China - Wikipedia

China (Chinese: 中国; pinyin: Zhōngguó), officially the People's Republic of China is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, ... China FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch CountryinEastAsia "People'sRepublicofChina"redirectshere.FortheRepublicofChina,seeTaiwan. "PRC"redirectshere.Forotheruses,seePRC(disambiguation)andChina(disambiguation). Thisarticlemaybetoolongtoreadandnavigatecomfortably.Itscurrentreadableprosesizeis97kilobytes.Pleaseconsidersplittingcontentintosub-articles,condensingit,oraddingsubheadings.Pleasediscussthisissueonthearticle'stalkpage.(July2022) People'sRepublicofChina中华人民共和国 (Chinese)ZhōnghuáRénmínGònghéguó(Pinyin) Flag NationalEmblem Anthem: 义勇军进行曲YìyǒngjūnJìnxíngqǔ"MarchoftheVolunteers"TerritorycontrolledbythePeople'sRepublicofChinashownindarkgreen;territoryclaimedbutnotcontrolledshowninlightgreenCapitalBeijing39°55′N116°23′E/39.917°N116.383°E/39.917;116.383LargestcitybypopulationShanghaiOfficial languagesStandardChinese[a]Recognizedregional languagesMongolianUyghurTibetanZhuangOthersOfficialscriptSimplifiedChinese[b]Ethnic groups(2020)[1]91.1%HanChinese8.9%OthersReligion(2020)[2]74.5%Noreligion/Folk18.3%Buddhism5.2%Christianity1.6%Islam0.4%OthersDemonym(s)ChineseGovernmentUnitaryMarxist–Leninist[3]one-partysocialistrepublic[4]• CCPGeneralSecretaryPresident[c]CMCChairman[d]XiJinping• PremierLiKeqiang• CongressChairmanLiZhanshu• CPPCCChairman[e]WangYang LegislatureNationalPeople'sCongressFormation• Firstpre-imperialdynastyc. 2070 BCE• Firstimperialdynasty221 BCE• Republicestablished1January1912• ProclamationofthePeople'sRepublic1October1949• Firstconstitution20September1954• Currentconstitution4December1982• Mostrecentpolityadmitted20December1999 Area• Total9,596,961 km2(3,705,407 sq mi)[f][7](3rd/4th)• Water (%)2.8[g]Population• 2021 census1,412,600,000[9](1st)• Density145[10]/km2(375.5/sq mi)(83rd)GDP (PPP)2022 estimate• Total$30.18trillion[11](1st)• Percapita$21,364[11](74th)GDP (nominal)2022 estimate• Total$19.91trillion[11](2nd)• Percapita$14,096[11](64th)Gini (2019) 38.2[12]mediumHDI (2019) 0.761[13]high · 85thCurrencyRenminbi(元/¥)[h](CNY)TimezoneUTC+8(ChinaStandardTime)Dateformatyyyy-mm-ddoryyyy年m月d日(CE;Chinesecalendar)Drivingsideright(Mainland)left(HongKongandMacau)Callingcode+86(Mainland)+852(HongKong)+853(Macau)ISO3166codeCNInternetTLD.cn.中国.中國(Mainland).hk.香港(HongKong).mo.澳门.澳門(Macau) China(Chinese:中国;pinyin:Zhōngguó),officiallythePeople'sRepublicofChina(PRC;Chinese:中华人民共和国;pinyin:ZhōnghuáRénmínGònghéguó),isacountryinEastAsia.Itistheworld'smostpopulouscountry,withapopulationofmorethan1.4billionpeople.Chinaspansfivegeographicaltimezonesandborders14countries,thesecondmostofanycountryintheworldafterRussia.Coveringanareaofapproximately9.6 millionsquarekilometers(3,700,000 sq mi),itistheworld'sthirdorfourthlargestcountry.[i]Thecountryconsistsof23provinces,[j]fiveautonomousregions,fourmunicipalities,andtwoSpecialAdministrativeRegions(HongKongandMacau).ThenationalcapitalisBeijing,andthemostpopulouscityandfinancialcenterisShanghai. ModernChinesetracetheiroriginstoacradleofcivilizationinthefertilebasinoftheYellowRiverintheNorthChinaPlain.Thesemi-legendaryXiadynastyinthe21stcenturyBCEandthewell-attestedShangandZhoudynastiesdevelopedabureaucraticpoliticalsystemtoservehereditarymonarchies,ordynasties.Chinesewriting,Chineseclassicliterature,andtheHundredSchoolsofThoughtemergedduringthisperiodandinfluencedChinaanditsneighborsforcenturiestocome.InthethirdcenturyBCE,Qin'swarsofunificationcreatedthefirstChineseempire,theshort-livedQindynasty.TheQinwasfollowedbythemorestableHandynasty(206BCE–220CE),whichestablishedamodelfornearlytwomillenniainwhichtheChineseempirewasoneoftheworld'sforemosteconomicpowers.Theempireexpanded,fracturedandre-unified,wasconqueredandreestablished,absorbedforeignreligionsandideas,andmadeworld-leadingscientificadvances,suchastheFourGreatInventions:gunpowder,paper,thecompass,andprinting.AftercenturiesofdisunionfollowingthefalloftheHan,theSui(581–618)andTang(618–907)dynastiesachievedwhattheRomanEmpirecouldnot:reunificationoftheempire.Themulti-ethnicTangwelcomedforeigntradeandculturethatcameovertheSilkRoadandadaptedBuddhismtoChineseneeds.TheearlymodernSongdynasty(960–1279)becameincreasinglyurbanandcommercial.Thecivilianscholar-officialorliteratiusedtheexaminationsystemandthedoctrinesofNeo-Confucianismtoreplacethemilitaryaristocratsofearlierdynasties.TheMongolinvasionestablishedtheYuandynastyin1279,buttheMingdynasty(1368–1644)re-establishedHanChinesecontrol.TheManchu-ledQingdynastynearlydoubledtheempire'sterritoryandestablishedamulti-ethnicstatethatwasthebasisofthemodernChinesenation,butsufferedheavylossestoforeignimperialisminthe19thcentury. TheChinesemonarchycollapsedin1912withtheXinhaiRevolution,whentheRepublicofChina(ROC)replacedtheQingdynasty.JapaninvadedChinain1937,startingtheSecondSino-JapaneseWarandtemporarilyhaltingthecivilwarbetweentheChineseCommunistParty(CCP)andtheKuomintang(KMT).ThesurrenderandexpulsionofJapaneseforcesfromChinain1945leftapowervacuuminthecountry,whichledtorenewedfightingbetweentheCCPandtheKuomintang.Thecivilwarendedin1949withthedivisionofChineseterritory;theCCPestablishedthePeople'sRepublicofChinaonthemainlandwhiletheKuomintang-ledROCgovernmentretreatedtotheislandofTaiwan.[k]BothclaimedtobethesolelegitimategovernmentofChina,althoughtheUnitedNationshasrecognizedthePRCasthesolerepresentationsince1971.From1959to1961,thePRCimplementedaneconomicandsocialcampaigncalledtheGreatLeapForwardthatresultedinanestimated15to55milliondeaths,mostlythroughstarvation.Chinaconductedaseriesofeconomicreformssince1978,andenteredintotheWorldTradeOrganizationin2001. Chinaiscurrentlygovernedasaunitaryone-partysocialistrepublicbytheCCP.ChinaisapermanentmemberoftheUnitedNationsSecurityCouncilandafoundingmemberofseveralmultilateralandregionalcooperationorganizationssuchastheAsianInfrastructureInvestmentBank,theSilkRoadFund,theNewDevelopmentBank,theShanghaiCooperationOrganisation,andtheRCEP,andisamemberoftheBRICS,theG8+5,theG20,theAPEC,andtheEastAsiaSummit.Itranksamongthelowestininternationalmeasurementsofcivilliberties,governmenttransparency,freedomofthepress,freedomofreligionandethnicminorities.TheChineseauthoritieshavebeencriticizedbypoliticaldissidentsandhumanrightsactivistsforwidespreadhumanrightsabuses,includingpoliticalrepression,masscensorship,masssurveillanceoftheircitizensandviolentsuppressionofprotests. Chinaistheworld'slargesteconomybyGDPbypurchasingpowerparity,thesecond-largesteconomybynominalGDP,andthesecond-wealthiestcountry.Thecountryisoneofthefastestgrowingmajoreconomiesandistheworld'slargestmanufacturerandexporter.Chinaisarecognizednuclear-weaponstatewiththeworld'slargeststandingarmybymilitarypersonnelandsecond-largestdefensebudget.Chinaisconsideredtobeapotentialsuperpowerduetoitslargemarkets,growingmilitarystrength,economicpotential,andinfluenceininternationalaffairs. Contents 1Etymology 2History 2.1Prehistory 2.2Earlydynasticrule 2.3ImperialChina 2.4FalloftheQingdynasty 2.5EstablishmentoftheRepublicandWorldWarII 2.6CivilWarandthePeople'sRepublic 2.7Reformsandcontemporaryhistory 3Geography 3.1Climate 3.2Biodiversity 3.3Environment 3.4Politicalgeography 4Politics 4.1ChineseCommunistParty 4.2Government 4.3Administrativedivisions 4.4Foreignrelations 4.4.1Traderelations 4.4.2Territorialdisputes 4.4.2.1Taiwan 4.4.2.2Landborderdisputes 4.4.2.3Maritimeborderdisputes 4.5Sociopoliticalissuesandhumanrights 4.6Law 5Military 6Economy 6.1WealthinChina 6.2Economicgrowth 6.3Chinaintheglobaleconomy 6.4Classandincomeinequality 7Scienceandtechnology 7.1Historical 7.2Modernera 8Infrastructure 8.1Telecommunications 8.2Transport 8.3Watersupplyandsanitation 9Demographics 9.1Ethnicgroups 9.2Languages 9.3Urbanization 9.4Education 9.5Health 9.6Religion 10Culture 10.1Tourism 10.2Literature 10.3Cuisine 10.4Music 10.5Cinema 10.6Fashion 10.7Sports 11Seealso 12Notes 13References 14Furtherreading 15Externallinks 15.1Government 15.2Generalinformation 15.3Maps Etymology Mainarticle:NamesofChina China(today'sGuangdong),Mangi(inlandofXanton),andCataio(inlandofChinaandChequan,andincludingthecapitalCambalu,Xandu,andamarblebridge)areallshownasseparateregionsonthis1570mapbyAbrahamOrtelius Theword"China"hasbeenusedinEnglishsincethe16thcentury;however,itwasnotawordusedbytheChinesethemselvesduringthisperiod.ItsoriginhasbeentracedthroughPortuguese,Malay,andPersianbacktotheSanskritwordChīna,usedinancientIndia.[19]"China"appearsinRichardEden's1555translation[l]ofthe1516journalofthePortugueseexplorerDuarteBarbosa.[m][19]Barbosa'susagewasderivedfromPersianChīn(چین),whichwasinturnderivedfromSanskritCīna(चीन).[24]CīnawasfirstusedinearlyHinduscripture,includingtheMahābhārata(5thcentury BCE)andtheLawsofManu(2ndcentury BCE).[25]In1655,MartinoMartinisuggestedthatthewordChinaisderivedultimatelyfromthenameoftheQindynasty(221–206BCE).[26][25]AlthoughusageinIndiansourcesprecedesthisdynasty,thisderivationisstillgiveninvarioussources.[27]TheoriginoftheSanskritwordisamatterofdebate,accordingtotheOxfordEnglishDictionary.[19]AlternativesuggestionsincludethenamesforYelangandtheJingorChustate.[25][28] Theofficialnameofthemodernstateisthe"People'sRepublicofChina"(simplifiedChinese:中华人民共和国;traditionalChinese:中華人民共和國;pinyin:ZhōnghuáRénmínGònghéguó).Theshorterformis"China"Zhōngguó(中国;中國)fromzhōng("central")andguó("state"),[n]atermwhichdevelopedundertheWesternZhoudynastyinreferencetoitsroyaldemesne.[o][p]ItwasthenappliedtotheareaaroundLuoyi(present-dayLuoyang)duringtheEasternZhouandthentoChina'sCentralPlainbeforebeingusedasanoccasionalsynonymforthestateundertheQing.[30]ItwasoftenusedasaculturalconcepttodistinguishtheHuaxiapeoplefromperceived"barbarians".[30]ThenameZhongguoisalsotranslatedas"MiddleKingdom"inEnglish.[33]China(PRC)issometimesreferredtoastheMainlandwhendistinguishingtheROCfromthePRC.[34][35][36][37] History Mainarticle:HistoryofChina Forachronologicalguide,seeTimelineofChinesehistory. Prehistory 10,000yearsoldpottery,XianrenCaveculture(18000–7000BCE) ArchaeologicalevidencesuggeststhatearlyhominidsinhabitedChina2.25millionyearsago.[38]ThehominidfossilsofPekingMan,aHomoerectuswhousedfire,[39]werediscoveredinacaveatZhoukoudiannearBeijing;theyhavebeendatedtobetween680,000and780,000yearsago.[40]ThefossilizedteethofHomosapiens(datedto125,000–80,000yearsago)havebeendiscoveredinFuyanCaveinDaoCounty,Hunan.[41]Chineseproto-writingexistedinJiahuaround6600BCE,[42]atDamaidiaround6000BCE,[43]Dadiwanfrom5800to5400BCE,andBanpodatingfromthe5thmillenniumBCE.SomescholarshavesuggestedthattheJiahusymbols(7thmillenniumBCE)constitutedtheearliestChinesewritingsystem.[42] Earlydynasticrule Furtherinformation:ThreeSovereignsandFiveEmperors,Xiadynasty,Shangdynasty,Zhoudynasty,SpringandAutumnperiod,andWarringStatesperiod Yinxu,theruinsofthecapitalofthelateShangdynasty(14thcenturyBCE) AccordingtoChinesetradition,thefirstdynastywastheXia,whichemergedaround2100BCE.[44]TheXiadynastymarkedthebeginningofChina'spoliticalsystembasedonhereditarymonarchies,ordynasties,whichlastedforamillennium.[45]TheXiadynastywasconsideredmythicalbyhistoriansuntilscientificexcavationsfoundearlyBronzeAgesitesatErlitou,Henanin1959.[46]ItremainsunclearwhetherthesesitesaretheremainsoftheXiadynastyorofanotherculturefromthesameperiod.[47]ThesucceedingShangdynastyistheearliesttobeconfirmedbycontemporaryrecords.[48]TheShangruledtheplainoftheYellowRiverineasternChinafromthe17thtothe11thcentury BCE.[49]Theiroraclebonescript(fromc. 1500BCE)[50][51]representstheoldestformofChinesewritingyetfound[52]andisadirectancestorofmodernChinesecharacters.[53] TheShangwasconqueredbytheZhou,whoruledbetweenthe11thand5thcenturies BCE,thoughcentralizedauthoritywasslowlyerodedbyfeudalwarlords.SomeprincipalitieseventuallyemergedfromtheweakenedZhou,nolongerfullyobeyedtheZhouking,andcontinuallywagedwarwitheachotherduringthe300-yearSpringandAutumnperiod.BythetimeoftheWarringStatesperiodofthe5th–3rdcenturies BCE,therewereonlysevenpowerfulstatesleft.[54] ImperialChina China'sfirstemperor,QinShiHuang,isfamedforhavingunitedtheWarringStates'wallstoformtheGreatWallofChina.Mostofthepresentstructure,however,datestotheMingdynasty. TheWarringStatesperiodendedin221 BCEafterthestateofQinconqueredtheothersixkingdoms,reunitedChinaandestablishedthedominantorderofautocracy.KingZhengofQinproclaimedhimselftheFirstEmperoroftheQindynasty.HeenactedQin'slegalistreformsthroughoutChina,notablytheforcedstandardizationofChinesecharacters,measurements,roadwidths(i.e.,cartaxles'length),andcurrency.HisdynastyalsoconqueredtheYuetribesinGuangxi,Guangdong,andVietnam.[55]TheQindynastylastedonlyfifteenyears,fallingsoonaftertheFirstEmperor'sdeath,ashisharshauthoritarianpoliciesledtowidespreadrebellion.[56][57] FollowingawidespreadcivilwarduringwhichtheimperiallibraryatXianyangwasburned,[q]theHandynastyemergedtoruleChinabetween206 BCEandCE 220,creatingaculturalidentityamongitspopulacestillrememberedintheethnonymoftheHanChinese.[56][57]TheHanexpandedtheempire'sterritoryconsiderably,withmilitarycampaignsreachingCentralAsia,Mongolia,SouthKorea,andYunnan,andtherecoveryofGuangdongandnorthernVietnamfromNanyue.HaninvolvementinCentralAsiaandSogdiahelpedestablishthelandrouteoftheSilkRoad,replacingtheearlierpathovertheHimalayastoIndia.HanChinagraduallybecamethelargesteconomyoftheancientworld.[59]DespitetheHan'sinitialdecentralizationandtheofficialabandonmentoftheQinphilosophyofLegalisminfavorofConfucianism,Qin'slegalistinstitutionsandpoliciescontinuedtobeemployedbytheHangovernmentanditssuccessors.[60] MapshowingtheexpansionofHandynastyinthe2ndcenturyBC AftertheendoftheHandynasty,aperiodofstrifeknownasThreeKingdomsfollowed,[61]whosecentralfigureswerelaterimmortalizedinoneoftheFourClassicsofChineseliterature.Atitsend,WeiwasswiftlyoverthrownbytheJindynasty.TheJinfelltocivilwarupontheascensionofadevelopmentallydisabledemperor;theFiveBarbarianstheninvadedandrulednorthernChinaastheSixteenStates.TheXianbeiunifiedthemastheNorthernWei,whoseEmperorXiaowenreversedhispredecessors'apartheidpoliciesandenforcedadrasticsinificationonhissubjects,largelyintegratingthemintoChineseculture.Inthesouth,thegeneralLiuYusecuredtheabdicationoftheJininfavoroftheLiuSong.ThevarioussuccessorsofthesestatesbecameknownastheNorthernandSoutherndynasties,withthetwoareasfinallyreunitedbytheSuiin581.TheSuirestoredtheHantopowerthroughChina,reformeditsagriculture,economyandimperialexaminationsystem,constructedtheGrandCanal,andpatronizedBuddhism.However,theyfellquicklywhentheirconscriptionforpublicworksandafailedwarinnorthernKoreaprovokedwidespreadunrest.