveintimeforthe2020TokyoOlympics.[citationneeded] WithinmultiracialcountriessuchasMalaysiaandSingapore,itisnotunusualforonetospeaktwoormorelanguages,albeitwithvaryingdegreesoffluency.[81][82][83]SomeareproficientinseveralChinesedialects,giventhelinguisticdiversityoftheethnicChinesecommunityinbothcountries. Africa[edit] NotonlyinmultinationalcompaniesisEnglishanimportantskill,butalsointheengineeringindustry,inthechemical,electricalandaeronauticalfields.AstudydirectedbyHillandvanZyl(2002)showsthatinSouthAfricayoungblackengineersusedEnglishmostoftenforcommunicationanddocumentation.However,Afrikaansandotherlocallanguageswerealsousedtoexplainparticularconceptstoworkersinordertoensureunderstandingandcooperation.[84] Europe[edit] PlaymediaAWelshGovernmentvideoofanEnglishmediumschoolinWales,whereintroducingasecondlanguage(Welsh)hasboostedtheexamresults. InEurope,asthedomesticmarketisgenerallyquiterestricted,internationaltradeisanorm.Languages,thatareusedinmultiplecountries,include: GermaninGermany,Austria,Switzerland,Liechtenstein,Luxembourg,andBelgium FrenchinFrance,Belgium,Luxembourg,andSwitzerland EnglishintheUnitedKingdom,Ireland,andMalta. Englishisacommonlytaughtsecondlanguageatschools,soitisalsothemostcommonchoicefortwospeakers,whosenativelanguagesaredifferent.However,somelanguagesaresoclosetoeachotherthatitisgenerallymorecommonwhenmeetingtousetheirmothertongueratherthanEnglish.Theselanguagegroupsinclude: Danish,SwedishandNorwegian Serbian,Croatian,BosnianandMontenegrin:duringYugoslaviantimes,thesewereconsideredtobevariousdialectsofacommon,Serbo-Croatianlanguage.AftertheYugoslavianbreakup,eachstatecreateditsofficiallanguagefromtheirdialect.Forexample,thereisalmostnodifferencebetweenSerbianandCroatianinspokenform.Inwrittenform,SerbsusebothCyrillicandLatin,whileCroatsuseonlyLatin. CzechandSlovak:DuringCzechoslovaktimes,thesewereconsideredtobetwodifferentdialectsofacommonCzechoslovaklanguage. InmultilingualcountriessuchasBelgium(Dutch,French,andGerman),Finland(FinnishandSwedish),Switzerland(German,French,ItalianandRomansh),Luxembourg(Luxembourgish,FrenchandGerman)orSpain(Spanish,Catalan,BasqueandGalician),itiscommontoseeemployeesmasteringtwooreventhreeofthoselanguages. ManyminorRussianethnicgroups,suchasTatars,Bashkirsandothers,arealsomultilingual.Moreover,withthebeginningofcompulsorystudyoftheTatarlanguageinTatarstan,therehasbeenanincreaseinitslevelofknowledgeoftheRussian-speakingpopulationoftherepublic.[85] Continuedglobaldiversityhasledtoanincreasinglymultilingualworkforce.Europehasbecomeanexcellentmodeltoobservethisnewlydiversifiedlaborculture.TheexpansionoftheEuropeanUnionwithitsopenlabormarkethasprovidedopportunitiesbothforwell-trainedprofessionalsandunskilledworkerstomovetonewcountriestoseekemployment.Politicalchangesandturmoilhavealsoledtomigrationandthecreationofnewandmorecomplexmultilingualworkplaces.Inmostwealthyandsecurecountries,immigrantsarefoundmostlyinlowpaidjobsbutalso,increasingly,inhigh-statuspositions.[86] Music[edit] Furtherinformation:Listofmultilingualbandsandartists Itisextremelycommonformusictobewritteninwhateverthecontemporarylinguafrancais.Ifasongisnotwritteninacommontongue,thenitisusuallywritteninwhateveristhepredominantlanguageinthemusician'scountryoforigin,orinanotherwidelyrecognizedlanguage,suchasEnglish,German,Spanish,orFrench.[citationneeded] Thebilingualsongcycles"there..."and"Sing,Poetry"onthe2011contemporaryclassicalalbumTroikaconsistofmusicalsettingsofRussianpoemswiththeirEnglishself-translationbyJosephBrodskyandVladimirNabokov,respectively.