Inflection - Wikipedia

Lexicon of Linguistics articles Inflection FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Processofwordformation Forotheruses,seeInflection(disambiguation). Thisarticleincludesalistofgeneralreferences,butitlackssufficientcorrespondinginlinecitations.Pleasehelptoimprovethisarticlebyintroducingmoreprecisecitations.(June2019)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) Grammaticalfeatures Relatedtonouns Animacy Case Dativeconstruction Dativeshift Quirkysubject Classifier Measureword Constructstate Countability Countnoun Massnoun Collectivenoun Definiteness Gender Genitiveconstruction Possession Suffixaufnahme(casestacking) Nounclass Number SingularDualPlural Singulative-Collective-Plurative Specificity Universalgrinder Relatedtoverbs Associatedmotion Clusivity Conjugation Evidentiality Modality Person Telicity Tense–aspect–mood Grammaticalaspect Lexicalaspect(Aktionsart) Mood Tense Voice Generalfeatures Affect Boundedness Comparison(degree) Pluractionality(verbalnumber) Honorifics(politeness) Polarity Reciprocity Reflexivepronoun Reflexiveverb Syntaxrelationships Argument Transitivity Valency Branching Serialverbconstruction Traditionalgrammar Predicate Subject Object Adjunct Predicative Semantics Contrast Mirativity Thematicrelation Agent Patient TopicandComment Focus Volition Veridicality Phenomena Agreement Polypersonalagreement Declension Emptycategory Incorporation Inflection Markedness vte InflectionoftheScottishGaeliclexemefor"dog",whichiscùforsingular,chùfordualwiththenumberdà("two"),andcoinforplural Inlinguisticmorphology,inflection(orinflexion)isaprocessofwordformation[1]inwhichawordismodifiedtoexpressdifferentgrammaticalcategoriessuchastense,case,voice,aspect,person,number,gender,mood,animacy,anddefiniteness.[2]Theinflectionofverbsiscalledconjugation,andonecanrefertotheinflectionofnouns,adjectives,adverbs,pronouns,determiners,participles,prepositionsandpostpositions,numerals,articles,etc.,asdeclension. Aninflectionexpressesgrammaticalcategorieswithaffixation(suchasprefix,suffix,infix,circumfix,andtransfix),apophony(asIndo-Europeanablaut),orothermodifications.[3]Forexample,theLatinverbducam,meaning"Iwilllead",includesthesuffix-am,expressingperson(first),number(singular),andtense-mood(futureindicativeorpresentsubjunctive).Theuseofthissuffixisaninflection.Incontrast,intheEnglishclause"Iwilllead",thewordleadisnotinflectedforanyofperson,number,ortense;itissimplythebareformofaverb.Theinflectedformofawordoftencontainsbothoneormorefreemorphemes(aunitofmeaningwhichcanstandbyitselfasaword),andoneormoreboundmorphemes(aunitofmeaningwhichcannotstandaloneasaword).Forexample,theEnglishwordcarsisanounthatisinflectedfornumber,specificallytoexpresstheplural;thecontentmorphemecarisunboundbecauseitcouldstandaloneasaword,whilethesuffix-sisboundbecauseitcannotstandaloneasaword.Thesetwomorphemestogetherformtheinflectedwordcars. Wordsthatareneversubjecttoinflectionaresaidtobeinvariant;forexample,theEnglishverbmustisaninvariantitem:itnevertakesasuffixorchangesformtosignifyadifferentgrammaticalcategory.Itscategoriescanbedeterminedonlyfromitscontext.Languagesthatseldommakeuseofinflection,suchasEnglish,aresaidtobeanalytic.Analyticlanguagesthatdonotmakeuseofderivationalmorphemes,suchasStandardChinese,aresaidtobeisolating. Requiringtheformsorinflectionsofmorethanonewordinasentencetobecompatiblewitheachotheraccordingtotherulesofthelanguageisknownasconcordoragreement.Forexample,in"themanjumps","man"isasingularnoun,so"jump"isconstrainedinthepresenttensetousethethirdpersonsingularsuffix"s".Thesentence"themanjump"isnotgrammaticallycorrectinEnglish. Languagesthathavesomedegreeofinflectionaresyntheticlanguages.Thesecanbehighlyinflected(suchasLatin,Greek,BiblicalHebrew,andSanskrit),orslightlyinflected(suchasEnglish,Dutch,Persian).Languagesthataresoinflectedthatasentencecanconsistofasinglehighlyinflectedword(suchasmanyNativeAmericanlanguages)arecalledpolysyntheticlanguages.Languagesinwhicheachinflectionconveysonlyasinglegrammaticalcategory,suchasFinnish,areknownasagglutinativelanguages,whilelanguagesinwhichasingleinflectioncanconveymultiplegrammaticalroles(suchasbothnominativecaseandplural,asinLatinandGerman)arecalledfusional. Contents 