[62][63] UnderthesucceedingTangandSongdynasties,Chineseeconomy,technology,andcultureenteredagoldenage.[64]TheTangdynastyretainedcontroloftheWesternRegionsandtheSilkRoad,[65]whichbroughttraderstoasfarasMesopotamiaandtheHornofAfrica,[66]andmadethecapitalChang'anacosmopolitanurbancenter.However,itwasdevastatedandweakenedbytheAnLushanRebellioninthe8thcentury.[67]In907,theTangdisintegratedcompletelywhenthelocalmilitarygovernorsbecameungovernable.TheSongdynastyendedtheseparatistsituationin960,leadingtoabalanceofpowerbetweentheSongandKhitanLiao.TheSongwasthefirstgovernmentinworldhistorytoissuepapermoneyandthefirstChinesepolitytoestablishapermanentstandingnavywhichwassupportedbythedevelopedshipbuildingindustryalongwiththeseatrade.[68] TheTangdynastyatitsgreatestextentandTang'sprotectorates AdetailfromAlongtheRiverDuringtheQingmingFestival,a12th-centurypaintingshowingeverydaylifeintheSongdynasty'scapital,Bianjing(present-dayKaifeng) Betweenthe10thand11thcenturies,thepopulationofChinadoubledinsizetoaround100millionpeople,mostlybecauseoftheexpansionofricecultivationincentralandsouthernChina,andtheproductionofabundantfoodsurpluses.TheSongdynastyalsosawarevivalofConfucianism,inresponsetothegrowthofBuddhismduringtheTang,[69]andaflourishingofphilosophyandthearts,aslandscapeartandporcelainwerebroughttonewlevelsofmaturityandcomplexity.[70][71]However,themilitaryweaknessoftheSongarmywasobservedbytheJurchenJindynasty.In1127,EmperorHuizongofSongandthecapitalBianjingwerecapturedduringtheJin–SongWars.TheremnantsoftheSongretreatedtosouthernChina.[72] TheMongolconquestofChinabeganin1205withthegradualconquestofWesternXiabyGenghisKhan,[73]whoalsoinvadedJinterritories.[74]In1271,theMongolleaderKublaiKhanestablishedtheYuandynasty,whichconqueredthelastremnantoftheSongdynastyin1279.BeforetheMongolinvasion,thepopulationofSongChinawas120millioncitizens;thiswasreducedto60millionbythetimeofthecensusin1300.[75]ApeasantnamedZhuYuanzhangledarebellionthatoverthrewtheYuanin1368andfoundedtheMingdynastyastheHongwuEmperor.UndertheMingdynasty,Chinaenjoyedanothergoldenage,developingoneofthestrongestnaviesintheworldandarichandprosperouseconomyamidaflourishingofartandculture.ItwasduringthisperiodthatadmiralZhengHeledtheMingtreasurevoyagesthroughouttheIndianOcean,reachingasfarasEastAfrica.[76] TheQingconquestoftheMingandexpansionoftheempire IntheearlyyearsoftheMingdynasty,China'scapitalwasmovedfromNanjingtoBeijing.Withthebuddingofcapitalism,philosopherssuchasWangYangmingfurthercritiquedandexpandedNeo-Confucianismwithconceptsofindividualismandequalityoffouroccupations.[77]Thescholar-officialstratumbecameasupportingforceofindustryandcommerceinthetaxboycottmovements,which,togetherwiththefaminesanddefenseagainstJapaneseinvasionsofKorea(1592–1598)andManchuinvasionsledtoanexhaustedtreasury.[78]In1644,BeijingwascapturedbyacoalitionofpeasantrebelforcesledbyLiZicheng.TheChongzhenEmperorcommittedsuicidewhenthecityfell.TheManchuQingdynasty,thenalliedwithMingdynastygeneralWuSangui,overthrewLi'sshort-livedShundynastyandsubsequentlyseizedcontrolofBeijing,whichbecamethenewcapitaloftheQingdynasty.[citationneeded] TheQingdynasty,whichlastedfrom1644until1912,wasthelastimperialdynastyofChina.ItsconquestoftheMing(1618–1683)cost25millionlivesandtheeconomyofChinashrankdrastically.[79]AftertheSouthernMingended,thefurtherconquestoftheDzungarKhanateaddedMongolia,TibetandXinjiangtotheempire.[80]Thecentralizedautocracywasstrengthenedtosuppressanti-Qingsentimentwiththepolicyofvaluingagricultureandrestrainingcommerce,theHaijin("seaban"),andideologicalcontrolasrepresentedbytheliteraryinquisition,causingsocialandtechnologicalstagnation.[81][82] FalloftheQingdynasty Furtherinformation:Centuryofhumiliation,OpiumWars,FirstSino-JapaneseWar,andBoxerRebellion TheEight-NationAllianceinvadedChinatodefeattheanti-foreignBoxersandtheirQingbackers.TheimageshowsacelebrationceremonyinsidetheChineseimperialpalace,theForbiddenCityafterthesigningoftheBoxerProtocolin1901. Inthemid-19thcentury,theQingdynastyexperiencedWesternimperialismintheOpiumWarswithBritainandFrance.Chinawasforcedtopaycompensation,opentreatyports,allowextraterritorialityforforeignnationals,andcedeHongKongtotheBritish[83]underthe1842TreatyofNanking,thefirstoftheUnequalTreaties.TheFirstSino-JapaneseWar(1894–1895)resultedinQingChina'slossofinfluenceintheKoreanPeninsula,aswellasthecessionofTaiwantoJapan.[84] TheQingdynastyalsobeganexperiencinginternalunrestinwhichtensofmillionsofpeopledied,especiallyintheWhiteLotusRebellion,thefailedTaipingRebellionthatravagedsouthernChinainthe1850sand1860sandtheDunganRevolt(1862–1877)inthenorthwest.TheinitialsuccessoftheSelf-StrengtheningMovementofthe1860swasfrustratedbyaseriesofmilitarydefeatsinthe1880sand1890s.[citationneeded] Inthe19thcentury,thegreatChinesediasporabegan.LossesduetoemigrationwereaddedtobyconflictsandcatastrophessuchastheNorthernChineseFamineof1876–1879,inwhichbetween9and13millionpeopledied.[85]TheGuangxuEmperordraftedareformplanin1898toestablishamodernconstitutionalmonarchy,buttheseplanswerethwartedbytheEmpressDowagerCixi.Theill-fatedanti-foreignBoxerRebellionof1899–1901furtherweakenedthedynasty.AlthoughCixisponsoredaprogramofreforms,theXinhaiRevolutionof1911–1912broughtanendtotheQingdynastyandestablishedtheRepublicofChina.[86]Puyi,thelastEmperorofChina,abdicatedin1912.[87] EstablishmentoftheRepublicandWorldWarII Mainarticle:RepublicofChina(1912–1949)Furtherinformation:1911Revolution,SecondSino-JapaneseWar,ChineseCivilWar,andChineseCommunistRevolutionSunYat-sen,thefoundingfatherofRepublicofChina,oneofthefirstrepublicsinAsia. On1January1912,theRepublicofChinawasestablished,andSunYat-senoftheKuomintang(theKMTorNationalistParty)wasproclaimedprovisionalpresident.[88]On12February1912,regentEmpressDowagerLongyusealedtheimperialabdicationdecreeonbehalfof4yearoldPuyi,thelastemperorofChina,ending5,000yearsofmonarchyinChina.[89]InMarch1912,thepresidencywasgiventoYuanShikai,aformerQinggeneralwhoin1915proclaimedhimselfEmperorofChina.InthefaceofpopularcondemnationandoppositionfromhisownBeiyangArmy,hewasforcedtoabdicateandre-establishtherepublicin1916.[90] AfterYuanShikai'sdeathin1916,Chinawaspoliticallyfragmented.ItsBeijing-basedgovernmentwasinternationallyrecognizedbutvirtuallypowerless;regionalwarlordscontrolledmostofitsterritory.[91][92]Inthelate1920s,theKuomintangunderChiangKai-shek,thethenPrincipaloftheRepublicofChinaMilitaryAcademy,wasabletoreunifythecountryunderitsowncontrolwithaseriesofdeftmilitaryandpoliticalmaneuverings,knowncollectivelyastheNorthernExpedition.[93][94]TheKuomintangmovedthenation'scapitaltoNanjingandimplemented"politicaltutelage",anintermediatestageofpoliticaldevelopmentoutlinedinSunYat-sen'sSan-minprogramfortransformingChinaintoamoderndemocraticstate.[95][96]ThepoliticaldivisioninChinamadeitdifficultforChiangtobattlethecommunist-ledPeople'sLiberationArmy(PLA),againstwhomtheKuomintanghadbeenwarringsince1927intheChineseCivilWar.ThiswarcontinuedsuccessfullyfortheKuomintang,especiallyafterthePLAretreatedintheLongMarch,untilJapaneseaggressionandthe1936Xi'anIncidentforcedChiangtoconfrontImperialJapan.[97] ChiangKai-shekandMaoZedongtoastingtogetherin1945followingtheendofWorldWarII TheSecondSino-JapaneseWar(1937–1945),atheaterofWorldWarII,forcedanuneasyalliancebetweentheKuomintangandtheCommunists.Japaneseforcescommittednumerouswaratrocitiesagainstthecivilianpopulation;inall,asmanyas20millionChineseciviliansdied.[98]Anestimated40,000to300,000ChineseweremassacredinthecityofNanjingaloneduringtheJapaneseoccupation.[99]Duringthewar,China,alongwiththeUK,theUnitedStates,andtheSovietUnion,werereferredtoas"trusteeshipofthepowerful"[100]andwererecognizedastheAllied"BigFour"intheDeclarationbyUnitedNations.[101][102]Alongwiththeotherthreegreatpowers,ChinawasoneofthefourmajorAlliesofWorldWarII,andwaslaterconsideredoneoftheprimaryvictorsinthewar.[103][104]AfterthesurrenderofJapanin1945,Taiwan,includingthePescadores,washandedovertoChinesecontrol.However,thevalidityofthishandoveriscontroversial,inthatwhetherTaiwan'ssovereigntywaslegallytransferredandwhetherChinaisalegitimaterecipient,duetocomplexissuesthatarosefromthehandlingofJapan'ssurrender,resultingintheunresolvedpoliticalstatusofTaiwan,whichisaflashpointofpotentialwarbetweenChinaandTaiwan.Chinaemergedvictoriousbutwar-ravagedandfinanciallydrained.ThecontinueddistrustbetweentheKuomintangandtheCommunistsledtotheresumptionofcivilwar.Constitutionalrulewasestablishedin1947,butbecauseoftheongoingunrest,manyprovisionsoftheROCconstitutionwereneverimplementedinmainlandChina.[105] CivilWarandthePeople'sRepublic Mainarticle:HistoryofthePeople'sRepublicofChina Furtherinformation:ChineseSovietRepublic;ProclamationofthePeople'sRepublicofChina;RetreatofthegovernmentoftheRepublicofChinatoTaiwan;Taiwan,China;andCulturalRevolution MaoZedongproclaimingtheestablishmentofthePRCin1949. BeforetheexistenceofthePeople'sRepublic,theCCPhaddeclaredseveralareasofthecountryastheChineseSovietRepublic(JiangxiSoviet),apredecessorstatetothePRC,inNovember1931inRuijin,Jiangxi.TheJiangxiSovietwaswipedoutbytheKMTarmiesin1934andwasrelocatedtoYan'aninShaanxiwheretheLongMarchconcludedin1935.[106][failedverification]ItwouldbethebaseofthecommunistsbeforemajorcombatintheChineseCivilWarendedin1949.Afterwards,theCCPgaincontrolofmostofmainlandChina,andtheKuomintangretreatingoffshoretoTaiwan,reducingitsterritorytoonlyTaiwan,Hainan,andtheirsurroundingislands. On1October1949,CCPChairmanMaoZedongformallyproclaimedtheestablishmentofthePeople'sRepublicofChinaatthenewnation'sfoundingceremonyandinauguralmilitaryparadeinTiananmenSquare,Beijing.[107][108]In1950,thePeople'sLiberationArmycapturedHainanfromtheROC[109]andincorporatedTibet.[110]However,remainingKuomintangforcescontinuedtowageaninsurgencyinwesternChinathroughoutthe1950s.[111] Thegovernmentconsolidateditspopularityamongthepeasantsthroughlandreform,whichincludedtheexecutionofbetween1and2millionlandlords.[112]Chinadevelopedanindependentindustrialsystemanditsownnuclearweapons.[113]TheChinesepopulationincreasedfrom550millionin1950to900millionin1974.[114]However,theGreatLeapForward,anidealisticmassivereformproject,resultedinanestimated15to55milliondeathsbetween1959and1961,mostlyfromstarvation.[115][116]In1966,MaoandhisallieslaunchedtheCulturalRevolution,sparkingadecadeofpoliticalrecriminationandsocialupheavalthatlasteduntilMao'sdeathin1976.InOctober1971,thePRCreplacedtheRepublicofChinaintheUnitedNations,andtookitsseatasapermanentmemberoftheSecurityCouncil.[117]ThisUNactionalsocreatedtheproblemofthepoliticalstatusofTaiwanandtheTwoChinasissue.SeeCross-Straitrelationsand"Taiwan,China". Reformsandcontemporaryhistory Furtherinformation:Chineseeconomicreform The1989TiananmenSquareprotestswasendedbyamilitary-ledmassacrewhichbroughtcondemnationsandsanctionsagainsttheChinesegovernmentfromvariousforeigncountries. AfterMao'sdeath,theGangofFourwasquicklyarrestedbyHuaGuofengandheldresponsiblefortheexcessesoftheCulturalRevolution.ElderDengXiaopingtookpowerin1978,andinstitutedsignificanteconomicreforms.TheCCPloosenedgovernmentalcontrolovercitizens'personallives,andthecommunesweregraduallydisbandedinfavorofworkingcontractedtohouseholds.ThismarkedChina'stransitionfromaplannedeconomytoamixedeconomywithanincreasinglyopen-marketenvironment.[118]Chinaadopteditscurrentconstitutionon4December1982.In1989,thesuppressionofstudentprotestsinTiananmenSquarebroughtcondemnationsandsanctionsagainsttheChinesegovernmentfromvariousforeigncountries.[119] JiangZemin,LiPengandZhuRongjiledthenationinthe1990s.Undertheiradministration,China'seconomicperformancepulledanestimated[bywhom?]150millionpeasantsoutofpovertyandsustainedanaverageannualgrossdomesticproductgrowthrateof11.2%.[120][better source needed]BritishHongKongandPortugueseMacaureturnedtoChinain1997and1999,respectively,astheHongKongandMacauspecialadministrativeregionsundertheprincipleofOnecountry,twosystems.ThecountryjoinedtheWorldTradeOrganizationin2001,andmaintaineditshighrateofeconomicgrowthunderHuJintaoandWenJiabao'sleadershipinthe2000s.However,thegrowthalsoseverelyimpactedthecountry'sresourcesandenvironment,[121][122]andcausedmajorsocialdisplacement.[123][124] CCPgeneralsecretaryXiJinpinghasruledsince2012andhaspursuedlarge-scaleeffortstoreformChina'seconomy[125][126](whichhassufferedfromstructuralinstabilitiesandslowinggrowth),[127][128][129]andhasalsoreformedtheone-childpolicyandpenalsystem,[130]aswellasinstitutingavastanticorruptioncrackdown.[131]In2013,ChinainitiatedtheBeltandRoadInitiative,aglobalinfrastructureinvestmentproject.[132]Since2017,theChinesegovernmenthasbeenengagedinaharshcrackdowninXinjiang,withanestimatedonemillionpeople,mostlyUyghursbutincludingotherethnicandreligiousminorities,ininternmentcamps.[133]In2020,theStandingCommitteeoftheNationalPeople'sCongress(NPCSC)passedanationalsecuritylawinHongKongthatgavetheHongKonggovernmentwide-rangingtoolstocrackdownondissent.[134] TheglobalCOVID-19pandemicoriginatedinWuhanandwasfirstidentifiedfromanoutbreakinDecember2019.[135]TheChinesegovernmentresponsehasincludedazero-COVIDstrategy,makingitoneoffewcountriestopursuethisapproach.[136]Thecountry'seconomycontinuedtobroadenrecoveryfromtherecessionduringthepandemic,withstablejobcreationandrecordinternationaltradegrowth,althoughretailconsumptionwasstillslowerthanpredicted.[137][138]On1July2021,thePeople'sRepublicofChinacelebratedthe100thanniversaryoftheestablishmentoftheCCP(firstoftheTwoCentenaries)withahugegatheringinTiananmenSquareandculturalartisticperformanceinBeijingNationalStadiuminBeijing.[139] Geography Mainarticle:GeographyofChina ChinatopographicmapwithEastAsiacountries China'slandscapeisvastanddiverse,rangingfromtheGobiandTaklamakanDesertsinthearidnorthtothesubtropicalforestsinthewettersouth.TheHimalaya,Karakoram,PamirandTianShanmountainrangesseparateChinafrommuchofSouthandCentralAsia.TheYangtzeandYellowRivers,thethird-andsixth-longestintheworld,respectively,runfromtheTibetanPlateautothedenselypopulatedeasternseaboard.China'scoastlinealongthePacificOceanis14,500 km(9,000 mi)longandisboundedbytheBohai,Yellow,EastChinaandSouthChinaseas.ChinaconnectsthroughtheKazakhbordertotheEurasianSteppewhichhasbeenanarteryofcommunicationbetweenEastandWestsincetheNeolithicthroughtheSteppeRoute–theancestoroftheterrestrialSilkRoad(s).