[87] Songswithlyricsinmultiplelanguagesareknownasmacaronicverse.[88] Literature[edit] Fiction[edit] Multilingualstories,essays,andnovelsareoftenwrittenbyimmigrantsandsecondgenerationAmericanauthors.[89][90]ChicanaauthorGloriaE.Anzaldúa,amajorfigureinthefieldsThirdWorldFeminism,PostcolonialFeminism,andLatinophilosophyexplainedtheauthor'sexistentialsenseofobligationtowritemultilingualliterature.[91]Anoftenquotedpassage,fromhercollectionofstoriesandessaysentitledBorderlands/LaFrontera:TheNewMestiza,states:"UntilIamfreetowritebilinguallyandtoswitchcodeswithouthavingalwaystotranslate,whileIstillhavetospeakEnglishorSpanishwhenIwouldratherspeakSpanglish,andaslongasIhavetoaccommodatetheEnglishspeakersratherthanhavingthemaccommodateme,mytonguewillbeillegitimate.Iwillnolongerbemadetofeelashamedofexisting.Iwillhavemyvoice:Indian,Spanish,white.Iwillhavemyserpent’stongue–mywoman’svoice,mysexualvoice,mypoet’svoice.Iwillovercomethetraditionofsilence".[92]MultilingualnovelsbyNigerianChimamandaNgoziAdichiedisplayphrasesinIgbowithtranslations,asinherearlyworksPurpleHibiscusandHalfofaYellowSun.However,inherlaternovelAmericanah,theauthordoesnotoffertranslationsofnon-Englishpassages.[92]TheHouseonMangoStreetbySandraCisnerosisanexampleofChicanoliteraturehasuntranslated,butitalicized,Spanishwordsandphrasesthroughoutthetext.[93] Americannovelistswhouseforeignlanguages(outsideoftheirownculturalheritage)forliteraryeffect,includeCormacMcCarthywhousesuntranslatedSpanishandSpanglishinhisfiction.[94] Poetry[edit] MultilingualpoetryisprevalentinUSLatinoliteraturewherecode-switchingandtranslanguagingbetweenEnglish,Spanish,andSpanglishiscommonwithinasinglepoemorthroughoutabookofpoems.[95]LatinopoetryisalsowritteninPortugueseandcanincludephrasesinNahuatl,Mayan,Huichol,Arawakan,andotherindigenouslanguagesrelatedtotheLatinoexperience.ContemporarymultilingualpoetsincludeGianninaBraschi,AnaCastillo,SandraCisneros,andGuillermoGómez-Peña[96] Seealso[edit] Culturaldiversity Listofmultilingualcountriesandregions Listofmultilingualbandsandartists ListofmultilingualpresidentsoftheUnitedStates Plurilingualism Code-switching Interlinguistics Translanguaging Linguisticrights Metatypy Multi-competence Mutism Neuroscienceofmultilingualism Nonverbalautism Oneperson,onelanguage Policiesandproposals[edit] EuropeanCommissionerforMultilingualism EuropeanDayofLanguages English-onlymovement LanguagelegislationinBelgium LanguagesofFinland LanguagesoftheEuropeanUnion MultilingualisminLuxembourg OfficialbilingualisminCanada Education[edit] InternationalJournalofBilingualism Languageeducation MultilingualEducation MultilingualeducationinAfrica Other[edit] Bilingualsign ChildhoodBilingualismResearchCentre(inHongKong) Economicsoflanguage LinguapaxPrize ListofartworksknowninEnglishbyaforeigntitle SpanishlanguageintheUnitedStates TheMultilingualLibrary Category:Multilingualbroadcasters Notes[edit] 1.^SeetheCriticalperiodhypothesis. 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^Grin,François;Sfreddo,Claudio;Vaillancourt,François(2013).Economicsofthemultilingualworkplace.[S.l.]:Routledge.ISBN 978-0-415-85106-0. ^Agirdag,O.