1ExamplesinEnglish 2Regularandirregularinflection 3Declensionandconjugation 3.1Inflectionalparadigm 4Comparedtoderivation 5Inflectionalmorphology 5.1Inflectionthroughreduplication 5.2Inflectionthroughtonechange 6Invariouslanguages 6.1Indo-Europeanlanguages(fusional) 6.1.1English 6.1.2Scandinavianlanguages 6.1.3OtherGermaniclanguages 6.1.4LatinandtheRomancelanguages 6.1.5Balticlanguages 6.1.6Slaviclanguages 6.2Arabic(fusional) 6.3Uraliclanguages(agglutinative) 6.4Altaiclanguages(agglutinative) 6.5Basque(agglutinativenominalinflection/fusionalverbinflection) 6.6MainlandSoutheastAsianlanguages(isolating) 6.6.1Chinese 6.7Japanese(agglutinative) 6.8Auxiliarylanguages 6.8.1Esperanto 6.8.2Ido 6.8.3Interlingua 7Seealso 8Notes 9Citations 9.1Footnotes 9.2References 10Furtherreading 11Externallinks 11.1SILarticles 11.2LexiconofLinguisticsarticles ExamplesinEnglish[edit] InEnglishmostnounsareinflectedfornumberwiththeinflectionalpluralaffix-s(asin"dog"→"dog-s"),andmostEnglishverbsareinflectedfortensewiththeinflectionalpasttenseaffix-ed(asin"call"→"call-ed").Englishalsoinflectsverbsbyaffixationtomarkthethirdpersonsingularinthepresenttense(with-s),andthepresentparticiple(with-ing).Englishshortadjectivesareinflectedtomarkcomparativeandsuperlativeforms(with-erand-estrespectively). TherearenineinflectionalaffixesintheEnglishlanguage.[citationneeded] InflectionalaffixesinEnglish Affix Grammaticalcategory Mark Partofspeech -s Number plural nouns -'s/'/s Case genitive nounsandnounphrases,pronouns(marksindependentgenitive) -self Case reflexive pronouns -ing Aspect progressive verbs -en/-ed Aspect perfect verbs -ed Tense past(simple) verbs -s Person,number,aspect,tense 3rdpersonsingularpresent(simple) verbs -er Degreeofcomparison comparative adjectivesandadverbs -est Degreeofcomparison superlative adjectivesandadverbs Despitethemarchtowardregularization,modernEnglishretainstracesofitsancestry,withaminorityofitswordsstillusinginflectionbyablaut(soundchange,mostlyinverbs)andumlaut(aparticulartypeofsoundchange,mostlyinnouns),aswellaslong-shortvowelalternation.Forexample: Write,wrote,written(markingbyablautvariation,andalsosuffixingintheparticiple) Sing,sang,sung(ablaut) Foot,feet(markingbyumlautvariation) Mouse,mice(umlaut) Child,children(ablaut,andalsosuffixingintheplural) Fordetails,seeEnglishplural,Englishverbs,andEnglishirregularverbs. Regularandirregularinflection[edit] Whenagivenwordclassissubjecttoinflectioninaparticularlanguage,therearegenerallyoneormorestandardpatternsofinflection(theparadigmsdescribedbelow)thatwordsinthatclassmayfollow.Wordswhichfollowsuchastandardpatternaresaidtoberegular;thosethatinflectdifferentlyarecalledirregular. Forinstance,manylanguagesthatfeatureverbinflectionhavebothregularverbsandirregularverbs.InEnglish,regularverbsformtheirpasttenseandpastparticiplewiththeending-[e]d;thusverbslikeplay,arriveandenterareregular.However,thereareafewhundredverbswhichfollowdifferentpatterns,suchassing–sang–sungandkeep–kept–kept;thesearedescribedasirregular.Irregularverbsoftenpreservepatternswhichwereregularinpastformsofthelanguage,butwhichhavenowbecomeanomalous;inrarecases,thereareregularverbsthatwereirregularinpastformsofthelanguage.