[citationneeded] TheterritoryofChinaliesbetweenlatitudes18°and54°N,andlongitudes73°and135°E.ThegeographicalcenterofChinaismarkedbytheCenteroftheCountryMonumentat35°50′40.9″N103°27′7.5″E/35.844694°N103.452083°E/35.844694;103.452083(GeographicalcenterofChina).China'slandscapesvarysignificantlyacrossitsvastterritory.Intheeast,alongtheshoresoftheYellowSeaandtheEastChinaSea,thereareextensiveanddenselypopulatedalluvialplains,whileontheedgesoftheInnerMongolianplateauinthenorth,broadgrasslandspredominate.SouthernChinaisdominatedbyhillsandlowmountainranges,whilethecentral-easthoststhedeltasofChina'stwomajorrivers,theYellowRiverandtheYangtzeRiver.OthermajorriversincludetheXi,Mekong,BrahmaputraandAmur.Tothewestsitmajormountainranges,mostnotablytheHimalayas.Highplateausfeatureamongthemorearidlandscapesofthenorth,suchastheTaklamakanandtheGobiDesert.Theworld'shighestpoint,MountEverest(8,848 m),liesontheSino-Nepaleseborder.[140]Thecountry'slowestpoint,andtheworld'sthird-lowest,isthedriedlakebedofAydingLake(−154 m)intheTurpanDepression.[141] Climate Furtherinformation:GreatGreenWall(China) Köppen-GeigerclimateclassificationmapformainlandChina.[142] China'sclimateismainlydominatedbydryseasonsandwetmonsoons,whichleadtopronouncedtemperaturedifferencesbetweenwinterandsummer.Inthewinter,northernwindscomingfromhigh-latitudeareasarecoldanddry;insummer,southernwindsfromcoastalareasatlowerlatitudesarewarmandmoist.[143] AmajorenvironmentalissueinChinaisthecontinuedexpansionofitsdeserts,particularlytheGobiDesert.[144][145]Althoughbarriertreelinesplantedsincethe1970shavereducedthefrequencyofsandstorms,prolongeddroughtandpooragriculturalpracticeshaveresultedinduststormsplaguingnorthernChinaeachspring,whichthenspreadtootherpartsofEastAsia,includingJapanandKorea.China'senvironmentalwatchdog,SEPA,statedin2007thatChinaislosing4,000 km2(1,500 sq mi)peryeartodesertification.[146]Waterquality,erosion,andpollutioncontrolhavebecomeimportantissuesinChina'srelationswithothercountries.MeltingglaciersintheHimalayascouldpotentiallyleadtowatershortagesforhundredsofmillionsofpeople.[147]Accordingtoacademics,inordertolimitclimatechangeinChinato1.5 °C(2.7 °F)electricitygenerationfromcoalinChinawithoutcarboncapturemustbephasedoutby2045.[148]OfficialgovernmentstatisticsaboutChineseagriculturalproductivityareconsideredunreliable,duetoexaggerationofproductionatsubsidiarygovernmentlevels.[149][150]MuchofChinahasaclimateverysuitableforagricultureandthecountryhasbeentheworld'slargestproducerofrice,wheat,tomatoes,eggplant,grapes,watermelon,spinach,andmanyothercrops.[151] Biodiversity Mainarticle:WildlifeofChina Agiantpanda,China'smostfamousendangeredandendemicspecies,attheChengduResearchBaseofGiantPandaBreedinginSichuan Chinaisoneof17megadiversecountries,[152]lyingintwooftheworld'smajorbiogeographicrealms:thePalearcticandtheIndomalayan.Byonemeasure,Chinahasover34,687speciesofanimalsandvascularplants,makingitthethird-mostbiodiversecountryintheworld,afterBrazilandColombia.[153]ThecountrysignedtheRiodeJaneiroConventiononBiologicalDiversityon11June1992,andbecameapartytotheconventionon5January1993.[154]ItlaterproducedaNationalBiodiversityStrategyandActionPlan,withonerevisionthatwasreceivedbytheconventionon21September2010.[155] Chinaishometoatleast551speciesofmammals(thethird-highestsuchnumberintheworld),[156]1,221speciesofbirds(eighth),[157]424speciesofreptiles(seventh)[158]and333speciesofamphibians(seventh).[159]WildlifeinChinashareshabitatwith,andbearsacutepressurefrom,theworld'slargestpopulationofhumans.Atleast840animalspeciesarethreatened,vulnerableorindangeroflocalextinctioninChina,duemainlytohumanactivitysuchashabitatdestruction,pollutionandpoachingforfood,furandingredientsfortraditionalChinesemedicine.[160]Endangeredwildlifeisprotectedbylaw,andasof2005[update],thecountryhasover2,349naturereserves,coveringatotalareaof149.95millionhectares,15percentofChina'stotallandarea.[161][better source needed]MostwildanimalshavebeeneliminatedfromthecoreagriculturalregionsofeastandcentralChina,buttheyhavefaredbetterinthemountainoussouthandwest.[162][163]TheBaijiwasconfirmedextincton12December2006.[164] Chinahasover32,000speciesofvascularplants,[165]andishometoavarietyofforesttypes.Coldconiferousforestspredominateinthenorthofthecountry,supportinganimalspeciessuchasmooseandAsianblackbear,alongwithover120birdspecies.[166]Theunderstoryofmoistconiferforestsmaycontainthicketsofbamboo.Inhighermontanestandsofjuniperandyew,thebambooisreplacedbyrhododendrons.Subtropicalforests,whicharepredominateincentralandsouthernChina,supportahighdensityofplantspeciesincludingnumerousrareendemics.Tropicalandseasonalrainforests,thoughconfinedtoYunnanandHainanIsland,containaquarterofalltheanimalandplantspeciesfoundinChina.[166]Chinahasover10,000recordedspeciesoffungi,[167]andofthem,nearly6,000arehigherfungi.[168] Environment Mainarticles:EnvironmentofChinaandEnvironmentalissuesinChina Seealso:RenewableenergyinChina,WaterresourcesofChina,EnergypolicyofChina,andClimatechangeinChina TheThreeGorgesDamisthelargesthydroelectricdamintheworld. Intheearly2000s,Chinahassufferedfromenvironmentaldeteriorationandpollutionduetoitsrapidpaceofindustrialization.[169][170]Whileregulationssuchasthe1979EnvironmentalProtectionLawarefairlystringent,theyarepoorlyenforced,astheyarefrequentlydisregardedbylocalcommunitiesandgovernmentofficialsinfavorofrapideconomicdevelopment.[171]Chinaisthecountrywiththesecondhighestdeathtollbecauseofairpollution,afterIndia.Thereareapproximately1milliondeathscausedbyexposuretoambientairpollution.[172][173]AlthoughChinaranksasthehighestCO2emittingcountryintheworld,[174]itonlyemits8tonsofCO2percapita,significantlylowerthandevelopedcountriessuchastheUnitedStates(16.1),Australia(16.8)andSouthKorea(13.6).[175] Inrecentyears,Chinahasclampeddownonpollution.InMarch2014,CCPGeneralSecretaryXiJinping"declaredwar"onpollutionduringtheopeningoftheNationalPeople'sCongress.[176]Afterextensivedebatelastingnearlytwoyears,theparliamentapprovedanewenvironmentallawinApril.Thenewlawempowersenvironmentalenforcementagencieswithgreatpunitivepowerandlargefinesforoffenders,definesareaswhichrequireextraprotection,andgivesindependentenvironmentalgroupsmoreabilitytooperateinthecountry.[citationneeded]In2020,ChineseCommunistPartygeneralsecretaryXiJinpingannouncedthatChinaaimstopeakemissionsbefore2030andgocarbon-neutralby2060inaccordancewiththeParisclimateaccord.[177]AccordingtoClimateActionTracker,ifaccomplisheditwouldlowertheexpectedriseinglobaltemperatureby0.2–0.3degrees–"thebiggestsinglereductioneverestimatedbytheClimateActionTracker".[178]InSeptember2021XiJinpingannouncedthatChinawillnotbuild"coal-firedpowerprojectsabroad".Thedecisioncanbe"pivotal"inreducingemissions.TheBeltandRoadInitiativedidnotincludefinancingsuchprojectsalreadyinthefirsthalfof2021.[179] Thecountryalsohadsignificantwaterpollutionproblems:8.2%ofChina'srivershadbeenpollutedbyindustrialandagriculturalwastein2019.[180][181]Chinahada2018ForestLandscapeIntegrityIndexmeanscoreof7.14/10,rankingit53rdgloballyoutof172countries.[182]In2020,asweepinglawwaspassedbytheChinesegovernmenttoprotecttheecologyoftheYangtzeRiver.Thenewlawsincludestrengtheningecologicalprotectionrulesforhydropowerprojectsalongtheriver,banningchemicalplantswithin1kilometeroftheriver,relocatingpollutingindustries,severelyrestrictingsandminingaswellasacompletefishingbanonallthenaturalwaterwaysoftheriver,includingallitsmajortributariesandlakes.[183] Chinaisalsotheworld'sleadinginvestorinrenewableenergyanditscommercialization,with$52 billioninvestedin2011alone;[184][185][186]itisamajormanufacturerofrenewableenergytechnologiesandinvestsheavilyinlocal-scalerenewableenergyprojects.[187][188][189]By2015,over24%ofChina'senergywasderivedfromrenewablesources,whilemostnotablyfromhydroelectricpower:atotalinstalledcapacityof197GWmakesChinathelargesthydroelectricpowerproducerintheworld.[190][191]Chinaalsohasthelargestpowercapacityofinstalledsolarphotovoltaicssystemandwindpowersystemintheworld.[192][193]GreenhousegasemissionsbyChinaaretheworld'slargest,[175]asisrenewableenergyinChina.[194]Despiteitsemphasisonrenewables,Chinaremainsdeeplyconnectedtoglobaloilmarkets.Russia'ssinglelargestbuyer,Chinatakesin20%ofRussianoilexports,averaging1.6millionbarrelsofcrudeoilperdayin2021.[195][196] Politicalgeography Mainarticles:BordersofChina,CoastlineofChina,andTerritorialchangesofthePeople'sRepublicofChina MapshowingtheterritorialclaimsofthePRC. ThePeople'sRepublicofChinaisthesecond-largestcountryintheworldbylandareaafterRussia.[r][s]China'stotalareaisgenerallystatedasbeingapproximately9,600,000 km2(3,700,000 sq mi).[197]Specificareafiguresrangefrom9,572,900 km2(3,696,100 sq mi)accordingtotheEncyclopædiaBritannica,[198]to9,596,961 km2(3,705,407 sq mi)accordingtotheUNDemographicYearbook,[5]andtheCIAWorldFactbook.[8] Chinahasthelongestcombinedlandborderintheworld,measuring22,117 km(13,743 mi)anditscoastlinecoversapproximately14,500 km(9,000 mi)fromthemouthoftheYaluRiver(AmnokRiver)totheGulfofTonkin.[8]Chinaborders14nationsandcoversthebulkofEastAsia,borderingVietnam,Laos,andMyanmarinSoutheastAsia;India,Bhutan,Nepal,Afghanistan,andPakistan[t]inSouthAsia;Tajikistan,KyrgyzstanandKazakhstaninCentralAsia;andRussia,Mongolia,andNorthKoreainInnerAsiaandNortheastAsia.Additionally,ChinasharesmaritimeboundarieswithSouthKorea,Japan,Vietnam,andthePhilippines.[199] Politics Mainarticle:PoliticsofChinaSeealso:ListofcurrentChineseprovincialleaders TheGreatHallofthePeoplewheretheNationalPeople'sCongressconvenesTheZhongnanhai,headquartersoftheChinesegovernmentandChineseCommunistParty. TheChineseconstitutionstatesthatthePeople'sRepublicofChina"isasocialiststategovernedbyapeople'sdemocraticdictatorshipthatisledbytheworkingclassandbasedonanallianceofworkersandpeasants,"andthatthestateinstitutions"shallpracticetheprincipleofdemocraticcentralism."[200]ThePRCisoneoftheworld'sonlysocialiststatesgovernedbyacommunistparty.TheChinesegovernmenthasbeenvariouslydescribedascommunistandsocialist,butalsoasauthoritarian[201]andcorporatist,[202]withheavyrestrictionsinmanyareas,mostnotablyagainstfreeaccesstotheInternet,freedomofthepress,freedomofassembly,therighttohavechildren,freeformationofsocialorganizationsandfreedomofreligion.[203] AlthoughtheChineseCommunistPartydescribesChinaasa"socialistconsultativedemocracy",[204]thecountryiscommonlydescribedasanauthoritarianone-partysurveillancestateandadictatorship.[205][206]Itscurrentpolitical,ideologicalandeconomicsystemhasbeentermedbyitsleadersasa"consultativedemocracy""people'sdemocraticdictatorship","socialismwithChinesecharacteristics"(whichisMarxismadaptedtoChinesecircumstances)andthe"socialistmarketeconomy"respectively.[207][208] ChineseCommunistParty Mainarticle:ChineseCommunistParty Seealso:UnitedFront(China)andGenerationsofChineseleadership TheChineseCommunistPartyisthefoundingandrulingpoliticalpartyofthePeople'sRepublicofChina. Since2018,themainbodyoftheChineseconstitutiondeclaresthat"thedefiningfeatureofsocialismwithChinesecharacteristicsistheleadershipoftheChineseCommunistParty(CCP)."[209]The2018amendmentsconstitutionalizedthedefactoone-partystatestatusofChina,[209]whereintheCCPGeneralSecretary(partyleader)holdsultimatepowerandauthorityoverstateandgovernmentandservesastheinformalParamountleader.[210]ThecurrentGeneralSecretaryisXiJinping,whotookofficeon15November2012,andwasre-electedon25October2017.[211]Theelectoralsystemispyramidal.LocalPeople'sCongressesaredirectlyelected,andhigherlevelsofPeople'sCongressesuptotheNationalPeople'sCongress(NPC)areindirectlyelectedbythePeople'sCongressofthelevelimmediatelybelow.[200]Anothereightpoliticalparties,haverepresentativesintheNPCandtheChinesePeople'sPoliticalConsultativeConference(CPPCC).[212]ChinasupportstheLeninistprincipleof"democraticcentralism",[200]butcriticsdescribetheelectedNationalPeople'sCongressasa"rubberstamp"body.[213] SinceboththeCCPandthePeople'sLiberationArmy(PLA)promoteaccordingtoseniority,itispossibletodiscerndistinctgenerationsofChineseleadership.[214]Inofficialdiscourse,eachgroupofleadershipisidentifiedwithadistinctextensionoftheideologyoftheparty.HistorianshavestudiedvariousperiodsinthedevelopmentofthegovernmentofthePeople'sRepublicofChinabyreferencetothese"generations". GenerationsofChineseleadership Generation ParamountLeader Start End Ideology First MaoZedongHuaGuofeng 1949 1978 MaoZedongThought Second DengXiaoping 1978 1989 DengXiaopingTheory Third JiangZemin 1989 2002 ThreeRepresents Fourth HuJintao 2002 2012 ScientificOutlookonDevelopment Fifth XiJinping 2012 XiJinpingThought Government Mainarticle:GovernmentofChina Seealso:ListofnationalleadersofthePeople'sRepublicofChina XiJinpingCCPGeneralSecretary andPresidentLiKeqiangPremierLiZhanshuCongressChairman Chinaisaone-partystateledbytheChineseCommunistParty(CCP).TheNationalPeople'sCongressin2018alteredthecountry'sconstitutiontoremovethetwo-termlimitonholdingthePresidencyofChina,permittingthecurrentleader,XiJinping,toremainpresidentofChina(andgeneralsecretaryoftheChineseCommunistParty)foranunlimitedtime,earningcriticismforcreatingdictatorialgovernance.[215][216]Thepresidentisthetitularheadofstate,electedbytheNationalPeople'sCongress.Thepremieristheheadofgovernment,presidingovertheStateCouncilcomposedoffourvicepremiersandtheheadsofministriesandcommissions.TheincumbentpresidentisXiJinping,whoisalsotheGeneralSecretaryoftheChineseCommunistPartyandthechairmanoftheCentralMilitaryCommission,makinghimChina'sparamountleader.TheincumbentpremierisLiKeqiang,whoisalsoaseniormemberoftheCCPPolitburoStandingCommittee,China'sdefactotopdecision-makingbody.[217][218] PoliticalconcernsinChinaincludethegrowinggapbetweenrichandpoorandgovernmentcorruption.[219]Nonetheless,thelevelofpublicsupportforthegovernmentanditsmanagementofthenationishigh,with80–95%ofChinesecitizensexpressingsatisfactionwiththecentralgovernment,accordingtoa2011survey.[220] Administrativedivisions Mainarticles:AdministrativedivisionsofChina,DistrictsofHongKong,andMunicipalitiesandparishesofMacau ThePeople'sRepublicofChinaisofficiallydividedinto23provinces,[221]fiveautonomousregions(eachwithadesignatedminoritygroup),andfourmunicipalities—collectivelyreferredtoas"mainlandChina"—aswellasthespecialadministrativeregions(SARs)ofHongKongandMacau.Geographically,all31provincialdivisionsofmainlandChinacanbegroupedintosixregions:NorthChina,NortheastChina,EastChina,SouthCentralChina,SouthwestChina,andNorthwestChina.