(2014)."Thelong-termeffectsofbilingualismonchildrenofimmigration:studentbilingualismandfutureearnings".InternationalJournalofBilingualEducationandBilingualism.17(4):449–464.doi:10.1080/13670050.2013.816264.S2CID 27479622. ^BoazKeysar;SayuriL.Hayakawa;SunGyuAn(18April2012)."TheForeign-LanguageEffect:ThinkinginaForeignTongueReducesDecisionBiases".PsychologicalScience.23(6):661–668.doi:10.1177/0956797611432178.PMID 22517192.S2CID 1397617. ^abGawinkowskaM,ParadowskiMB,BilewiczM(2013)."Secondlanguageasanexemptionfromsocioculturalnorms.Emotion-RelatedLanguageChoicerevisited".PLOSONE.8(12):e8122.Bibcode:2013PLoSO...881225G.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0081225.PMC 3859501.PMID 24349044. ^AlbertCosta1,AliceFoucart,SayuriHayakawa,MelinaAparici,JoseApesteguia,JoyHeafner,BoazKeysar(23April2014)."YourMoralsDependonLanguage".PLOSONE.9(4):e94842.Bibcode:2014PLoSO...994842C.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0094842.PMC 3997430.PMID 24760073.CS1maint:multiplenames:authorslist(link) ^Halwachs,D.W.(1993)."Polysystem,RepertoireundIdentität"[Polysystemrepertoireandidentity].GrazerLinguistischeStudien(inGerman).39–40:71–90. ^Dewaele,J.;LiWei(2012)."Multilingualism,empathy,andmulticompetence"(PDF).InternationalJournalofMultilingualism.9(4):352–366.doi:10.1080/14790718.2012.714380.S2CID 32872300.Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)on9October2013. ^Dewaele,J.(2007)."Theeffectofmultilingualism,socio-biographical,andsituationalfactorsoncommunicativeanxietyandforeignlanguageanxietyofmaturelanguagelearners"(PDF).InternationalJournalofBilingualism.11(4):391–409.doi:10.1177/13670069070110040301.S2CID 51402969. ^Grosjean,François."LifeasaBilingual".PsychologyToday.[verificationneeded] ^Tokuhama-Espinosa,T.(2003).Themultilingualmind:Issuesdiscussedby,for,andaboutpeoplelivingwithmanylanguages.Westport,Connecticut:PraegerPublishers. ^Wang,X.(2008).Growingupwiththreelanguages:Birthtoeleven.Briston,UnitedKingdom:MultilingualismMatters. ^Grosjean,François(1996)."Livingwithtwolanguagesandtwocultures".InI.Parasnis(ed.).CulturalandLanguageDiversityandtheDeafExperience.CambridgeUniversityPress. ^WhoIsaHyperpolyglot?LinguisticAnthropologyeJournal.SocialScienceResearchNetwork(SSRN).Accessed7February2021. ^Steinmetz,KatyAreYouAHyperpolyglot:thesecretsoflanguagesuperlearners,Time ^abHudson,Richard(2008)."Wordgrammar,cognitivelinguistics,andsecondlanguagelearningandteaching"(PDF).InPeterRobinson;NickEllis(eds.).HandbookofCognitiveLinguisticsandSecondLanguageAcquisition.NewYork:Routledge.ISBN 9780805853513. ^Leland,John(9March2012)."AdventuresofaTeenagePolyglot".TheNewYorkTimes.Retrieved5April2012. ^Miller,LK(1999)."Thesavantsyndrome:Intellectualimpairmentandexceptionalskill".PsychologicalBulletin.125(1):31–46.doi:10.1037/0033-2909.125.1.31.PMID 9990844. ^Bolte,S(2004)."Comparingtheintelligenceprofilesofsavantandnonsavantindividualswithautisticdisorder".Intelligence.32(2):121.doi:10.1016/j.intell.2003.11.002. ^Treffert,DaroldA.(27May2009)."Thesavantsyndrome:anextraordinarycondition.Asynopsis:past,present,future".PhilosophicalTransactionsoftheRoyalSocietyB:BiologicalSciences.364(1522):1351–1357.doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0326.PMC 2677584.PMID 19528017. ^Bates,Elizabeth(September1997)."OnLanguageSavantsandtheStructureoftheMindReviewof:TheMindofaSavant:LanguageLearningandModularitybyNeilSmithandIanthi-MariaTsimpli,1995".InternationalJournalofBilingualism.1(2):163–179.doi:10.1177/136700699700100204.S2CID 142262640. ^Smith,Neil;Tsimpli,IanthiMaria(August1991)."Linguisticmodularity?Acasestudyofa'Savant'linguist".Lingua.84(4):315–351.doi:10.1016/0024-3841(91)90034-3. 