(FormoredetailsseeEnglishverbsandEnglishirregularverbs.) Othertypesofirregularinflectedformincludeirregularpluralnouns,suchastheEnglishmice,childrenandwomen(seeEnglishplural)andtheFrenchyeux(thepluralofœil,"eye");andirregularcomparativeandsuperlativeformsofadjectivesoradverbs,suchastheEnglishbetterandbest(whichcorrespondtothepositiveformgoodorwell). Irregularitiescanhavefourbasiccauses: euphony:Regularinflectionwouldresultinformsthatsoundestheticallyunpleasingoraredifficulttopronounce(Englishfar→fartherorfurther,Spanishtener→tengo,tendrévs.comer→como,comeré,Portuguesevs.Spanishandar→Portugueseandaramvs.Spanishanduvieron). principalparts:Thesearegenerallyconsideredtohavebeenformedindependentlyofoneanother,sothestudentmustmemorizethemwhenlearninganewword.Example:Latindīcō,dīcere,dīxī,dictum→Spanishdigo,decir,dije,dicho. strongvs.weakinflection:Insomecases,twoinflectionsystemsexist,conventionallyclassifiedas"strong"and"weak."Forinstance,EnglishandGermanhaveweakverbsthatformthepasttenseandpastparticiplebyaddinganending(Englishjump→jumped,Germanmachen→machte)andstrongverbsthatchangevowel,andinsomecasesformthepastparticiplebyadding-en(Englishswim→swam,swum,Germanschwimmen→schwamm,geschwommen).AncientGreekverbsarelikewisesaidtohavehadafirstaorist(ἔλῡσα)andasecondaorist(ἔλιπον). suppletion:The"irregular"formwasoriginallyderivedfromadifferentroot(Englishperson→people).Thecomparativeandsuperlativeformsofgoodinmanylanguagesdisplaythisphenomenon. Formoredetailsonsomeoftheconsiderationsthatapplytoregularlyandirregularlyinflectedforms,seethearticleonregularandirregularverbs. Declensionandconjugation[edit] Mainarticles:DeclensionandGrammaticalconjugation Twotraditionalgrammaticaltermsrefertoinflectionsofspecificwordclasses: Inflectinganoun,pronoun,adjective,adverb,articleordeterminerisknownasdecliningit.Theformsmayexpressnumber,case,genderordegreeofcomparison. Inflectingaverbiscalledconjugatingit.Theformsmayexpresstense,mood,voice,aspect,person,ornumber. Anorganizedlistoftheinflectedformsofagivenlexemeorrootwordiscalleditsdeclensionifitisanoun,oritsconjugationifitisaverb. BelowisthedeclensionoftheEnglishpronounI,whichisinflectedforcaseandnumber. singular plural nominative I we oblique me us possessivedeterminer my our possessivepronoun mine ours reflexive myself ourselves Thepronounwhoisalsoinflectedaccordingtocase.Itsdeclensionisdefective,inthesensethatitlacksareflexiveform. singularandplural nominative who oblique whom(traditional),who(informal) possessive whose reflexive – Thefollowingtableshowstheconjugationoftheverbtoarriveintheindicativemood:suffixesinflectitforperson,number,andtense: Tense I you he,she,it we you they Present arrive arrive arrives arrive arrive arrive Past arrived arrived arrived arrived arrived arrived Thenon-finiteformsarrive(bareinfinitive),arrived(pastparticiple)andarriving(gerund/presentparticiple),althoughnotinflectedforpersonornumber,canalsoberegardedaspartoftheconjugationoftheverbtoarrive.Compoundverbforms,suchasIhavearrived,Ihadarrived,orIwillarrive,canbeincludedalsointheconjugationoftheverbfordidacticpurposes,buttheyarenotovertinflectionsofarrive.Theformulaforderivingthecovertform,inwhichtherelevantinflectionsdonotoccurinthemainverb,is pronoun+conjugatedauxiliaryverb+non-finiteformofmainverb. Inflectionalparadigm[edit] Aninflectionalparadigmreferstoapattern(usuallyasetofinflectionalendings),whereaclassofwordsfollowthesamepattern.Nominalinflectionalparadigmsarecalleddeclensions,andverbalinflectionalparadigmsaretermedconjugations.Forinstance,therearefivetypesofLatindeclension.Wordsthatbelongtothefirstdeclensionusuallyendin-aandareusuallyfeminine.Thesewordsshareacommoninflectionalframework.InOldEnglish,nounsaredividedintotwomajorcategoriesofdeclension,thestrongandweakones,asshownbelow: genderandnumber Masculine Neuter Feminine Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural case Strongnoundeclension engel'angel' scip'ship' sorg'sorrow' Nominative engel englas scip scipu sorg sorga Accusative engel englas scip scipu sorge sorga/sorge Genitive engles engla scipes scipa sorge sorga Dative engle englum scipe scipum sorge sorgum case Weaknoundeclension nama'name' ēage'eye' tunge'tongue' Nominative nama naman ēage ēagan tunge tungan Accusative naman naman ēage ēagan tungan tungan Genitive