[222] ChinaconsidersTaiwantobeits23rdprovince,[221]althoughTaiwanisgovernedbytheRepublicofChina(ROC),whichrejectsthePRC'sclaim.Conversely,theROCconstitutionclaimssovereigntyoveralldivisionsgovernedbythePRC.[223] Provinces(省) ClaimedProvince Anhui(安徽省) Fujian(福建省) Gansu(甘肃省) Guangdong(广东省) Guizhou(贵州省) Hainan(海南省) Hebei(河北省) Heilongjiang(黑龙江省) Henan(河南省) Hubei(湖北省) Hunan(湖南省) Jiangsu(江苏省) Jiangxi(江西省) Jilin(吉林省) Liaoning(辽宁省) Qinghai(青海省) Shaanxi(陕西省) Shandong(山东省) Shanxi(山西省) Sichuan(四川省) Yunnan(云南省) Zhejiang(浙江省) Taiwan(台湾省)governedbyR.O.China Autonomousregions(自治区) Municipalities(直辖市) Specialadministrativeregions(特别行政区) Guangxi(广西壮族自治区) InnerMongolia/NeiMenggu(内蒙古自治区) Ningxia(宁夏回族自治区) Xinjiang(新疆维吾尔自治区) Tibet/Xizang(西藏自治区) Beijing(北京市) Chongqing(重庆市) Shanghai(上海市) Tianjin(天津市) HongKong/Xianggang(香港特别行政区) Macau/Aomen(澳门特别行政区) Foreignrelations Mainarticle:ForeignrelationsofChina DiplomaticrelationsofChina ThePRChasdiplomaticrelationswith175countriesandmaintainsembassiesin162.In2019,Chinahadthelargestdiplomaticnetworkintheworld.[224][225]ItslegitimacyisdisputedbytheRepublicofChinaandafewothercountries;itisthusthelargestandmostpopulousstatewithlimitedrecognition,withapopulationofmorethan1.4billion.[226]In1971,thePRCreplacedtheRepublicofChinaasthesolerepresentativeofChinaintheUnitedNationsandasoneofthefivepermanentmembersoftheUnitedNationsSecurityCouncil.[227]ChinawasalsoaformermemberandleaderoftheNon-AlignedMovement,andstillconsidersitselfanadvocatefordevelopingcountries.[228]AlongwithBrazil,Russia,IndiaandSouthAfrica,ChinaisamemberoftheBRICSgroupofemergingmajoreconomiesandhostedthegroup'sthirdofficialsummitatSanya,HainaninApril2011.[229] UndertheOne-Chinaprinciple,BeijinghasmadeitapreconditiontoestablishingdiplomaticrelationsthattheothercountryacknowledgesitsclaimtoTaiwanandseversofficialtieswiththegovernmentoftheRepublicofChina.[citationneeded]ChineseofficialshaveprotestedonnumerousoccasionswhenforeigncountrieshavemadediplomaticoverturestoTaiwan,[230]especiallyinthematterofarmamentsales.[231] MuchofcurrentChineseforeignpolicyisreportedlybasedonPremierZhouEnlai'sFivePrinciplesofPeacefulCoexistence,andisalsodrivenbytheconceptof"harmonywithoutuniformity",whichencouragesdiplomaticrelationsbetweenstatesdespiteideologicaldifferences.[232]ThispolicymayhaveledChinatosupportstatesthatareregardedasdangerousorrepressivebyWesternnations,suchasZimbabwe,NorthKoreaandIran.[233]ChinahasacloseeconomicandmilitaryrelationshipwithRussia,[234]andthetwostatesoftenvoteinunisonintheUnitedNationsSecurityCouncil.[235][236][237]Chineseemigrationofeducatedpeoplecontinuestobeasignificantphenomenon.[238] Traderelations On21May2014,ChinaandRussiasigneda$400billiongasdeal.Currently,RussiaissupplyingnaturalgastoChina. Chinabecametheworld'slargesttradingnationin2013asmeasuredbythesumofimportsandexports,aswellastheworld'slargestcommodityimporter.comprisingroughly45%ofmaritime'sdry-bulkmarket.[239][240] By2016,Chinawasthelargesttradingpartnerof124othercountries.[241]ChinaisthelargesttradingpartnerfortheASEANnations,withatotaltradevalueof$345.8billionin2015accountingfor15.2%ofASEAN'stotaltrade.[242]ASEANisalsoChina'slargesttradingpartner.[243]In2020,ChinabecamethelargesttradingpartneroftheEuropeanUnionforgoods,withthetotalvalueofgoodstradereachingnearly$700billion.[244]China,alongwithASEAN,Japan,SouthKorea,AustraliaandNewZealand,isamemberoftheRegionalComprehensiveEconomicPartnership,theworld'slargestfree-tradeareacovering30%oftheworld'spopulationandeconomicoutput.[245]ChinabecameamemberoftheWorldTradeOrganization(WTO)in2001.In2004,itproposedanentirelynewEastAsiaSummit(EAS)frameworkasaforumforregionalsecurityissues.[246]TheEAS,whichincludesASEANPlusThree,India,AustraliaandNewZealand,helditsinauguralsummitin2005.[247] ChinahashadalongandcomplextraderelationshipwiththeUnitedStates.In2000,theUnitedStatesCongressapproved"permanentnormaltraderelations"(PNTR)withChina,allowingChineseexportsinatthesamelowtariffsasgoodsfrommostothercountries.[248]ChinahasasignificanttradesurpluswiththeUnitedStates,itsmostimportantexportmarket.[249]Economistshavearguedthattherenminbiisundervalued,duetocurrencyinterventionfromtheChinesegovernment,givingChinaanunfairtradeadvantage.[250]InAugust2019,theUnitedStatesDepartmentoftheTreasurydesignatedChinaasa"currencymanipulator",[251]laterreversingthedecisioninJanuary2020.[252] Sincetheturnofthecentury,ChinahasfollowedapolicyofengagingwithAfricannationsfortradeandbilateralco-operation;[253][254][255]in2019,Sino-Africantradetotalled$208billion,havinggrown20timesovertwodecades.[256]AccordingtoMadisonCondon"ChinafinancesmoreinfrastructureprojectsinAfricathantheWorldBankandprovidesbillionsofdollarsinlow-interestloanstothecontinent'semergingeconomies."[257]ChinamaintainsextensiveandhighlydiversifiedtradelinkswiththeEuropeanUnion.[244]ChinahasfurthermorestrengtheneditstradetieswithmajorSouthAmericaneconomies,[258]andisthelargesttradingpartnerofBrazil,Chile,Peru,Uruguay,Argentina,andseveralothers.[259] China'sBeltandRoadInitiativehasexpandedsignificantlyoverthelastsixyearsand,asofApril2020,includes138countriesand30internationalorganizations.Inadditiontointensifyingforeignpolicyrelations,thefocushereisparticularlyonbuildingefficienttransportroutes.ThefocusisparticularlyonthemaritimeSilkRoadwithitsconnectionstoEastAfricaandEuropeandthereareChineseinvestmentsorrelateddeclarationsofintentatnumerousportssuchasGwadar,Kuantan,Hambantota,PiraeusandTrieste.HowevermanyoftheseloansmadeundertheBeltandRoadprogramareunsustainableandChinahasfacedanumberofcallsfordebtrelieffromdebtornations.[260][261] Territorialdisputes Mainarticle:ForeignrelationsofChina§ Internationalterritorialdisputes Seealso:ListofwarsinvolvingthePeople'sRepublicofChinaandCross-Straitrelations Taiwan MapdepictingterritorialdisputesbetweenthePRCandneighboringstates.Foralargermap,seehere. EversinceitsestablishmentaftertheChineseCivilWar,thePRChasclaimedtheterritoriesgovernedbytheRepublicofChina(ROC),aseparatepoliticalentitytodaycommonlyknownasTaiwan,asapartofitsterritory.ItregardstheislandofTaiwanasitsTaiwanProvince,KinmenandMatsuasapartofFujianProvinceandislandstheROCcontrolsintheSouthChinaSeaasapartofHainanProvinceandGuangdongProvince.TheseclaimsarecontroversialbecauseofthecomplicatedCross-Straitrelations,withthePRCtreatingtheOne-ChinaPrincipleasoneofitsmostimportantdiplomaticprinciples.[262][better source needed] Landborderdisputes Chinahasresolveditslandborderswith12outof14neighboringcountries,havingpursuedsubstantialcompromisesinmostofthem.[263][264][265]Asof2022,ChinacurrentlyhasadisputedlandborderwithIndia(Sino-Indianborderdispute)andBhutan. Maritimeborderdisputes ChinaisadditionallyinvolvedinmaritimedisputeswithmultiplecountriesovertheownershipofseveralsmallislandsintheEastandSouthChinaSeas,suchasSocotraRock,theSenkakuIslandsandtheentiretyofSouthChinaSeaIslands,[266][267]alongwiththeEEZdisputesoverEastChinaSea. Sociopoliticalissuesandhumanrights Seealso:HumanrightsinChina,Hukou,SocialwelfareinChina,ElectionsinChina,CensorshipinChina,andUyghurgenocide MarchinmemoryofChineseNobelPeacePrizelaureateLiuXiaobowhodiedoforganfailurewhileingovernmentcustodyin2017 Chinausesamassiveespionagenetworkofcameras,facialrecognitionsoftware,sensors,andsurveillanceofpersonaltechnologyasameansofsocialcontrolofpersonslivinginthecountry.[268]TheChinesedemocracymovement,socialactivists,andsomemembersoftheChineseCommunistPartybelieveintheneedforsocialandpoliticalreform.WhileeconomicandsocialcontrolshavebeensignificantlyrelaxedinChinasincethe1970s,politicalfreedomisstilltightlyrestricted.TheConstitutionofthePeople'sRepublicofChinastatesthatthe"fundamentalrights"ofcitizensincludefreedomofspeech,freedomofthepress,therighttoafairtrial,freedomofreligion,universalsuffrage,andpropertyrights.However,inpractice,theseprovisionsdonotaffordsignificantprotectionagainstcriminalprosecutionbythestate.[269][270]AlthoughsomecriticismsofgovernmentpoliciesandtherulingCommunistPartyaretolerated,censorshipofpoliticalspeechandinformation,mostnotablyontheInternet,[271][272]areroutinelyusedtopreventcollectiveaction.[273] Anumberofforeigngovernments,foreignpressagencies,andNGOshavecriticizedChina'shumanrightsrecord,allegingwidespreadcivilrightsviolationssuchasdetentionwithouttrial,forcedabortions,[274]forcedconfessions,torture,restrictionsoffundamentalrights,[203][275]andexcessiveuseofthedeathpenalty.[276][277]Thegovernmentsuppressespopularprotestsanddemonstrationsthatitconsidersapotentialthreatto"socialstability",aswasthecasewiththeTiananmenSquareprotestsof1989.[278] WesterngovernmentsaccusedChinaofcommittinggenocideagainstUyghursanddetainingmorethanonemillionUyghursandotherXinjiangminoritiesincamps.[279] Chinaisregularlyaccusedoflarge-scalerepressionandhumanrightsabusesinTibetandXinjiang,[280][281][282]includingviolentpolicecrackdownsandreligioussuppression.[283][284]InXinjiang,AtleastonemillionUyghursandotherethnicandreligionminoritieshavebeendetainedinmassdetentioncamps,officiallytermed"VocationalEducationandTrainingCenters",aimedatchangingthepoliticalthinkingofdetainees,theiridentities,andtheirreligiousbeliefs.[133]AccordingtotheU.S.DepartmentofState,actionsincludingpoliticalindoctrination,torture,physicalandpsychologicalabuse,forcedsterilization,sexualabuse,andforcedlaborarecommoninthesefacilities.[285]ThestatehasalsosoughttocontroloffshorereportingoftensionsinXinjiang,intimidatingforeign-basedreportersbydetainingtheirfamilymembers.[286]Accordingtoa2020report,China'streatmentofUyghursmeetstheUNdefinitionofgenocide,[287]andseveralgroupscalledforaUNinvestigation.[288]On19January2021,theUnitedStatesSecretaryofState,MikePompeo,announcedthattheUnitedStatesDepartmentofStatehaddeterminedthat"genocideandcrimesagainsthumanity"hadbeenperpetratedbyChinaagainsttheUyghurs.[289] 2019–20HongKongprotests GlobalstudiesfromPewResearchCenterin2014and2017rankedtheChinesegovernment'srestrictionsonreligionasamongthehighestintheworld,despitelowtomoderaterankingsforreligious-relatedsocialhostilitiesinthecountry.[290][291]TheGlobalSlaveryIndexestimatedthatin2016morethan3.8millionpeoplewerelivingin"conditionsofmodernslavery",or0.25%ofthepopulation,includingvictimsofhumantrafficking,forcedlabor,forcedmarriage,childlabor,andstate-imposedforcedlabor.Thestate-imposedforcedsystemwasformallyabolishedin2013,butitisnotcleartowhichextentitsvariouspracticeshavestopped.[292]TheChinesepenalsystemincludeslaborprisonfactories,detentioncenters,andre-educationcamps,collectivelyknownaslaogai("reformthroughlabor").TheLaogaiResearchFoundationintheUnitedStatesestimatedthattherewereoverathousandslavelaborprisonsandcampsinChina.[293] In2019,astudycalledforthemassretractionofmorethan400scientificpapersonorgantransplantation,becauseoffearstheorganswereobtainedunethicallyfromChineseprisoners.Whilethegovernmentsays10,000transplantsoccureachyear,areportbytheFalunGong-linkedIETACallegedthatbetween60,000and100,000organsaretransplantedeachyearandclaimedthatthisgapwasbeingmadeupbyexecutedprisonersofconscience.[294] Law Mainarticles:Chineselaw,LawofthePeople'sRepublicofChina,andLawofTaiwan Military Mainarticles:People'sLiberationArmyandParamilitaryforcesofChina ChengduJ-205thgenerationstealthfighter Withnearly2.2millionactivetroops,thePeople'sLiberationArmy(PLA)isthelargeststandingmilitaryforceintheworld,commandedbytheCentralMilitaryCommission(CMC).[295]Chinahasthesecond-largestmilitaryreserveforce,onlybehindNorthKorea.[296]ThePLAisconsideredoneoftheworld'smostpowerfulmilitaries,andhasrapidlymodernizedintherecentdecades.[297]ThePLAconsistsoftheGroundForce(PLAGF),theNavy(PLAN),theAirForce(PLAAF),theRocketForce(PLARF)andtheStrategicSupportForce(PLASSF).AccordingtotheChinesegovernment,militarybudgetfor2022totalledUS$230billion(1.45trillionYuan),constitutingtheworld'ssecond-largestmilitarybudget,althoughthemilitaryexpenditures-GDPratiowith1.3%ofGDPisbelowworldaverage.[298][299]However,manyauthorities–includingSIPRIandtheU.S.OfficeoftheSecretaryofDefenseclaimthatChinahidesitsreallevelofmilitaryspending,whichisallegedlymuchhigherthantheofficialbudget.[299][300]ThePLAadditionallyholdstheworld'sthird-largeststockpileofnuclearweapons,[301][302][303]andtheworld'ssecond-largestnavybytonnage.[304] Economy Mainarticles:EconomyofChina,AgricultureinChina,andListofChineseadministrativedivisionsbyGDP ChinaandothermajordevelopingeconomiesbyGDPpercapitaatpurchasing-powerparity,1990–2013.TherapideconomicgrowthofChina(blue)isreadilyapparent.[305] AproportionalrepresentationofChineseexports,2019 Since2010,Chinahashadtheworld'ssecond-largesteconomyintermsofnominalGDP,[306]totalingapproximatelyUS$18trillion(114.3trillionYuan)asof2021.[307]Intermsofpurchasingpowerparity(PPPGDP),China'seconomyhasbeenthelargestintheworldsince2014,accordingtotheWorldBank.[308]Chinaisalsotheworld'sfastest-growingmajoreconomy.[309]AccordingtotheWorldBank,China'sGDPgrewfrom$150billionin1978to$14.28trillionby2019.[310]China'seconomicgrowthhasbeenconsistentlyabove6percentsincetheintroductionofeconomicreformsin1978.[311]Chinaisalsotheworld'slargestexporterandsecond-largestimporterofgoods.[312]Between2010and2019,China'scontributiontoglobalGDPgrowthhasbeen25%to39%.[313][314]Itisthelargestengineofglobalgrowthfortheworldeconomy,accountingfor25–30%globaltotalexpansionsincethefinancialcrisisof2008–2009.[315]Asof2021,Chinaaccountsfor18%oftheworldeconomybyGDPnominal.[307] Chinahadoneofthelargesteconomiesintheworldformostofthepasttwothousandyears,[316]duringwhichithasseencyclesofprosperityanddecline.[317][318]Sinceeconomicreformsbeganin1978,Chinahasdevelopedintoahighlydiversifiedeconomyandoneofthemostconsequentialplayersininternationaltrade.Majorsectorsofcompetitivestrengthincludemanufacturing,retail,mining,steel,textiles,automobiles,energygeneration,greenenergy,banking,electronics,telecommunications,realestate,e-commerce,andtourism.Chinahasthreeoutofthetenlargeststockexchangesintheworld[319]—Shanghai,HongKongandShenzhen—thattogetherhaveamarketcapitalizationofover$15.9trillion,asofOctober2020.[320]Chinahasfour(Shanghai,HongKong,Beijing,andShenzhen)outoftheworld'stoptenmostcompetitivefinancialcenters,whichismorethananycountryinthe2020GlobalFinancialCentresIndex.