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^Kovacs,M.(2004).AustralianFinnsonthevergeoflanguageshift.pp. 108,200–223. ^"9oftheworld'smostmultilingualcountries".MotherNatureNetwork.28June2014.Archivedfromtheoriginalon5October2016. ^Platt,JohnT.(December1977)."Amodelforpolyglossiaandmultilingualism(withspecialreferencetoSingaporeandMalaysia)".LanguageinSociety.6(3):361–378.doi:10.1017/s0047404500005066.JSTOR 4166945. ^Lim,Lisa."EnglishandMultilingualisminSingapore".EncyclopediaofAppliedLinguistics.WileyOnline. ^Gunnarsson,Britt-Louise(March2013)."MultilingualismintheWorkplace".AnnualReviewofAppliedLinguistics.33:162–189.doi:10.1017/S0267190513000123.S2CID 145761597. ^"ДвуязычиевТатарстане". ^Gunnarsson,Britt-Louise(2014)."MultilingualisminEuropeanWorkplaces".Multilingua.33(1–2):11–33.doi:10.1515/multi-2014-0002.S2CID 144233073. ^Kogan,Julia(2013).Troika,Russia'sWesterlyPoetryinThreeOrchestralSongCycles(CD).ASIN B005USB24A. ^Harvey,CarolJ.(1978)."MacaronicTechniquesinAnglo-NormanVerse".L'EspritCréateur.18(1):70–81.JSTOR 26280874. ^"Second-GenerationAmericans".PewResearchCenter’sSocial&DemographicTrendsProject.7February2013.Retrieved4November2020. ^"SecondGenerationStories|LiteraturebyChildrenofImmigrants".Retrieved4November2020. ^Lunsford,AndreaA.;Ouzgane,Lahoucine(1January2004).CrossingBorderlands:CompositionandPostcolonialStudies.UniversityofPittsburghPre.ISBN 978-0-8229-7253-2. ^abFowler,YaraRodrigues(17April2019)."Top10bilingualbooks".theGuardian. ^"HispanicHeritageMonth:RecommendingLatinAmericanWomenAuthors".TheNewYorkPublicLibrary.Retrieved4November2020. ^Munoz,MaryElizabeth.ThinkinginUnoandReadingenOtro:CodeswitchinginAmericanNovels(Thesisthesis).TexasAMInternationalUniversity. ^Pérez,Rolando(2020),Stavans,Ilan(ed.),"TheBilingualismsofLatino/aLiteratures",TheOxfordHandbookofLatinoStudies,OxfordUniversityPress,pp. 281–306,doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190691202.013.31,ISBN 978-0-19-069120-2,retrieved4November2020 ^TheFSGbookoftwentieth-centuryLatinAmericanpoetry :ananthology.Stavans,Ilan.(1st ed.).NewYork:Farrar,Straus,Giroux.2011.ISBN 978-0-374-10024-7.OCLC 650212679.CS1maint:others(link) Furtherreading[edit] Valore,Paulo(2011),Multilingualism.Language,Power,andKnowledge,Edistudio,Pisa,ISBN 978-88-7036-809-3,textsinEnglishandItalian. Bhatia,Tej;Ritchie,WilliamC.(2004).TheHandbookofBilingualism.Oxford:Blackwellpublishing.ISBN 978-0-631-22735-9. Bialystok,Ellen(March2017)."Thebilingualadaptation:Howmindsaccommodateexperience".PsychologicalBulletin.143(3):233–262.doi:10.1037/bul0000099.PMC 5324728.PMID 28230411. Burck,Charlotte(2007).MultilingualLiving.Basingstoke:PalgraveMacmillan.ISBN 978-0-230-55433-7. JaredDiamond,TheWorlduntilYesterday:WhatCanWeLearnfromTraditionalSocieties?(especiallychapterten:"Speakinginmanytongues"),PenguinBooks,2012(ISBN 978-0-141-02448-6). Komorowska,Hanna(2011).IssuesinPromotingMultilingualism.Teaching–Learning–Assessment.Warsaw:FoundationfortheDevelopmentoftheEducationSystem.ISBN 978-83-62634-19-4. Kramsch,Claire(3June2011)."AreYouAnotherPersonWhenYouSpeakAnotherLanguage?".BerkeleyLanguageCenter.Retrieved2June2013. Romaine,Suzanne(1995).Bilingualism.Oxford:Blackwell.ISBN 978-0-631-19539-9. Baker,Colin;Prys,Sylvia(1998).EncyclopediaofBilingualismandBilingualEducation.ISBN 978-1853593628. Externallinks[edit] Lookupmultilingual,multilingualism,bilingual,orbilingualisminWiktionary,thefreedictionary. 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