naman namena ēagan ēagena tungan tungena Dative naman namum ēagan ēagum tungan tungum Theterms"strongdeclension"and"weakdeclension"areprimarilyrelevanttowell-knowndependent-markinglanguages[citationneeded](suchastheIndo-Europeanlanguages,[citationneeded]orJapanese).Independent-markinglanguages,nounsinadpositional(prepositionalorpostpositional)phrasescancarryinflectionalmorphemes. Inhead-markinglanguages,theadpositionscancarrytheinflectioninadpositionalphrases.Thismeansthattheselanguageswillhaveinflectedadpositions.InWesternApache(SanCarlosdialect),thepostposition-ká’'on'isinflectedforpersonandnumberwithprefixes: Singular Dual Plural 1st shi-ká onme noh-ká onustwo da-noh-ká 'onus' 2nd ni-ká onyou nohwi-ká 'onyoutwo' da-nohwi-ká 'onyouall' 3rd bi-ká 'onhim' – da-bi-ká 'onthem' Traditionalgrammarshavespecifictermsforinflectionsofnounsandverbsbutnotforthoseofadpositions.[clarificationneeded] Comparedtoderivation[edit] Mainarticle:Derivation(linguistics) Inflectionistheprocessofaddinginflectionalmorphemesthatmodifyaverb'stense,mood,aspect,voice,person,ornumberoranoun'scase,gender,ornumber,rarelyaffectingtheword'smeaningorclass.Examplesofapplyinginflectionalmorphemestowordsareadding-stotherootdogtoformdogsandadding-edtowaittoformwaited. Incontrast,derivationistheprocessofaddingderivationalmorphemes,whichcreateanewwordfromexistingwordsandchangethesemanticmeaningorthepartofspeechoftheaffectedword,suchasbychanginganountoaverb.[4] Distinctionsbetweenverbalmoodsaremainlyindicatedbyderivationalmorphemes. Wordsarerarelylistedindictionariesonthebasisoftheirinflectionalmorphemes(inwhichcasetheywouldbelexicalitems).However,theyoftenarelistedonthebasisoftheirderivationalmorphemes.Forinstance,Englishdictionarieslistreadableandreadability,wordswithderivationalsuffixes,alongwiththeirrootread.However,notraditionalEnglishdictionarylistsbookasoneentryandbooksasaseparateentry;thesamegoesforjumpandjumped. Inflectionalmorphology[edit] Languagesthataddinflectionalmorphemestowordsaresometimescalledinflectionallanguages,whichisasynonymforinflectedlanguages.Morphemesmaybeaddedinseveraldifferentways: Affixation,orsimplyaddingmorphemesontothewordwithoutchangingtheroot, Reduplication,doublingallorpartofawordtochangeitsmeaning, Alternation,exchangingonesoundforanotherintheroot(usuallyvowelsounds,asintheablautprocessfoundinGermanicstrongverbsandtheumlautoftenfoundinnouns,amongothers). Suprasegmentalvariations,suchasofstress,pitchortone,wherenosoundsareaddedorchangedbuttheintonationandrelativestrengthofeachsoundisalteredregularly.Foranexample,seeInitial-stress-derivednoun. Inflectionthroughreduplication[edit] Reduplicationisamorphologicalprocesswhereaconstituentisrepeated.Thedirectrepetitionofawordorrootiscalledtotalreduplication(orfullreduplication).Therepetitionofasegmentisreferredtoaspartialreduplication.Reduplicationcanservebothderivationalandinflectionalfunctions.Afewexamplesaregivenbelow: InflectionalReduplication Value Language Original Reduplicated Plurality Indonesian[5] buku'book' buku-buku'books' Distribution StandardChinese[6] ren24'person' ren24ren24'everyone' Intensity TaiwaneseHokkien[7] ang24'red' ang24ang24'reddish' Imperfective Ilokano[8] ag-bása'read' ag-basbása'reading' Inchoative Nukuoro[8] gohu'dark' gohu-gohu'gettingdark' Progressive Pazehlanguage[9] bazu’'wash' baabazu’'bewashing' Inflectionthroughtonechange[edit] PalancarandLéonardprovidedanexamplewithTlatepuzcoChinantec(anOto-MangueanlanguagespokeninSouthernMexico),wheretonesareabletodistinguishmood,person,andnumber:[10][11] Verbparadigmof'bend'inTlatepuzcoChinantec 1SG 1PL 2 3 Completive húʔ1 húʔ13 húʔ1 húʔ2 Incompletive húʔ12 húʔ12 húʔ12 húʔ2 Irrealis húʔ13 húʔ13 húʔ13 húʔ2 Casecanbedistinguishedwithtoneaswell,asinMaasailanguage(aNilo-SaharanlanguagespokeninKenyaandTanzania)(Hyman,2016):[12] CaseInflectioninMaasai gloss Nominative Accusative 'head' èlʊ̀kʊ̀nyá èlʊ́kʊ́nyá 'rat' èndérònì