[321]By2035,China'sfourcities(Shanghai,Beijing,GuangzhouandShenzhen)areprojectedtobeamongtheglobaltoptenlargestcitiesbynominalGDPaccordingtoareportbyOxfordEconomics.[322] Chinahasbeentheworld'sNo.1manufacturersince2010,afterovertakingtheUS,whichhadbeenNo.1fortheprevioushundredyears.[323][324]ChinahasalsobeenNo.2inhigh-techmanufacturingsince2012,accordingtoUSNationalScienceFoundation.[325]Chinaisthesecondlargestretailmarketintheworld,nexttotheUnitedStates.[326]Chinaleadstheworldine-commerce,accountingfor40%oftheglobalmarketsharein2016[327]andmorethan50%oftheglobalmarketsharein2019.[328]Chinaistheworld'sleaderinelectricvehicles,manufacturingandbuyinghalfofalltheplug-inelectriccars(BEVandPHEV)intheworldin2018.[329]Chinaisalsotheleadingproducerofbatteriesforelectricvehiclesaswellasseveralkeyrawmaterialsforbatteries.[330]Chinahad174GWofinstalledsolarcapacitybytheendof2018,whichamountstomorethan40%oftheglobalsolarcapacity.[331][332] ForeignandsomeChinesesourceshaveclaimedthatofficialChinesegovernmentstatisticsoverstateChina'seconomicgrowth.[333][334][335]However,severalWesternacademicsandinstitutionshavestatedthatChina'seconomicgrowthishigherthanindicatedbyofficialfigures.[336][337][338] Chinahasalargeinformaleconomy,whicharoseasaresultofthecountry'seconomicopening.Theinformaleconomyisasourceofemploymentandincomeforworkers,butitisunrecognizedandsuffersfromlowerproductivity.[339] WealthinChina ShanghaiWorldFinancialCenter,JinMaoTowerandShanghaiTower,Lujiazui Asof2020,Chinawassecondintheworld,aftertheUS,intotalnumberofbillionairesandtotalnumberofmillionaires,with698Chinesebillionairesand4.4millionmillionaires.[340][341]In2019,ChinaovertooktheUSasthehometothehighestnumberofpeoplewhohaveanetpersonalwealthofatleast$110,000,accordingtotheglobalwealthreportbyCreditSuisse.[342][343]AccordingtotheHurunGlobalRichList2020,Chinaishometofiveoftheworld'stoptencities(Beijing,Shanghai,HongKong,Shenzhen,andGuangzhouinthe1st,3rd,4th,5th,and10thspots,respectively)bythehighestnumberofbillionaires,whichismorethananyothercountry.[344]Chinahad85femalebillionairesasofJanuary2021,two-thirdsoftheglobaltotal,andminted24newfemalebillionairesin2020.[345] However,itranksbehindover60countries(outofaround180)inpercapitaeconomicoutput,makingitanupper-middleincomecountry.[346]AccordingtotheIMF,onapercapitaincomebasisamongcountrieswithalargepopulationofover100millionasof2021,Chinaranked3rdbyGDPpercapita(nominal)and5thbyGDPpercapita(PPP).[347]Additionally,itsdevelopmentishighlyuneven.Itsmajorcitiesandcoastalareasarefarmoreprosperouscomparedtoruralandinteriorregions.[348]Chinabroughtmorepeopleoutofextremepovertythananyothercountryinhistory[349]—between1978and2018,Chinareducedextremepovertyby800million.Chinareducedtheextremepovertyrate—perinternationalstandard,itreferstoanincomeoflessthan$1.90/day—from88%in1981to1.85%by2013.[350]AccordingtotheWorldBank,thenumberofChineseinextremepovertyfellfrom756millionto25millionbetween1990and2013.[351]TheportionofpeopleinChinalivingbelowtheinternationalpovertylineof$1.90perday(2011PPP)fellto0.3%in2018from66.3%in1990.Usingthelower-middleincomepovertylineof$3.20perday,theportionfellto2.9%in2018from90.0%in1990.Usingtheupper-middleincomepovertylineof$5.50perday,theportionfellto17.0%from98.3%in1990.[352] Economicgrowth ForEconomichistoryofChina,seeEconomichistoryofChinabefore1912,EconomichistoryofChina(1912–1949),andEconomichistoryofChina(1949–present). China'snominalGDPtrendfrom1952to2015 Fromitsfoundingin1949untillate1978,thePeople'sRepublicofChinawasaSoviet-stylecentrallyplannedeconomy.FollowingMao'sdeathin1976andtheconsequentendoftheCulturalRevolution,DengXiaopingandthenewChineseleadershipbegantoreformtheeconomyandmovetowardsamoremarket-orientedmixedeconomyunderone-partyrule.Agriculturalcollectivizationwasdismantledandfarmlandsprivatized,whileforeigntradebecameamajornewfocus,leadingtothecreationofSpecialEconomicZones(SEZs).Inefficientstate-ownedenterprises(SOEs)wererestructuredandunprofitableoneswereclosedoutright,resultinginmassivejoblosses.[citationneeded]Modern-dayChinaismainlycharacterizedashavingamarketeconomybasedonprivatepropertyownership,[353]andisoneoftheleadingexamplesofstatecapitalism.[354][355]Thestatestilldominatesinstrategic"pillar"sectorssuchasenergyproductionandheavyindustries,butprivateenterprisehasexpandedenormously,witharound30 millionprivatebusinessesrecordedin2008.[356][357][better source needed][358][359]In2018,privateenterprisesinChinaaccountedfor60%ofGDP,80%ofurbanemploymentand90%ofnewjobs.[360] Intheearly2010s,China'seconomicgrowthratebegantoslowamiddomesticcredittroubles,weakeninginternationaldemandforChineseexportsandfragilityintheglobaleconomy.[361][362][363]China'sGDPwasslightlylargerthanGermany'sin2007;however,by2017,China's$12.2trillion-economybecamelargerthanthoseofGermany,UK,FranceandItalycombined.[364]In2018,theIMFreiterateditsforecastthatChinawillovertaketheUSintermsofnominalGDPby2030.[365]EconomistsalsoexpectChina'smiddleclasstoexpandto600millionpeopleby2025.[366] Chinawastheonlymajoreconomyintheworldtogrowin2020,recordinga2.3%growthduetoitssuccessincontainingthecoronaviruswithinitsborders.[367]However,byApril2022,China'sdebt-to-GDPratiohadgrownto270%.[368] Chinaintheglobaleconomy ShareofworldGDP(PPP)[369] Year Share 1980 2.32% 1990 4.11% 2000 7.40% 2010 13.89% 2018 18.72% ChinaisamemberoftheWTOandistheworld'slargesttradingpower,withatotalinternationaltradevalueofUS$4.62 trillionin2018.[370]ItsforeignexchangereservesreachedUS$3.1 trillionasof2019,[371]makingitsreservesbyfartheworld'slargest.[372][373]In2012,Chinawastheworld'slargestrecipientofinwardforeigndirectinvestment(FDI),attracting$253billion.[374]In2014,China'sforeignexchangeremittanceswere$US64billionmakingitthesecondlargestrecipientofremittancesintheworld.[375]Chinaalsoinvestsabroad,withatotaloutwardFDIof$62.4 billionin2012,[374]andanumberofmajortakeoversofforeignfirmsbyChinesecompanies.[376]ChinaisamajorownerofUSpublicdebt,holdingtrillionsofdollarsworthofU.S.Treasurybonds.[377][378]China'sundervaluedexchangeratehascausedfrictionwithothermajoreconomies,[379]andithasalsobeenwidelycriticizedformanufacturinglargequantitiesofcounterfeitgoods.[380][381] LargesteconomiesbynominalGDPin2018[382] Followingthe2007–08financialcrisis,ChineseauthoritiessoughttoactivelyweanoffofitsdependenceontheU.S.dollarasaresultofperceivedweaknessesoftheinternationalmonetarysystem.[383]Toachievethoseends,ChinatookaseriesofactionstofurthertheinternationalizationoftheRenminbi.In2008,ChinaestablisheddimsumbondmarketandexpandedtheCross-BorderTradeRMBSettlementPilotProject,whichhelpsestablishpoolsofoffshoreRMBliquidity.[384][385]ThiswasfollowedwithbilateralagreementstosettletradesdirectlyinrenminbiwithRussia,[386]Japan,[387]Australia,[388]Singapore,[389]theUnitedKingdom,[390]andCanada.[391]Asaresultoftherapidinternationalizationoftherenminbi,itbecametheeighth-most-tradedcurrencyintheworld,anemerginginternationalreservecurrency,[392]andacomponentoftheIMF'sspecialdrawingrights;however,partlyduetocapitalcontrolsthatmaketherenminbifallshortofbeingafullyconvertiblecurrency,itremainsfarbehindtheEuro,DollarandJapaneseYenininternationaltradevolumes.[393] Classandincomeinequality Seealso:IncomeinequalityinChina Chinahashadtheworld'slargestmiddleclasspopulationsince2015,[394]andthemiddleclassgrewtoasizeof400millionby2018.[395]In2020,astudybytheBrookingsInstitutionforecastthatChina'smiddle-classwillreach1.2billionby2027(almost4timestheentireU.S.populationtoday),makinguponefourthoftheworldtotal.[396] From1978to2018,theaveragestandardoflivingmultipliedbyafactoroftwenty-six.[315]WagesinChinahavegrownalotinthelast40years—real(inflation-adjusted)wagesgrewseven-foldfrom1978to2007.[397]Percapitaincomeshaverisensignificantly–whenthePRCwasfoundedin1949,percapitaincomeinChinawasonefifthoftheworldaverage;percapitaincomesnowequaltheworldaverageitself.[315]By2018,medianwagesinChinesecitiessuchasShanghaiwereaboutthesameasorhigherthanthewagesinEasternEuropeancountries.[398]Chinahastheworld'shighestnumberofbillionaires,withnearly878asofOctober2020,increasingattherateofroughlyfiveperweek.[399][400][401]Chinahasahighlevelofeconomicinequality,[402]whichhasincreasedinthepastfewdecades.[403]In2018China'sGinicoefficientwas0.467,accordingtotheWorldBank.[12] Scienceandtechnology Mainarticles:ScienceandtechnologyinChina,Chinesespaceprogram,ListofChinesediscoveries,ListofChineseinventions,andHistoryofscienceandtechnologyinChina Historical Earliestknownwrittenformulaforgunpowder,fromtheWujingZongyaoof1044CE ChinawasaworldleaderinscienceandtechnologyuntiltheMingdynasty.[404]AncientChinesediscoveriesandinventions,suchaspapermaking,printing,thecompass,andgunpowder(theFourGreatInventions),becamewidespreadacrossEastAsia,theMiddleEastandlaterEurope.Chinesemathematicianswerethefirsttousenegativenumbers.[405][406]Bythe17thcentury,theWesternhemispheresurpassedChinainscientificandtechnologicaladvancement.[407]ThecausesofthisearlymodernGreatDivergencecontinuetobedebatedbyscholars.[408] AfterrepeatedmilitarydefeatsbytheEuropeancolonialpowersandJapaninthe19thcentury,ChinesereformersbeganpromotingmodernscienceandtechnologyaspartoftheSelf-StrengtheningMovement.AftertheCommunistscametopowerin1949,effortsweremadetoorganizescienceandtechnologybasedonthemodeloftheSovietUnion,inwhichscientificresearchwaspartofcentralplanning.[409]AfterMao'sdeathin1976,scienceandtechnologywaspromotedasoneoftheFourModernizations,[410]andtheSoviet-inspiredacademicsystemwasgraduallyreformed.[411] Modernera HuaweiheadquartersinShenzhen.Huaweiistheworld'slargesttelecoms-equipment-makerandthesecond-largestmanufacturerofsmartphonesintheworld.[412] SincetheendoftheCulturalRevolution,Chinahasmadesignificantinvestmentsinscientificresearch[413]andisquicklycatchingupwiththeUSinR&Dspending.[414][415]In2017,Chinaspent$279billiononscientificresearchanddevelopment.[416]AccordingtotheOECD,Chinaspent2.11%ofitsGDPonresearchanddevelopment(R&D)in2016.[417]ScienceandtechnologyareseenasvitalforachievingChina'seconomicandpoliticalgoals,andareheldasasourceofnationalpridetoadegreesometimesdescribedas"techno-nationalism".[418]AccordingtotheWorldIntellectualPropertyIndicators,Chinareceived1.54millionpatentapplicationsin2018,representingnearlyhalfofpatentapplicationsworldwide,morethandoubletheUS.[419]In2019,ChinawasNo.1ininternationalpatentsapplication.[420]Chinawasranked12th,3rdinAsia&Oceaniaregionand2ndforcountrieswithapopulationofover100millionintheGlobalInnovationIndexin2021,ithasincreaseditsrankingconsiderablysince2013,whereitwasranked35th.[421][422][423][424]Chinaranksfirstgloballyintheimportantindicators,includingpatents,utilitymodels,trademarks,industrialdesigns,andcreativegoodsexportsanditalsohas2(Shenzhen-HongKong-GuangzhouandBeijinginthe2ndand3rdspotsrespectively)oftheglobaltop5scienceandtechnologyclusters,whichismorethananyothercountry.[421]ChinesetechcompaniesHuaweiandZTEwerethetop2filersofinternationalpatentsin2017.[425][426]Chinese-bornacademicianshavewontheNobelPrizeinPhysicsfourtimes,theNobelPrizeinChemistry,NobelPrizeinPhysiologyorMedicineandFieldsMedaloncerespectively,thoughmostofthemconductedtheirprize-winningresearchinwesternnations.[u][impropersynthesis?] LongMarch2FlaunchingShenzhouspacecraft.Chinaisoneoftheonlythreecountrieswithindependenthumanspaceflightcapability. Chinaisdevelopingitseducationsystemwithanemphasisonscience,technology,engineeringandmathematics(STEM);in2009,Chinagraduatedover10,000PhDengineers,andasmanyas500,000BScgraduates,morethananyothercountry.[433]Chinaalsobecametheworld'slargestpublisherofscientificpaperssince2016.[434][435][436]ChinesetechnologycompaniessuchasHuawei,XiaomiandLenovohavebecomeworldleadersintelecommunications,consumerelectronicsandpersonalcomputing,[437][438][439]andChinesesupercomputersareconsistentlyrankedamongtheworld'smostpowerful.[440][441]Chinahasbeentheworld'slargestmarketforindustrialrobotssince2013andwillaccountfor45%ofnewlyinstalledrobotsfrom2019to2021.[442] TheChinesespaceprogramisoneoftheworld'smostactive.In1970,Chinalauncheditsfirstsatellite,DongFangHongI,becomingthefifthcountrytodosoindependently.[443]In2003,Chinabecamethethirdcountrytoindependentlysendhumansintospace,withYangLiwei'sspaceflightaboardShenzhou5;asof2022[update],fourteenChinesenationalshavejourneyedintospace,includingtwowomen.In2011,Chinalauncheditsfirstspacestationtestbed,Tiangong-1.[444]In2013,ChinasuccessfullylandedtheChang'e3landerandYuturoverontothelunarsurface.[445]In2016,thefirstquantumsciencesatellitewaslaunchedinpartnershipwithAustriadedicatedtotestingthefundamentalsofquantumcommunicationinspace.[446][447]In2019,Chinabecamethefirstcountrytolandaprobe—Chang'e4—ontheFarsideoftheMoon.[448]In2020,thefirstexperimental6Gtestsatellitewaslaunched[449][450]andChang'e5successfullyreturnedmoonsamplestotheEarth,makingChinathethirdcountrytodosoindependentlyaftertheUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnion.[451]In2021,Chinabecamethesecondnationinhistorytoindependentlylandarover(Zhurong)onMars,joiningtheUnitedStates.[452] Currently,Chinaisbuildingitsownspacestation,Tiangong,inlowEarthorbit.Theconstructionofthespacestationistargetedtobecompletedbytheendof2022withthelaunchoftwonewmodules.[453] Infrastructure Afteradecades-longinfrastructuralboom,[454]Chinahasproducednumerousworld-leadinginfrastructuralprojects:Chinahastheworld'slargestbullettrainnetwork,[455]themostsupertallskyscrapersintheworld,[456]theworld'slargestpowerplant(theThreeGorgesDam),[457]thelargestenergygenerationcapacityintheworld,[458]aglobalsatellitenavigationsystemwiththelargestnumberofsatellitesintheworld,[459]andhasinitiatedtheBeltandRoadInitiative,alargeglobalinfrastructurebuildinginitiativewithfundingontheorderof$50–100billionperyear.[460]TheBeltandRoadInitiativecouldbeoneofthelargestdevelopmentplansinmodernhistory.[461] Telecommunications Mainarticle:TelecommunicationsinChina InternetpenetrationratesinChinainthecontextofEastAsiaandSoutheastAsia,1995–2012 Chinaisthelargesttelecommarketintheworldandcurrentlyhasthelargestnumberofactivecellphonesofanycountryintheworld,withover1.5billionsubscribers,asof2018.[462]Italsohastheworld'slargestnumberofinternetandbroadbandusers,withover800millionInternetusersasof2018[update]—equivalenttoaround60%ofitspopulation—andalmostallofthembeingmobileaswell.