èndèrónì Invariouslanguages[edit] Indo-Europeanlanguages(fusional)[edit] BecausetheProto-Indo-Europeanlanguagewashighlyinflected,allofitsdescendantIndo-Europeanlanguages,suchasAlbanian,Armenian,English,German,Ukrainian,Russian,Persian,Kurdish,Italian,Irish,Spanish,French,Hindi,Marathi,Urdu,Bengali,andNepali,areinflectedtoagreaterorlesserextent.Ingeneral,olderIndo-EuropeanlanguagessuchasLatin,AncientGreek,OldEnglish,OldNorse,OldChurchSlavonicandSanskritareextensivelyinflectedbecauseoftheirtemporalproximitytoProto-Indo-European.DeflexionhascausedmodernversionsofsomeIndo-Europeanlanguagesthatwerepreviouslyhighlyinflectedtobemuchlessso;anexampleisModernEnglish,ascomparedtoOldEnglish.Ingeneral,languageswheredeflexionoccursreplaceinflectionalcomplexitywithmorerigorouswordorder,whichprovidesthelostinflectionaldetails.MostSlaviclanguagesandsomeIndo-AryanlanguagesareanexceptiontothegeneralIndo-Europeandeflexiontrend,continuingtobehighlyinflected(insomecasesacquiringadditionalinflectionalcomplexityandgrammaticalgenders,asinCzech&Marathi). English[edit] Furtherinformation:OldEnglishdeclension OldEnglishwasamoderatelyinflectedlanguage,usinganextensivecasesystemsimilartothatofmodernIcelandicorGerman.MiddleandModernEnglishlostprogressivelymoreoftheOldEnglishinflectionalsystem.ModernEnglishisconsideredaweaklyinflectedlanguage,sinceitsnounshaveonlyvestigesofinflection(plurals,thepronouns),anditsregularverbshaveonlyfourforms:aninflectedformforthepastindicativeandsubjunctive(looked),aninflectedformforthethird-person-singularpresentindicative(looks),aninflectedformforthepresentparticiple(looking),andanuninflectedformforeverythingelse(look).WhiletheEnglishpossessiveindicator's(asin"Jane'sbook")isaremnantoftheOldEnglishgenitivecasesuffix,itisnowconsideredbysyntacticiansnottobeasuffixbutaclitic,[13]althoughsomelinguistsarguethatithaspropertiesofboth.[14] Scandinavianlanguages[edit] OldNorsewasinflected,butmodernSwedish,Norwegian,andDanishhavelostmuchoftheirinflection.Grammaticalcasehaslargelydiedoutwiththeexceptionofpronouns,justlikeEnglish.However,adjectives,nouns,determinersandarticlesstillhavedifferentformsaccordingtogrammaticalnumberandgrammaticalgender.DanishandSwedishonlyinflectfortwodifferentgenderswhileNorwegianhastosomedegreeretainedthefeminineformsandinflectsforthreegrammaticalgenderslikeIcelandic.HoweverincomparisontoIcelandic,thereareconsiderablyfewerfeminineformsleftinthelanguage. Incomparison,IcelandicpreservesalmostalloftheinflectionsofOldNorseandremainsheavilyinflected.ItretainsallthegrammaticalcasesfromOldNorseandisinflectedfornumberandthreedifferentgrammaticalgenders.ThedualnumberformsarehoweveralmostcompletelylostincomparisontoOldNorse. UnlikeotherGermaniclanguages,nounsareinflectedfordefinitenessinallScandinavianlanguages,likeinthefollowingcaseforNorwegian(nynorsk): InflectionofnounsinNorwegian(nynorsk) Singular Plural Indefinite Definite Indefinite Definite masculine einbil bilen bilar bilane acar thecar cars thecars feminine eivogn vogna vogner vognene awagon thewagon wagons thewagons neuter eithus huset hus husa ahouse thehouse houses thehouses ArticlesinNorwegian(nynorsk) Singular Plural Indefinite Definite Indefinite Definite masculine ein -en -ar -ane feminine ei -a -er -ene neuter eit -et - -a AdjectivesandparticiplesarealsoinflectedfordefinitenessinallScandinavianlanguageslikeinProto-Germanic. OtherGermaniclanguages[edit] ModernGermanremainsmoderatelyinflected,retainingfournouncases,althoughthegenitivestartedfallingintodisuseinallbutformalwritinginEarlyNewHighGerman.ThecasesystemofDutch,simplerthanthatofGerman,isalsosimplifiedincommonusage.Afrikaans,recognizedasadistinctlanguageinitsownrightratherthanaDutchdialectonlyintheearly20thcentury,haslostalmostallinflection. LatinandtheRomancelanguages[edit] TheRomancelanguages,suchasSpanish,Italian,French,Portugueseandespecially-withitsmanycases-Romanian,havemoreovertinflectionthanEnglish,especiallyinverbconjugation.Adjectives,nounsandarticlesareconsiderablylessinflectedthanverbs,buttheystillhavedifferentformsaccordingtonumberandgrammaticalgender. Latin,themothertongueoftheRomancelanguages,washighlyinflected;nounsandadjectiveshaddifferentformsaccordingtosevengrammaticalcases(includingfivemajorones)withfivemajorpatternsofdeclension,andthreegendersinsteadofthetwofoundinmostRomancetongues.Therewerefourpatternsofconjugationinsixtenses,threemoods(indicative,subjunctive,imperative,plustheinfinitive,participle,gerund,gerundive,andsupine)andtwovoices(passiveandactive),allovertlyexpressedbyaffixes(passivevoiceformswereperiphrasticinthreetenses). Balticlanguages[edit] TheBalticlanguagesarehighlyinflected.Nounsandadjectivesaredeclinedinuptosevenovertcases.Additionalcasesaredefinedinvariouscovertways.Forexample,aninessivecase,anillativecase,anadessivecaseandallativecaseareborrowedfromFinnic.Latvianhasonlyoneovertlocativecasebutitsyncretizestheabovefourcasestothelocativemarkingthembydifferencesintheuseofprepositions.[15]Lithuanianbreaksthemoutofthegenitivecase,accusativecaseandlocativecasebyusingdifferentpostpositions.[16] DualformisobsoleteinstandardLatvianandnowadaysitisalsoconsiderednearlyobsoleteinstandardLithuanian.Forinstance,instandardLithuanianitisnormaltosay"dvivarnos(plural) –twocrows"insteadof"dvivarni(dual)".Adjectives,pronouns,andnumeralsaredeclinedfornumber,gender,andcasetoagreewiththenountheymodifyorforwhichtheysubstitute.Balticverbsareinflectedfortense,mood,aspect,andvoice.Theyagreewiththesubjectinpersonandnumber(notinallformsinmodernLatvian). Slaviclanguages[edit] AllSlaviclanguagesmakeuseofahighdegreeofinflection,typicallyhavingsixorsevencasesandthreegendersfornounsandadjectives.However,theovertcasesystemhasdisappearedalmostcompletelyinmodernBulgarianandMacedonian.Mostverbtensesandmoodsarealsoformedbyinflection(however,someareperiphrastic,typicallythefutureandconditional).Inflectionisalsopresentinadjectivecomparationandwordderivation. Declensionalendingsdependoncase(nominative,genitive,dative,accusative,locative,instrumental,vocative),number(singular,dualorplural),gender(masculine,feminine,neuter)andanimacy(animatevsinanimate).Unusualinotherlanguagefamilies,declensioninmostSlaviclanguagesalsodependsonwhetherthewordisanounoranadjective.SloveneandSorbianlanguagesuseararethirdnumber,(inadditiontosingularandpluralnumbers)knownasdual(incaseofsomewordsdualsurvivedalsoinPolishandotherSlaviclanguages).ModernRussian,SerbianandCzechalsouseamorecomplexformofdual,butthismisnomerappliesinsteadtonumbers2,3,4,andlargernumbersendingin2,3,or4(withtheexceptionoftheteens,whicharehandledasplural;thus,102isdual,but12or127arenot). Inaddition,insomeSlaviclanguages,suchasPolish,wordstemsarefrequentlymodifiedbytheadditionorabsenceofendings,resultinginconsonantandvowelalternation. Arabic(fusional)[edit] ModernStandardArabic(alsocalledLiteraryArabic)isaninflectedlanguage.Itusesasystemofindependentandsuffixpronounsclassifiedbypersonandnumberandverbalinflectionsmarkingpersonandnumber.Suffixpronounsareusedasmarkersofpossessionandasobjectsofverbsandprepositions.Thetatweel(ـــ)markswheretheverbstem,verbform,noun,orprepositionisplaced.[17] Singular Plural Dual IndependentPronoun SuffixPronoun PresentTenseAffix IndependentPronoun SuffixPronoun PresentTenseAffix IndependentPronoun SuffixPronoun PresentTenseAffix Person First أَنَاʾanā"I" ـــِـي,ـــيَ,ـــنِي—ī,—ya,—nī أʾ— نَحْنُnaḥnu ـــنَا—nā نـــn— sameasplural Second masc. أَنْتَʾanta"you" ـــكَ—ka تـــt— أَنْتُمْʾantum ـــكُمْ—kum تــــُونَt—ūn أَنْتُمَاʾantumā ـــكُمَا—kumā تــــَانِt—āni fem. أَنْتِʾanti"you" ـــكِ—ki تــــِينَt—īna أَنْتُنَّʾantunna ـــكُنَّ—kunna تــــْنَt—na Third masc. هُوَhuwa"he" ـــهُ—hu يـــy— هُمْhum ـــهُمْ—hum يــــُونَy—ūna هُمَاhumā ـــهُمَا—humā يــــَانِy—āni fem. هِيَhiya"she" ـــهَا—hā تـــt— هُنَّhunna ـــهُنَّ—hunna تــــْنَt—na Arabicregionaldialects(e.g.MoroccanArabic,EgyptianArabic,GulfArabic),usedforeverydaycommunication,tendtohavelessinflectionthanthemoreformalLiteraryArabic.Forexample,inJordanianArabic,thesecond-andthird-personfeminineplurals(أنتنّantunnaandهنّhunna)andtheirrespectiveuniqueconjugationsarelostandreplacedbythemasculine(أنتمantumandهمhum),whereasinLebaneseandSyrianArabic,همhumisreplacedbyهنّhunna. Inaddition,thesystemknownasʾIʿrābplacesvowelsuffixesoneachverb,noun,adjective,andadverb,accordingtoitsfunctionwithinasentenceanditsrelationtosurroundingwords.