[463]By2018,Chinahadmorethan1billion4Gusers,accountingfor40%ofworld'stotal.[464]Chinaismakingrapidadvancesin5G—bylate2018,Chinahadstartedlarge-scaleandcommercial5Gtrials.[465] ChinaMobile,ChinaUnicomandChinaTelecom,arethethreelargeprovidersofmobileandinternetinChina.ChinaTelecomaloneservedmorethan145millionbroadbandsubscribersand300millionmobileusers;ChinaUnicomhadabout300millionsubscribers;andChinaMobile,thelargestofthemall,had925millionusers,asof2018.[466][467]Combined,thethreeoperatorshadover3.4million4Gbase-stationsinChina.[468]SeveralChinesetelecommunicationscompanies,mostnotablyHuaweiandZTE,havebeenaccusedofspyingfortheChinesemilitary.[469] Chinahasdevelopeditsownsatellitenavigationsystem,dubbedBeidou,whichbeganofferingcommercialnavigationservicesacrossAsiain2012[470]aswellasglobalservicesbytheendof2018.[471][472]Uponthecompletionofthe35thBeidousatellite,whichwaslaunchedintoorbiton23June2020,BeidoufollowedGPSandGLONASSasthethirdcompletedglobalnavigationsatelliteintheworld.[473] Transport Mainarticle:TransportinChina TheDugeBridgeisthehighestbridgeintheworld. Sincethelate1990s,China'snationalroadnetworkhasbeensignificantlyexpandedthroughthecreationofanetworkofnationalhighwaysandexpressways.In2018,China'shighwayshadreachedatotallengthof142,500 km(88,500 mi),makingitthelongesthighwaysystemintheworld.[474]Chinahastheworld'slargestmarketforautomobiles,havingsurpassedtheUnitedStatesinbothautosalesandproduction.Aside-effectoftherapidgrowthofChina'sroadnetworkhasbeenasignificantriseintrafficaccidents,[475]thoughthenumberoffatalitiesintrafficaccidentsfellby20%from2007to2017.[476]Inurbanareas,bicyclesremainacommonmodeoftransport,despitetheincreasingprevalenceofautomobiles–asof2012[update],thereareapproximately470millionbicyclesinChina.[477] TheBeijingDaxingInternationalAirportfeaturestheworld'slargestsingle-buildingairportterminal. China'srailways,whicharestate-owned,areamongthebusiestintheworld,handlingaquarteroftheworld'srailtrafficvolumeononly6percentoftheworld'stracksin2006.[478][better source needed]Asof2017,thecountryhad127,000 km(78,914 mi)ofrailways,thesecondlongestnetworkintheworld.[479]TherailwaysstraintomeetenormousdemandparticularlyduringtheChineseNewYearholiday,whentheworld'slargestannualhumanmigrationtakesplace.[480] China'shigh-speedrail(HSR)systemstartedconstructionintheearly2000s.Bytheendof2020,highspeedrailinChinahadreached37,900kilometers(23,550miles)ofdedicatedlinesalone,makingitthelongestHSRnetworkintheworld.[481][482]ServicesontheBeijing–Shanghai,Beijing–Tianjin,andChengdu–ChongqingLinesreachupto350 km/h(217 mph),makingthemthefastestconventionalhighspeedrailwayservicesintheworld.Withanannualridershipofover2.29billionpassengersin2019itistheworld'sbusiest.[483][better source needed]ThenetworkincludestheBeijing–Guangzhou–ShenzhenHigh-SpeedRailway,thesinglelongestHSRlineintheworld,andtheBeijing–ShanghaiHigh-SpeedRailway,whichhasthreeoflongestrailroadbridgesintheworld.[484]TheShanghaiMaglevTrain,whichreaches431 km/h(268 mph),isthefastestcommercialtrainserviceintheworld.[485] ThePortofShanghai'sdeepwaterharboronYangshanIslandintheHangzhouBayistheworld'sbusiestcontainerportsince2010. Since2000,thegrowthofrapidtransitsystemsinChinesecitieshasaccelerated.[486]AsofJanuary 2021[update],44Chinesecitieshaveurbanmasstransitsystemsinoperation[487]and39morehavemetrosystemsapproved.[488]Asof2020,ChinaboaststhefivelongestmetrosystemsintheworldwiththenetworksinShanghai,Beijing,Guangzhou,ChengduandShenzhenbeingthelargest. Therewereapproximately229airportsin2017,witharound240plannedby2020.Chinahasover2,000riverandseaports,about130ofwhichareopentoforeignshipping.[citationneeded]In2017,thePortsofShanghai,HongKong,Shenzhen,Ningbo-Zhoushan,Guangzhou,QingdaoandTianjinrankedintheTop10intheworldincontainertrafficandcargotonnage.[489] Watersupplyandsanitation Mainarticle:WatersupplyandsanitationinChina WatersupplyandsanitationinfrastructureinChinaisfacingchallengessuchasrapidurbanization,aswellaswaterscarcity,contamination,andpollution.[490]AccordingtodatapresentedbytheJointMonitoringProgramforWaterSupplyandSanitationofWHOandUNICEFin2015,about36%oftheruralpopulationinChinastilldidnothaveaccesstoimprovedsanitation.[491]TheongoingSouth–NorthWaterTransferProjectintendstoabatewatershortageinthenorth.[492] Demographics Mainarticle:DemographicsofChina A2009populationdensitymapofthePeople'sRepublicofChina,withterritoriesnotunderitscontrolinblue.Theeasterncoastalprovincesaremuchmoredenselypopulatedthanthewesterninterior. Thenationalcensusof2020recordedthepopulationofthePeople'sRepublicofChinaasapproximately1,411,778,724.However,thisnumberisdisputedbysomescholars,suchasobstetricsresearcherYiFuxian,whoarguesthatdatarelatedtopopulationgrowthisinflatedbylocalgovernmentstoobtainfinancialsubsidiesfromthecentralgovernment.[493]Accordingtothe2020census,about17.95%ofthepopulationwere14yearsoldoryounger,63.35%werebetween15and59yearsold,and18.7%wereover60yearsold.[494]Thepopulationgrowthratefor2013isestimatedtobe0.46%.[495]Chinausedtomakeupmuchoftheworld'spoor;nowitmakesupmuchoftheworld'smiddleclass.[496]Althoughamiddle-incomecountrybyWesternstandards,China'srapidgrowthhaspulledhundredsofmillions—800million,tobemoreprecise[497]—ofitspeopleoutofpovertysince1978.By2013,lessthan2%oftheChinesepopulationlivedbelowtheinternationalpovertylineofUS$1.9perday,downfrom88%in1981.[350]From2009to2018,theunemploymentrateinChinahasaveragedabout4%.[498] Givenconcernsaboutpopulationgrowth,Chinaimplementedatwo-childlimitduringthe1970s,and,in1979,begantoadvocateforanevenstricterlimitofonechildperfamily.Beginninginthemid-1980s,however,giventheunpopularityofthestrictlimits,Chinabegantoallowsomemajorexemptions,particularlyinruralareas,resultinginwhatwasactuallya"1.5"-childpolicyfromthemid-1980sto2015(ethnicminoritieswerealsoexemptfromonechildlimits).ThenextmajorlooseningofthepolicywasenactedinDecember2013,allowingfamiliestohavetwochildrenifoneparentisanonlychild.[499]In2016,theone-childpolicywasreplacedinfavorofatwo-childpolicy.[500]Athree-childpolicywasannouncedon31May2021,duetopopulationaging,[501]andinJuly2021,allfamilysizelimitsaswellaspenaltiesforexceedingthemwereremoved.[502]Accordingtodatafromthe2020census,China'stotalfertilityrateis1.3,butsomeexpertsbelievethatafteradjustingforthetransienteffectsoftherelaxationofrestrictions,thecountry'sactualtotalfertilityrateisaslowas1.1.[503] Accordingtoonegroupofscholars,one-childlimitshadlittleeffectonpopulationgrowth[504]orthesizeofthetotalpopulation.[505]However,thesescholarshavebeenchallenged.TheirowncounterfactualmodeloffertilitydeclinewithoutsuchrestrictionsimpliesthatChinaavertedmorethan500millionbirthsbetween1970and2015,anumberwhichmayreachonebillionby2060givenallthelostdescendantsofbirthsavertedduringtheeraoffertilityrestrictions,withone-childrestrictionsaccountingforthegreatbulkofthatreduction.[506]Thepolicy,alongwithtraditionalpreferenceforboys,mayhavecontributedtoanimbalanceinthesexratioatbirth.[507][508]Accordingtothe2010census,thesexratioatbirthwas118.06boysforevery100girls,[509]whichisbeyondthenormalrangeofaround105boysforevery100girls.[510]The2010censusfoundthatmalesaccountedfor51.27percentofthetotalpopulation.[509]However,China'ssexratioismorebalancedthanitwasin1953,whenmalesaccountedfor51.82percentofthetotalpopulation.[509] Ethnicgroups Mainarticles:ListofethnicgroupsinChina,EthnicminoritiesinChina,andEthnicgroupsinChinesehistory EthnolinguisticmapofChina Chinalegallyrecognizes56distinctethnicgroups,whoaltogethercomprisetheZhonghuaMinzu.ThelargestofthesenationalitiesaretheethnicChineseor"Han",whoconstitutemorethan90%ofthetotal population.[511]TheHanChinese–theworld'slargestsingleethnicgroup[512]–outnumberotherethnicgroupsineveryprovincial-leveldivisionexceptTibetandXinjiang.[513]Ethnicminoritiesaccountforlessthan10%ofthepopulationofChina,accordingtothe2010census.[511]Comparedwiththe2000populationcensus,theHanpopulationincreasedby66,537,177persons,or5.74%,whilethepopulationofthe55nationalminoritiescombinedincreasedby7,362,627persons,or6.92%.[511]The2010censusrecordedatotalof593,832foreignnationalslivinginChina.ThelargestsuchgroupswerefromSouthKorea(120,750),the UnitedStates(71,493)andJapan(66,159).[514] Languages Mainarticles:LanguagesofChinaandListofendangeredlanguagesinChina AtrilingualsigninSibsongbanna,withTaiLülanguageonthetop LihaozhaiHighSchoolinJianshui,Yunnan.ThesignisinHani(Latinalphabet),Nisu(Yiscript),andChinese. Thereareasmanyas292livinglanguagesinChina.[515]ThelanguagesmostcommonlyspokenbelongtotheSiniticbranchoftheSino-Tibetanlanguagefamily,whichcontainsMandarin(spokenby70%ofthepopulation),[516]andothervarietiesofChineselanguage:Yue(includingCantoneseandTaishanese),Wu(includingShanghaineseandSuzhounese),Min(includingFuzhounese,HokkienandTeochew),Xiang,GanandHakka.LanguagesoftheTibeto-Burmanbranch,includingTibetan,Qiang,NaxiandYi,arespokenacrosstheTibetanandYunnan–GuizhouPlateau.OtherethnicminoritylanguagesinsouthwestChinaincludeZhuang,Thai,DongandSuioftheTai-Kadaifamily,MiaoandYaooftheHmong–Mienfamily,andWaoftheAustroasiaticfamily.AcrossnortheasternandnorthwesternChina,localethnicgroupsspeakAltaiclanguagesincludingManchu,MongolianandseveralTurkiclanguages:Uyghur,Kazakh,Kyrgyz,SalarandWesternYugur.KoreanisspokennativelyalongtheborderwithNorthKorea.Sarikoli,thelanguageofTajiksinwesternXinjiang,isanIndo-Europeanlanguage.Taiwaneseaborigines,includingasmallpopulationonthemainland,speakAustronesianlanguages.[517] StandardMandarin,avarietyofMandarinbasedontheBeijingdialect,istheofficialnationallanguageofChinaandisusedasalinguafrancainthecountrybetweenpeopleofdifferentlinguisticbackgrounds.[518][519]Mongolian,Uyghur,Tibetan,Zhuangandvariousotherlanguagesarealsoregionallyrecognizedthroughoutthecountry.[520] ChinesecharactershavebeenusedasthewrittenscriptfortheSiniticlanguagesforthousandsofyears.TheyallowspeakersofmutuallyunintelligibleChinesevarietiestocommunicatewitheachotherthroughwriting.In1956,thegovernmentintroducedsimplifiedcharacters,whichhavesupplantedtheoldertraditionalcharactersinmainlandChina.ChinesecharactersareromanizedusingthePinyinsystem.TibetanusesanalphabetbasedonanIndicscript.UyghurismostcommonlywritteninPersianalphabet-basedUyghurArabicalphabet.TheMongolianscriptusedinChinaandtheManchuscriptarebothderivedfromtheOldUyghuralphabet.ZhuangusesbothanofficialLatinalphabetscriptandatraditionalChinesecharacterscript.[citationneeded] Urbanization Seealso:ListofcitiesinChina,ListofcitiesinChinabypopulation,andMegalopolisesinChina MapofthetenlargestcitiesinChina(2010) Chinahasurbanizedsignificantlyinrecentdecades.Thepercentofthecountry'spopulationlivinginurbanareasincreasedfrom20%in1980toover60%in2019.[521][522][523]ItisestimatedthatChina'surbanpopulationwillreachonebillionby2030,potentiallyequivalenttoone-eighthoftheworldpopulation.[522][523] Chinahasover160citieswithapopulationofoveronemillion,[524]includingthe17megacitiesasof2021[525][526](citieswithapopulationofover10million)ofChongqing,Shanghai,Beijing,Chengdu,Guangzhou,Shenzhen,Tianjin,Xi'an,Suzhou,Zhengzhou,Wuhan,Hangzhou,Linyi,Shijiazhuang,Dongguan,QingdaoandChangsha.[527]Amongthem,thetotalpermanentpopulationofChongqing,Shanghai,BeijingandChengduisabove20million.[528]ShanghaiisChina'smostpopulousurbanarea[529][530]whileChongqingisitslargestcityproper,theonlycityinChinawiththelargestpermanentpopulationofover30million.[531]By2025,itisestimatedthatthecountrywillbehometo221citieswithoveramillioninhabitants.[522]Thefiguresinthetablebelowarefromthe2017census,[532]andareonlyestimatesoftheurbanpopulationswithinadministrativecitylimits;adifferentrankingexistswhenconsideringthetotalmunicipalpopulations(whichincludessuburbanandruralpopulations).Thelarge"floatingpopulations"ofmigrantworkersmakeconductingcensusesinurbanareasdifficult;[533]thefiguresbelowincludeonlylong-termresidents.[citationneeded]  vteLargestcitiesormunicipalitiesinthePeople'sRepublicofChinaChinaUrbanConstructionStatisticalYearbook2020UrbanPopulationandUrbanTemporaryPopulation[534][note1][note2] Rank Name Province Pop. Rank Name Province Pop. ShanghaiBeijing 1 Shanghai SH 24,281,400 11 HongKong HK 7,448,900 GuangzhouShenzhen 2 Beijing BJ 19,164,000 12 Zhengzhou HA 7,179,400 3 Guangzhou GD 13,858,700 13 Nanjing JS 6,823,500 4 Shenzhen GD 13,438,800 14 Xi'an SN 6,642,100 5 Tianjin TJ 11,744,400 15 Jinan SD 6,409,600 6 Chongqing CQ 11,488,000 16 Shenyang LN 5,900,000 7 Dongguan GD 9,752,500 17 Qingdao SD 5,501,400 8 Chengdu SC 8,875,600 18 Harbin HL 5,054,500 9 Wuhan HB 8,652,900 19 Hefei AH 4,750,100 10 Hangzhou ZJ 8,109,000 20 Changchun JL 4,730,900 ^PopulationofHongKongasof2018estimate.[535] ^ThedataofChongqinginthelististhedataof"MetropolitanDevelopedEconomicArea",whichcontainstwoparts:"CityProper"and"MetropolitanArea".The"Cityproper"areconsistof9districts:Yuzhong,Dadukou,Jiangbei,Shapingba,Jiulongpo,Nan'an,Beibei,Yubei,&Banan,hastheurbanpopulationof5,646,300asof2018.Andthe"MetropolitanArea"areconsistof12districts:Fuling,Changshou,Jiangjin,Hechuan,Yongchuan,Nanchuan,Qijiang,Dazu,Bishan,Tongliang,Tongnan,&Rongchang,hastheurbanpopulationof5,841,700.[536]Totalurbanpopulationofall26districtsofChongqingareupto15,076,600. Education Mainarticles:EducationinChina,HighereducationinChina,andListofuniversitiesinChina Beijing'sPekingUniversity,oneofthetop-rankeduniversitiesinChina[537][538] Since1986,compulsoryeducationinChinacomprisesprimaryandjuniorsecondaryschool,whichtogetherlastfornineyears.[539]In2019,about89.5percentofstudentscontinuedtheireducationatathree-yearseniorsecondaryschool.[540]TheGaokao,China'snationaluniversityentranceexam,isaprerequisiteforentranceintomosthighereducationinstitutions.In2010,27percentofsecondaryschoolgraduateswereenrolledinhighereducation.[541][better source needed]Thisnumberincreasedsignificantlyoverthelastyears,reachingatertiaryschoolenrolmentof58.42percentin2020.[542]Vocationaleducationisavailabletostudentsatthesecondaryandtertiarylevel.[543]Morethan10millionChinesestudentsgraduatedfromvocationalcollegesnationwideeveryyear.[544] Chinahasthelargesteducationsystemintheworld,withabout282millionstudentsand17.32millionfull-timeteachersinover530,000schools.[545]InFebruary2006,thegovernmentpledgedtoprovidecompletelyfreenine-yeareducation,includingtextbooksandfees.[546]AnnualeducationinvestmentwentfromlessthanUS$50billionin2003tomorethanUS$817billionin2020.