[17] Uraliclanguages(agglutinative)[edit] TheUraliclanguagesareagglutinative,followingfromtheagglutinationinProto-Uralic.ThelargestlanguagesareHungarian,Finnish,andEstonian—allEuropeanUnionofficiallanguages.Uralicinflectionis,orisdevelopedfrom,affixing.GrammaticalmarkersdirectlyaddedtothewordperformthesamefunctionasprepositionsinEnglish.Almostallwordsareinflectedaccordingtotheirrolesinthesentence:verbs,nouns,pronouns,numerals,adjectives,andsomeparticles. HungarianandFinnish,inparticular,oftensimplyconcatenatesuffixes.Forexample,Finnishtalossanikinko"inmyhouse,too?"consistsoftalo-ssa-ni-kin-ko.However,intheFinniclanguages(Finnish,Estonianetc.)andtheSamilanguages,thereareprocesseswhichaffecttheroot,particularlyconsonantgradation.Theoriginalsuffixesmaydisappear(andappearonlybyliaison),leavingbehindthemodificationoftheroot.ThisprocessisextensivelydevelopedinEstonianandSami,andmakesthemalsoinflected,notonlyagglutinatinglanguages.TheEstonianillativecase,forexample,isexpressedbyamodifiedroot:maja→majja(historicalform*maja-han). Altaiclanguages(agglutinative)[edit] ThethreelanguagefamiliesoftenunitedastheAltaiclanguages—Turkic,Mongolic,andManchu-Tungus—areagglutinative.ThelargestlanguagesareTurkish,AzerbaijaniandUzbek—allTurkiclanguages.Altaicinflectionis,orisdevelopedfrom,affixing.GrammaticalmarkersdirectlyaddedtothewordperformthesamefunctionasprepositionsinEnglish.Almostallwordsareinflectedaccordingtotheirrolesinthesentence:verbs,nouns,pronouns,numerals,adjectives,andsomeparticles. Basque(agglutinativenominalinflection/fusionalverbinflection)[edit] Basque,alanguageisolate,isahighlyinflectedlanguage,heavilyinflectingbothnounsandverbs. Nounphrasemorphologyisagglutinativeandconsistsofsuffixeswhichsimplyattachtotheendofastem.Thesesuffixesareinmanycasesfusedwiththearticle(-aforsingularand-akforplural),whichingeneralisrequiredtocloseanounphraseinBasqueifnootherdeterminerispresent,andunlikeanarticleinmanylanguages,itcanonlypartiallybecorrelatedwiththeconceptofdefiniteness.Propernounsdonottakeanarticle,andindefinitenounswithoutthearticle(calledmugagabeinBasquegrammar)arehighlyrestrictedsyntactically.Basqueisanergativelanguage,meaningthatinflectionallythesingleargument(subject)ofanintransitiveverbismarkedinthesamewayasthedirectobjectofatransitiveverb.ThisiscalledtheabsolutivecaseandinBasque,asinmostergativelanguages,itisrealizedwithazeromorph;inotherwords,itreceivesnospecialinflection.Thesubjectofatransitiveverbreceivesaspecialcasesuffix,calledtheergativecase.[18] ThereisnocasemarkingconcordinBasqueandcasesuffixes,includingthosefusedwiththearticle,areaddedonlytothelastwordinanounphrase.Pluralityisnotmarkedonthenounandisidentifiedonlyinthearticleorotherdeterminer,possiblyfusedwithacasemarker.Theexamplesbelowareintheabsolutivecasewithzerocasemarking,andincludethearticleonly:[18] txakurr-a (the/a)dog txakurr-ak (the)dogs txakurpolit-a (the/a)prettydog txakurpolit-ak (the)prettydogs Thenounphraseisdeclinedfor11cases:Absolutive,ergative,dative,possessive-genitive,benefactive,comitative,instrumental,inessive,allative,ablative,andlocal-genitive.ThesearesignaledbysuffixesthatvaryaccordingtothecategoriesofSingular,Plural,Indefinite,andProperNoun,andmanyvarydependingonwhetherthestemendsinaconsonantorvowel.TheSingularandPluralcategoriesarefusedwiththearticle,andtheseendingsareusedwhenthenounphraseisnotclosedbyanyotherdeterminer.Thisgivesapotential88differentforms,buttheIndefiniteandProperNouncategoriesareidenticalinallbutthelocalcases(inessive,allative,ablative,local-genitive),andmanyothervariationsintheendingscanbeaccountedforbyphonologicalrulesoperatingtoavoidimpermissibleconsonantclusters.LocalcaseendingsarenotnormallyaddedtoanimateProperNouns.Theprecisemeaningofthelocalcasescanbefurtherspecifiedbyadditionalsuffixesaddedafterthelocalcasesuffixes.