[547][548]However,thereremainsaninequalityineducationspending.In2010,theannualeducationexpenditurepersecondaryschoolstudentinBeijingtotalled¥20,023,whileinGuizhou,oneofthepoorestprovincesinChina,onlytotalled¥3,204.[549]FreecompulsoryeducationinChinaconsistsofprimaryschoolandjuniorsecondaryschoolbetweentheagesof6and15.In2020,thegraduationenrollmentratioatcompulsoryeducationlevelreached95.2percent,exceedingaveragelevelsrecordedinhigh-incomecountries,[545]andaround91.2%ofChinesehavereceivedsecondaryeducation.[543] China'sliteracyratehasgrowndramatically,fromonly20%in1949and65.5%in1979.[550]to96%ofthepopulationoverage15in2018.[551]Inthesameyear,China(Beijing,Shanghai,Jiangsu,andZhejiang)wasrankedthehighestintheworldintheProgrammeforInternationalStudentAssessmentrankingforallthreecategoriesofMathematics,ScienceandReading.[552]Asof2022,Chinaranksfirstintheall-timemedalcountattheInternationalMathematicalOlympiadwith174goalmedalssinceitsfirstparticipationin1985.[553]Chinaalsoranksfirstintheall-timemedalcountattheInternationalPhysicsOlympiad,theInternationalChemistryOlympiad,andtheInternationalOlympiadinInformatics.[554][555][556] Chinahadover3,000universities,withover40millionstudentsenrolledinmainlandChina.[557][558]Asof2021,Chinahadtheworld'ssecond-highestnumberoftopuniversities(thehighestinAsia&Oceaniaregion).[559]Currently,ChinatrailsonlytheUnitedStatesintermsofrepresentationonlistsoftop200universitiesaccordingtotheAcademicRankingofWorldUniversities(ARWU).[560]Chinaishometothetwoofthehighestrankinguniversities(TsinghuaUniversityandPekingUniversity)inAsiaandemergingeconomiesaccordingtotheTimesHigherEducationWorldUniversityRankings.[561]Asof2022,twouniversitiesinMainlandChinarankintheworld'stop15,withPekingUniversity(12th)andTsinghuaUniversity(14th)andthreeotheruniversitiesrankingintheworld'stop50,namelyFudan,Zhejiang,andShanghaiJiaoTongaccordingtotheQSWorldUniversityRankings.[562]TheseuniversitiesaremembersoftheC9League,anallianceofeliteChineseuniversitiesofferingcomprehensiveandleadingeducation.[563] Health Mainarticle:HealthinChina Seealso:MedicineinChina,PharmaceuticalindustryinChina,andCOVID-19pandemicinmainlandChina ChartshowingtheriseofChina'sHumanDevelopmentIndexfrom1970to2010 TheNationalHealthandFamilyPlanningCommission,togetherwithitscounterpartsinthelocalcommissions,overseesthehealthneedsoftheChinesepopulation.[564]AnemphasisonpublichealthandpreventivemedicinehascharacterizedChinesehealthpolicysincetheearly1950s.Atthattime,theCommunistPartystartedthePatrioticHealthCampaign,whichwasaimedatimprovingsanitationandhygiene,aswellastreatingandpreventingseveraldiseases.Diseasessuchascholera,typhoidandscarletfever,whichwerepreviouslyrifeinChina,werenearlyeradicatedbythecampaign.[citationneeded] AfterDengXiaopingbeganinstitutingeconomicreformsin1978,thehealthoftheChinesepublicimprovedrapidlybecauseofbetternutrition,althoughmanyofthefreepublichealthservicesprovidedinthecountrysidedisappearedalongwiththePeople'sCommunes.HealthcareinChinabecamemostlyprivatized,andexperiencedasignificantriseinquality.In2009,thegovernmentbegana3-yearlarge-scalehealthcareprovisioninitiativeworthUS$124billion.[565]By2011,thecampaignresultedin95%ofChina'spopulationhavingbasichealthinsurancecoverage.[566]In2011,Chinawasestimatedtobetheworld'sthird-largestsupplierofpharmaceuticals,butitspopulationhassufferedfromthedevelopmentanddistributionofcounterfeitmedications.[567] Asof2017[update],theaveragelifeexpectancyatbirthinChinais76years,[568]andtheinfantmortalityrateis7perthousand.[569]Bothhaveimprovedsignificantlysincethe1950s.[v]Ratesofstunting,aconditioncausedbymalnutrition,havedeclinedfrom33.1%in1990to9.9%in2010.[572]Despitesignificantimprovementsinhealthandtheconstructionofadvancedmedicalfacilities,Chinahasseveralemergingpublichealthproblems,suchasrespiratoryillnessescausedbywidespreadairpollution,[573]hundredsofmillionsofcigarettesmokers,[574]andanincreaseinobesityamongurbanyouths.[575][576]China'slargepopulationanddenselypopulatedcitieshaveledtoseriousdiseaseoutbreaksinrecentyears,suchasthe2003outbreakofSARS,althoughthishassincebeenlargelycontained.[577]In2010,airpollutioncaused1.2millionprematuredeathsinChina.[578] TheCOVID-19pandemicwasfirstidentifiedinWuhaninDecember2019.[579][580]Furtherstudiesarebeingcarriedoutaroundtheworldonapossibleoriginforthevirus.[581][582]TheChinesegovernmenthasbeencriticizedforitshandlingoftheepidemicandaccusedofconcealingtheextentoftheoutbreakbeforeitbecameaninternationalpandemic.[583] Religion Mainarticle:ReligioninChina GeographicdistributionofreligionsinChina.[584][585][586][587]■Chinesefolkreligion(includingConfucianism,Taoism,andgroupsofChineseBuddhism)■Buddhismtoutcourt■Islam■Ethnicminorities'indigenousreligions■Mongolianfolkreligion■NortheastChinafolkreligioninfluencedbyTungusandManchushamanism;widespreadShanrendao ThegovernmentofthePeople'sRepublicofChinaofficiallyespousesstateatheism,[588]andhasconductedantireligiouscampaignstothisend.[589]ReligiousaffairsandissuesinthecountryareoverseenbytheStateAdministrationforReligiousAffairs.[590]FreedomofreligionisguaranteedbyChina'sconstitution,althoughreligiousorganizationsthatlackofficialapprovalcanbesubjecttostatepersecution.[275][591] Overthemillennia,Chinesecivilizationhasbeeninfluencedbyvariousreligiousmovements.The"threeteachings",includingConfucianism,Taoism,andBuddhism(ChineseBuddhism),historicallyhaveasignificantroleinshapingChineseculture,[592][593]enrichingatheologicalandspiritualframeworkwhichharksbacktotheearlyShangandZhoudynasty.Chinesepopularorfolkreligion,whichisframedbythethreeteachingsandothertraditions,[594]consistsinallegiancetotheshen(神),acharacterthatsignifiesthe"energiesofgeneration",whocanbedeitiesoftheenvironmentorancestralprinciplesofhumangroups,conceptsofcivility,cultureheroes,manyofwhomfeatureinChinesemythologyandhistory.[595]AmongthemostpopularcultsarethoseofMazu(goddessoftheseas),[596]Huangdi(oneofthetwodivinepatriarchsoftheChineserace),[596][597]Guandi(godofwarandbusiness),Caishen(godofprosperityandrichness),Panguandmanyothers.Chinaishometomanyoftheworld'stallestreligiousstatues,includingthetallestofall,theSpringTempleBuddhainHenan.[598] CleardataonreligiousaffiliationinChinaisdifficulttogatherduetovaryingdefinitionsof"religion"andtheunorganized,diffusivenatureofChinesereligioustraditions.ScholarsnotethatinChinathereisnoclearboundarybetweenthreeteachingsreligionsandlocalfolkreligiouspractice.[592]A2015pollconductedbyGallupInternationalfoundthat61%ofChinesepeopleself-identifiedas"convincedatheist",[599]thoughitisworthwhiletonotethatChinesereligionsorsomeoftheirstrandsaredefinableasnon-theisticandhumanisticreligions,sincetheydonotbelievethatdivinecreativityiscompletelytranscendent,butitisinherentintheworldandinparticularinthehumanbeing.[600]Accordingtoa2014study,approximately74%areeithernon-religiousorpracticeChinesefolkbelief,16%areBuddhists,2%areChristians,1%areMuslims,and8%adheretootherreligionsincludingTaoistsandfolksalvationism.[601][602]InadditiontoHanpeople'slocalreligiouspractices,therearealsovariousethnicminoritygroupsinChinawhomaintaintheirtraditionalautochthonereligions.Thevariousfolkreligionstodaycomprise2–3%ofthepopulation,whileConfucianismasareligiousself-identificationiscommonwithintheintellectualclass.SignificantfaithsspecificallyconnectedtocertainethnicgroupsincludeTibetanBuddhismandtheIslamicreligionoftheHui,Uyghur,Kazakh,KyrgyzandotherpeoplesinNorthwestChina.[citationneeded]The2010populationcensusreportedthetotalnumberofMuslimsinthecountryas23.14million.[603] A2021pollfromIpsosandthePolicyInstituteatKing'sCollegeLondonfoundthat35%ofChinesepeoplesaidtherewastensionbetweendifferentreligiousgroups,whichwasthesecondlowestpercentageofthe28countriessurveyed.[604][605] Culture Mainarticles:ChinesecultureandCultureofthePeople'sRepublicofChina TheTempleofHeaven,acenterofheavenworshipandanUNESCOWorldHeritagesite,symbolizestheInteractionsBetweenHeavenandMankind.[606] FenghuangCounty,anancienttownthatharborsmanyarchitecturalremainsofMingandQingstyles. Sinceancienttimes,ChineseculturehasbeenheavilyinfluencedbyConfucianism.Formuchofthecountry'sdynasticera,opportunitiesforsocialadvancementcouldbeprovidedbyhighperformanceintheprestigiousimperialexaminations,whichhavetheiroriginsintheHandynasty.[607]TheliteraryemphasisoftheexamsaffectedthegeneralperceptionofculturalrefinementinChina,suchasthebeliefthatcalligraphy,poetryandpaintingwerehigherformsofartthandancingordrama.Chineseculturehaslongemphasizedasenseofdeephistoryandalargelyinward-lookingnationalperspective.[608]ExaminationsandacultureofmeritremaingreatlyvaluedinChinatoday.[609] AMoongateinaChinesegarden. ThefirstleadersofthePeople'sRepublicofChinawerebornintothetraditionalimperialorderbutwereinfluencedbytheMayFourthMovementandreformistideals.TheysoughttochangesometraditionalaspectsofChineseculture,suchasrurallandtenure,sexism,andtheConfuciansystemofeducation,whilepreservingothers,suchasthefamilystructureandcultureofobediencetothestate.SomeobserversseetheperiodfollowingtheestablishmentofthePRCin1949asacontinuationoftraditionalChinesedynastichistory,whileothersclaimthattheCommunistParty'srulehasdamagedthefoundationsofChineseculture,especiallythroughpoliticalmovementssuchastheCulturalRevolutionofthe1960s,wheremanyaspectsoftraditionalcultureweredestroyed,havingbeendenouncedas"regressiveandharmful"or"vestigesoffeudalism".ManyimportantaspectsoftraditionalChinesemoralsandculture,suchasConfucianism,art,literature,andperformingartslikePekingopera,[610]werealteredtoconformtogovernmentpoliciesandpropagandaatthetime.Accesstoforeignmediaremainsheavilyrestricted.[611] Today,theChinesegovernmenthasacceptednumerouselementsoftraditionalChinesecultureasbeingintegraltoChinesesociety.WiththeriseofChinesenationalismandtheendoftheCulturalRevolution,variousformsoftraditionalChineseart,literature,music,film,fashionandarchitecturehaveseenavigorousrevival,[612][613]andfolkandvarietyartinparticularhavesparkedinterestnationallyandevenworldwide.[614] Tourism Mainarticles:TourisminChinaandListofWorldHeritageSitesinChina Chinareceived55.7 millioninboundinternationalvisitorsin2010,[615]andin2012wasthethird-most-visitedcountryintheworld.[616]Italsoexperiencesanenormousvolumeofdomestictourism;anestimated740millionChineseholidaymakerstraveledwithinthecountryinOctober2012.[617]Chinahoststheworld'ssecond-largestnumberofWorldHeritageSites(56)afterItaly,andisoneofthemostpopulartouristdestinationsintheworld(firstintheAsia-Pacific). Literature Mainarticle:Chineseliterature ThestoriesinJourneytotheWestarecommonthemesinPekingopera. ChineseliteratureisbasedontheliteratureoftheZhoudynasty.[618]ConceptscoveredwithintheChineseclassictextspresentawiderangeofthoughtsandsubjectsincludingcalendar,military,astrology,herbology,geographyandmanyothers.[619]SomeofthemostimportantearlytextsincludetheIChingandtheShujingwithintheFourBooksandFiveClassicswhichservedastheConfucianauthoritativebooksforthestate-sponsoredcurriculumindynasticera.[620]InheritedfromtheClassicofPoetry,classicalChinesepoetrydevelopedtoitsfloruitduringtheTangdynasty.LiBaiandDuFuopenedtheforkingwaysforthepoeticcirclesthroughromanticismandrealismrespectively.[621]ChinesehistoriographybeganwiththeShiji,theoverallscopeofthehistoriographicaltraditioninChinaistermedtheTwenty-FourHistories,whichsetavaststageforChinesefictionsalongwithChinesemythologyandfolklore.[622]PushedbyaburgeoningcitizenclassintheMingdynasty,Chineseclassicalfictionrosetoaboomofthehistorical,townandgodsanddemonsfictionsasrepresentedbytheFourGreatClassicalNovelswhichincludeWaterMargin,RomanceoftheThreeKingdoms,JourneytotheWestandDreamoftheRedChamber.[623]AlongwiththewuxiafictionsofJinYongandLiangYusheng,[624]itremainsanenduringsourceofpopularcultureintheEastAsianculturalsphere.[625] InthewakeoftheNewCultureMovementaftertheendoftheQingdynasty,ChineseliteratureembarkedonanewerawithwrittenvernacularChineseforordinarycitizens.HuShihandLuXunwerepioneersinmodernliterature.[626]Variousliterarygenres,suchasmistypoetry,scarliterature,youngadultfictionandthexungenliterature,whichisinfluencedbymagicrealism,[627]emergedfollowingtheCulturalRevolution.MoYan,axungenliteratureauthor,wasawardedtheNobelPrizeinLiteraturein2012.[628] Cuisine Mainarticle:Chinesecuisine MapshowingmajorregionalcuisinesofChina Chinesecuisineishighlydiverse,drawingonseveralmillenniaofculinaryhistoryandgeographicalvariety,inwhichthemostinfluentialareknownasthe"EightMajorCuisines",includingSichuan,Cantonese,Jiangsu,Shandong,Fujian,Hunan,Anhui,andZhejiangcuisines.[629]Allofthemarefeaturedbythepreciseskillsofshaping,heating,andflavoring.[630][better source needed]Chinesecuisineisalsoknownforitswidthofcookingmethodsandingredients,[631]aswellasfoodtherapythatisemphasizedbytraditionalChinesemedicine.[632][better source needed]Generally,China'sstaplefoodisriceinthesouth,wheat-basedbreadsandnoodlesinthenorth.Thedietofthecommonpeopleinpre-moderntimeswaslargelygrainandsimplevegetables,withmeatreservedforspecialoccasions.Thebeanproducts,suchastofuandsoymilk,remainasapopularsourceofprotein.[633]PorkisnowthemostpopularmeatinChina,accountingforaboutthree-fourthsofthecountry'stotalmeatconsumption.[634]Whileporkdominatesthemeatmarket,thereisalsothevegetarianBuddhistcuisineandthepork-freeChineseIslamiccuisine.Southerncuisine,duetothearea'sproximitytotheoceanandmilderclimate,hasawidevarietyofseafoodandvegetables;itdiffersinmanyrespectsfromthewheat-baseddietsacrossdrynorthernChina.NumerousoffshootsofChinesefood,suchasHongKongcuisineandAmericanChinesefood,haveemergedinthenationsthatplayhosttotheChinesediaspora.[citationneeded] Music Mainarticles:MusicofChina,C-pop,andChineseopera Chinesemusiccoversahighlydiverserangeofmusicfromtraditionalmusictomodernmusic.Chinesemusicdatesbackbeforethepre-imperialtimes.TraditionalChinesemusicalinstrumentsweretraditionallygroupedintoeightcategoriesknownasbayin(八音).TraditionalChineseoperaisaformofmusicaltheatreinChinaoriginatingthousandsofyearsandhasregionalstyleformssuchasBeijingoperaandCantoneseopera.[635]Chinesepop(C-Pop)includesmandopopandcantopop.Chineserap,ChinesehiphopandHongKonghiphophavebecomepopularincontemporarytimes.[636] Cinema Mainarticle:CinemaofChina CinemawasfirstintroducedtoChinain1896andthefirstChinesefilm,DingjunMountain,wasreleasedin1905.[637]Chinahasthelargestnumberofmoviescreensintheworldsince2016,[638]Chinabecamethelargestcinemamarketintheworldin2020.[639][640]Thetop3highest-grossingfilmsinChinacurrentlyareWolfWarrior2(2017),NeZha(2019),andTheWanderingEarth(2019).[641] Fashion Mainarticles:FashioninChinaandHanfu HanfuisthehistoricalclothingoftheHanpeopleinChina.TheqipaoorcheongsamisapopularChinesefemaledress.[642]ThehanfumovementhasbeenpopularincontemporarytimesandseekstorevitalizeHanfuclothing.[643] Sports Mainarticles:SportinChinaandChinaattheOlympics Chinahasoneoftheoldestsportingculturesintheworld.Thereisevidencethatarchery(shèjiàn)waspracticedduringtheWesternZhoudynasty.Swordplay(jiànshù)andcuju,asportlooselyrelatedtoassociationfootball[644]datebacktoChina'searlydynastiesaswell.[645] Goisanabstractstrategyboardgamefortwoplayers,inwhichtheaimistosurroundmoreterritorythantheopponentandwasinventedinChinamorethan2,500yearsago. PhysicalfitnessiswidelyemphasizedinChineseculture,withmorningexercisessuchasqigongandt'aichich'uanwidelypracticed,[646]andcommercialgymsandprivatefitnessclubsaregainingpopularityacrossthecountry.[647]BasketballiscurrentlythemostpopularspectatorsportinChina.[648]TheChineseBasketballAssociationandtheAmericanNationalBasketballAssociationhaveahugefollowingamongthepeople,withnativeorethnicChineseplayerssuchasYaoMingandYiJianlianheldinhighesteem.[649]China'sprofessionalfootballleague,nowknownasChineseSuperLeague,wasestablishedin1994,itisthelargestfootballmarketinAsia.[650]Otherpopularsportsinthecountryincludemartialarts,tabletennis,badminton,swimmingandsnooker.Boardgamessuchasgo(knownaswéiqíinChinese),xiangqi,mahjong,andmorerecentlychess,arealsoplayedataprofessionallevel.[651]Inaddition,Chinaishometoahugenumberofcyclists,withanestimated470millionbicyclesasof2012[update].[477]Manymoretraditionalsports,suchasdragonboatracing,Mongolian-stylewrestlingandhorseracingarealsopopular.[652] ChinahasparticipatedintheOlympicGamessince1932,althoughithasonlyparticipatedasthePRCsince1952.Chinahostedthe2008SummerOlympicsinBeijing,whereitsathletesreceived48goldmedals–thehighestnumberofgoldmedalsofanyparticipatingnationthatyear.[653]Chinaalsowonthemostmedalsofanynationatthe2012SummerParalympics,with231overall,including95goldmedals.[654][655]In2011,ShenzheninGuangdong,Chinahostedthe2011SummerUniversiade.Chinahostedthe2013EastAsianGamesinTianjinandthe2014SummerYouthOlympicsinNanjing;thefirstcountrytohostbothregularandYouthOlympics.BeijinganditsnearbycityZhangjiakouofHebeiprovincecollaborativelyhostedthe2022OlympicWinterGames,makingBeijingthefirstdualolympiccityintheworldbyholdingboththeSummerOlympicsandtheWinterOlympics.[656][657] Seealso Chinaportal Asiaportal OutlineofChina ChinaandtheInternationalMonetaryFund Notes ^ChineseandEnglisharetheofficiallanguagesinHongKongSARonly.ChineseandPortuguesearetheofficiallanguagesinMacauSARonly. ^IntheHongKongSARTraditionalChinesecharactersandEnglishalphabetareused,IntheMacauSARTraditionalChinesecharactersandPortugueseorthographyareused,InInnerMongoliatheMongolianscriptisusedalongsidesimplifiedChinese,IntheTibetAutonomousRegiontheTibetanscriptisusedalongsidesimplifiedChinese,InXinjiangtheUyghurArabicalphabetisusedalongsidesimplifiedChinese,InGuangxiandWenshanPrefecturetheLatinalphabetisusedalongsidesimplifiedChinese,IntheYanbianKoreanAutonomousPrefectureChosŏn'gŭlisusedalongsidesimplifiedChinese. ^AlthoughPRCPresidentisheadofstate,itisalargelyceremonialofficewithlimitedpowerunderCCPGeneralSecretary. ^Includingbothstateandparty'scentralmilitarychairs. ^ChairmanoftheChinesePeople'sPoliticalConsultativeConference. ^TheareagivenistheofficialUnitedNationsfigureforthemainlandandexcludesHongKong,MacauandTaiwan.[5]ItalsoexcludestheTrans-KarakoramTract(5,180 km2(2,000 sq mi)),AksaiChin(38,000 km2(15,000 sq mi))andotherterritoriesindisputewithIndia.ThetotalareaofChinaislistedas9,572,900 km2(3,696,100 sq mi)bytheEncyclopædiaBritannica.[6]Forfurtherinformation,seeTerritorialchangesofthePeople'sRepublicofChina. ^ThisfigurewascalculatedusingdatafromtheCIAWorldFactbook.[8] ^HongKongdollarusedinHongKongandMacauMacanesepatacausedinMacauonly. ^ThetotalarearankingrelativetotheUnitedStatesdependsonthemeasurementofthetotalareasofbothcountries.SeeListofcountriesanddependenciesbyareaformoreinformation. Thefollowingtwoprimarysources(non-mirrored)representtherange(min./max.)ofestimatesofChina'sandtheUnitedStates'totalareas. Bothsources(1)excludeTaiwanfromtheareaofChina;(2)excludeChina'scoastalandterritorialwaters. However,theCIAWorldFactbookincludestheUnitedStatescoastalandterritorialwaters,whileEncyclopædiaBritannicaexcludestheUnitedStatescoastalandterritorialwaters. TheEncyclopædiaBritannicalistsChinaasworld'sthird-largestcountry(afterRussiaandCanada)withatotalareaof9,572,900km2,[14]andtheUnitedStatesasfourth-largestat9,525,067km2.[15]TheCIAWorldFactbooklistsChinaasfourth-largestcountry(afterRussia,CanadaandtheUnitedStates)withatotalareaof9,596,960km2,[16]andtheUnitedStatesasthethird-largestat9,833,517km2.[17] Notably,theEncyclopædiaBritannicaspecifiestheUnitedStates'area(excludingcoastalandterritorialwaters)as9,525,067km2,whichislessthaneithersource'sfiguregivenforChina'sarea.[15]Therefore,whileitcanbedeterminedthatChinahasalargerareaexcludingcoastalandterritorialwaters,itisunclearwhichcountryhasalargerareaincludingcoastalandterritorialwaters. TheUnitedNationsStatisticsDivision'sfigurefortheUnitedStatesis9,833,517 km2(3,796,742 sq mi)andChinais9,596,961 km2(3,705,407 sq mi).ThesecloselymatchtheCIAWorldFactbookfiguresandsimilarlyincludecoastalandterritorialwatersfortheUnitedStates,butexcludecoastalandterritorialwatersforChina. Furtherexplanationofdisputedranking:Thedisputeaboutwhichistheworld'sthird-largestcountryarosefromtheinclusionofcoastalandterritorialwatersfortheUnitedStates.ThisdiscrepancywasdeducedfromcomparingtheCIAWorldFactbookanditspreviousiterations[18]againsttheinformationforUnitedStatesinEncyclopædiaBritannica,particularlyitsfootnotesection.[15]Insum,accordingtoolderversionsoftheCIAWorldFactbook(from1982to1996),theU.S.waslistedastheworld'sfourth-largestcountry(afterRussia,Canada,andChina)withatotalareaof9,372,610 km2(3,618,780 sq mi).However,inthe1997edition,theU.S.addedcoastalwaterstoitstotalarea(increasingitto9,629,091 km2(3,717,813 sq mi)).Andthenagainin2007,U.S.addedterritorialwatertoitstotalarea(increasingitto9,833,517 km2(3,796,742 sq mi)).Duringthistime,China'stotalarearemainedunchanged.Inotherwords,nocoastalorterritorialwaterareawasaddedtoChina'stotalareafigure.TheUnitedStateshasacoastalwaterareaof109,362 km2(42,225 sq mi),andaterritorialwaterareaof195,213 km2(75,372 sq mi),foratotalof304,575 km2(117,597 sq mi)ofadditionalwaterspace.ThisislargerthanentirecountrieslikeItaly,NewZealandandtheUnitedKingdom.AddingthisfiguretotheU.S.willboostitoverChinainrankingsinceChina'scoastalandterritorialwaterfiguresarecurrentlyunknown(noofficialpublication)andthuscannotbeaddedintoChina'stotalareafigure. ^Thedisputed23rdprovinceofTaiwanisclaimedbythePeople'sRepublicofChinabutitdoesnotadministerit.See§ Administrativedivisions ^TheKMTsolelygovernedtheislanduntilitstransitiontodemocracyin1996. ^"[...]Nextvntothis,isfoundthegreatChina,whosekyngisthoughttobeethegreatestprinceintheworlde,andisnamedSantoaRaia".[20][21] ^"[...]TheVeryGreatKingdomofChina".[22](Portuguese:...OGrandeReinodaChina...).[23] ^Althoughthisisthepresentmeaningofguó,inOldChinese(whenitspronunciationwassomethinglike/*qʷˤək/)[29]itmeantthewalledcityoftheChineseandtheareastheycouldcontrolfromthem.[30] ^ItsearliestextantuseisontheritualbronzevesselHezun,whereitapparentlyreferstoonlytheShang'simmediatedemesneconqueredbytheZhou.[31] ^Itsmeaning"Zhou'sroyaldemesne"isattestedfromthe6th-centuryBCClassicofHistory,whichstates"Huangtianbestowedthelandsandthepeoplesofthecentralstatetotheancestors"(皇天既付中國民越厥疆土于先王).[32] ^OwingtoQinShiHuang'searlierpolicyinvolvingthe"burningofbooksandburyingofscholars",thedestructionoftheconfiscatedcopiesatXianyangwasaneventsimilartothedestructionsoftheLibraryofAlexandriainthewest.Eventhosetextsthatdidsurvivehadtobepainstakinglyreconstructedfrommemory,luck,orforgery.[58]TheOldTextsoftheFiveClassicsweresaidtohavebeenfoundhiddeninawallattheKongresidenceinQufu.MeiZe's"rediscovered"editionoftheBookofDocumentswasonlyshowntobeaforgeryintheQingdynasty. ^ChinaislargerthanCanadaandtheUnitedStatesintermsoflandarea. ^AccordingtotheEncyclopædiaBritannica,thetotalareaoftheUnitedStates,at9,522,055 km2(3,676,486 sq mi),isslightlysmallerthanthatofChina.Meanwhile,theCIAWorldFactbookstatesthatChina'stotalareawasgreaterthanthatoftheUnitedStatesuntilthecoastalwatersoftheGreatLakeswasaddedtotheUnitedStates'totalareain1996.From1989through1996,thetotalareaofUSwaslistedas9,372,610 km2(3,618,780 sq mi)(landareaplusinlandwateronly).Thelistedtotalareachangedto9,629,091 km2(3,717,813 sq mi)in1997(withtheGreatLakesareasandthecoastalwatersadded),to9,631,418 km2(3,718,711 sq mi)in2004,to9,631,420 km2(3,718,710 sq mi)in2006,andto9,826,630 km2(3,794,080 sq mi)in2007(territorialwatersadded). ^China'sborderwithPakistanandpartofitsborderwithIndiafallsinthedisputedregionofKashmir.TheareaunderPakistaniadministrationisclaimedbyIndia,whiletheareaunderIndianadministrationisclaimedbyPakistan. ^Tsung-DaoLee,[427]ChenNingYang,[427]DanielC.Tsui,[428]CharlesK.Kao,[429]YuanT.Lee,[430]TuYouyou[431]Shing-TungYau[432] 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Furtherreading Foramorecomprehensivelist,seeBibliographyofChinesehistory. Farah,Paolo(2006)."FiveYearsofChina'sWTOMembership:EUandUSPerspectivesonChina'sCompliancewithTransparencyCommitmentsandtheTransitionalReviewMechanism".LegalIssuesofEconomicIntegration.KluwerLawInternational.Volume33,Number3.pp. 263–304.Abstract. Heilig,GerhardK.(2006/2007).ChinaBibliography–OnlineArchived5November2015attheWaybackMachine.China-Profile.com. Jacques,Martin(2009).WhenChinaRulestheWorld:TheEndoftheWesternWorldandtheBirthofaNewGlobalOrder.PenguinBooks.Rev.ed.(28August2012).ISBN 978-1-59420-185-1 Jaffe,AmyMyers,"GreenGiant:RenewableEnergyandChinesePower",ForeignAffairs,vol.97,no.2(March/April2018),pp. 83–93. Johnson,Ian,"WhatHoldsChinaTogether?",TheNewYorkReviewofBooks,vol.LXVI,no.14(26September2019),pp. 14,16,18."TheManchus...had[in1644]conqueredthelastethnicChineseempire,theMing[andestablishedImperialChina'slastdynasty,theQing]...TheManchusexpandedtheempire'sbordersnorthwardtoincludeallofMongolia,andwestwardtoTibetandXinjiang."[p. 16.]"China'srulershavenofaiththatanythingbutforcecankeepthissprawlingcountryintact."[p. 18.] Lagerwey,John(2010).China:AReligiousState.HongKong:UniversityofHongKongPress.ISBN 978-988-8028-04-7. Meng,Fanhua(2011).PhenomenonofChineseCultureattheTurnofthe21stcentury.Singapore:SilkroadPress.ISBN 978-981-4332-35-4. SangYe(2006).ChinaCandid:ThePeopleonthePeople'sRepublic.UniversityofCaliforniaPress.ISBN 978-0-520-24514-3. Selden,Mark(1979).ThePeople'sRepublicofChina:DocumentaryHistoryofRevolutionaryChange.NewYork:MonthlyReviewPress.ISBN 978-0-85345-532-5. Shambaugh,DavidL.(2008).China'sCommunistParty:AtrophyandAdaptation.Washington,DC;Berkeley,CA:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.ISBN 978-0-520-25492-3. Externallinks ChinaatWikipedia'ssisterprojects DefinitionsfromWiktionaryMediafromCommonsNewsfromWikinewsQuotationsfromWikiquoteTravelguidesfromWikivoyageResourcesfromWikiversity LibraryresourcesaboutChina Resourcesinyourlibrary Resourcesinotherlibraries Government TheCentralPeople'sGovernmentofPeople'sRepublicofChina(inEnglish) Generalinformation ChinaataGlancefromPeople'sDaily Countryprofile–ChinaatBBCNews China.TheWorldFactbook.CentralIntelligenceAgency. 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OfficiallytheRepublicofChina,participatesas"SeparateCustomsTerritoryofTaiwan,Penghu,KinmenandMatsu",and"ChineseTaipei"inshort.  Worldportal vteAsia-PacificEconomicCooperation(APEC)Nations Australia Brunei Canada Chile China HongKong¹ Indonesia Japan SouthKorea Malaysia Mexico NewZealand PapuaNewGuinea Peru Philippines Russia Singapore Taiwan² Thailand UnitedStates Vietnam Summits 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 Other APECBusinessTravelCard APECblue APECClimateCenter APECSculptureGarden APECYouthScienceFestival 1.AspecialadministrativeregionofChina,participatesas"HongKong,China";2.Officially,theRepublicofChina,participatesas"ChineseTaipei" vteShanghaiCooperationOrganisation(SCO)Summits Beijing2012 Dushanbe2014 Astana2017 Memberstates China India Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Pakistan Russia Tajikistan Uzbekistan Observerstates Afghanistan Belarus Iran Mongolia Dialoguepartners Armenia Azerbaijan Cambodia Nepal SriLanka Turkey Guests ASEAN CommonwealthofIndependentStates Turkmenistan UnitedNations Seealso Memberstates ThreeEvils SCOInterbankConsortium EurasianLandBridge Workinglanguages Chinese Russian vteStateswithlimitedrecognitionDetailsconcerninginternationalrecognitionandforeignrelationsprovidedbythearticleslinkedinparenthesisUNmemberstatesPartiallyunrecognised RepublicofArmenia relations People'sRepublicofChina relations RepublicofCyprus relations StateofIsrael recognition relations DemocraticPeople'sRepublicofKorea relations RepublicofKorea relations UNGAobserverstatesPartiallyunrecognised StateofPalestine recognition relations Non-UNmemberstatesRecognisedbyatleastoneUNmember RepublicofAbkhazia recognition relations RepublicofChina relations TurkishRepublicofNorthernCyprus relations DonetskPeople'sRepublic recognition RepublicofKosovo recognition relations LuhanskPeople'sRepublic recognition SahrawiArabDemocraticRepublic recognition relations RepublicofSouthOssetia recognition relations Recognisedonlybynon-UNmembers RepublicofArtsakh recognition relations PridnestrovianMoldavianRepublic recognition relations Unrecognised RepublicofSomaliland relations vteProvincial-leveldivisionsofChinaProvinces Anhui Fujian Gansu Guangdong Guizhou Hainan Hebei Heilongjiang Henan Hubei Hunan Jiangsu Jiangxi Jilin Liaoning Qinghai Shaanxi Shandong Shanxi Sichuan Yunnan Zhejiang Autonomousregions Guangxi InnerMongolia Ningxia Tibet Xinjiang Direct-administeredmunicipalities Beijing Chongqing Shanghai Tianjin Specialadministrativeregions HongKong Macao Disputedprovince Taiwan1 1TaiwanisclaimedbythePeople'sRepublicofChinabutadministeredbytheRepublicofChina(seepoliticalstatusofTaiwan). 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