[18] Verbformsareextremelycomplex,agreeingwiththesubject,directobject,andindirectobject;andincludeformsthatagreewitha"dativeofinterest"forintransitiveverbsaswellasallocutiveformswheretheverbformisalteredifoneisspeakingtoacloseacquaintance.Theseallocutiveformsalsohavedifferentformsdependingonwhethertheaddresseeismaleorfemale.ThisistheonlyareainBasquegrammarwheregenderplaysanyroleatall.[18]SubordinationcouldalsoplausiblybeconsideredaninflectionalcategoryoftheBasqueverbsincesubordinationissignaledbyprefixesandsuffixesontheconjugatedverb,furthermultiplyingthenumberofpotentialforms.[19] TransitivityisathoroughgoingdivisionofBasqueverbs,anditisnecessarytoknowthetransitivityofaparticularverbinordertoconjugateitsuccessfully.Inthespokenlanguageonlyahandfulofcommonlyusedverbsarefullyconjugatedinthepresentandsimplepast,mostverbsbeingconjugatedbymeansofanauxiliarywhichdiffersaccordingtotransitivity.Theliterarylanguageincludesafewmoresuchverbs,butthenumberisstillverysmall.Eventhesefewverbsrequireanauxiliarytoconjugateothertensesbesidesthepresentandsimplepast.[18] Themostcommonintransitiveauxiliaryisizan,whichisalsotheverbfor"tobe".Themostcommontransitiveauxiliaryisukan,whichisalsotheverbfor"tohave".(Otherauxiliariescanbeusedinsomeofthetensesandmayvarybydialect.)Thecompoundtensesuseaninvariableformofthemainverb(whichappearsindifferentformsaccordingtothe"tensegroup")andaconjugatedformoftheauxiliary.Pronounsarenormallyomittedifrecoverablefromtheverbform.AcoupleofexampleswillhavetosufficetodemonstratethecomplexityoftheBasqueverb:[18] Liburu-akBook-PL.thesalduselldizkiegu.AUX.3PL/ABS.3PL/DAT.1PL/ERGLiburu-aksaldudizkiegu.Book-PL.thesellAUX.3PL/ABS.3PL/DAT.1PL/ERG"Wesoldthebookstothem." Kafe-aCoffee-thegusta-tzenplease-HABzaidak.AUX.ALLOC/M.3SG/ABS.1SG/DATKafe-agusta-tzenzaidak.Coffee-theplease-HABAUX.ALLOC/M.3SG/ABS.1SG/DAT"Ilikecoffee."("Coffeepleasesme.")(Usedwhenspeakingtoamalefriend.) Themorphsthatrepresentthevarioustense/person/case/moodcategoriesofBasqueverbs,especiallyintheauxiliaries,aresohighlyfusedthatsegmentingthemintoindividualmeaningfulunitsisnearlyimpossible,ifnotpointless.ConsideringthemultitudeofformsthataparticularBasqueverbcantake,itseemsunlikelythatanindividualspeakerwouldhaveanopportunitytoutterthemallinhisorherlifetime.[20] MainlandSoutheastAsianlanguages(isolating)[edit] MostlanguagesintheMainlandSoutheastAsialinguisticarea(suchasthevarietiesofChinese,Vietnamese,andThai)arenotovertlyinflected,orshowverylittleovertinflection,andarethereforeconsideredanalyticlanguages(alsoknownasisolatinglanguages). Chinese[edit] StandardChinesedoesnotpossessovertinflectionalmorphology.Whilesomelanguagesindicategrammaticalrelationswithinflectionalmorphemes,Chineseutilizeswordorderandparticles.Considerthefollowingexamples: Latin: Puerpuellamvidet. Puellampuervidet. Bothsentencesmean'Theboyseesthegirl.'Thisisbecausepuer(boy)issingularnominative,puellam(girl)issingularaccusative.Sincetherolesofpuerandpuellamhavebeenmarkedwithcaseendings,thechangeinpositiondoesnotmatter. ModernStandardChinese: 我给了他一本书(wǒgěiletāyīběnshū)'Igavehimabook' 他给了我一本书(tāgěilewǒyīběnshū)'Hegavemeabook' ThesituationisverydifferentinChinese.SinceModernChinesemakesnouseofinflection,themeaningsofwǒ('I'or'me')andtā('he'or'him')shallbedeterminedwiththeirposition. InClassicalChinese,pronounswereovertlyinflectedtomarkcase.However,theseovertcaseformsarenolongerused;mostofthealternativepronounsareconsideredarchaicinmodernMandarinChinese.Classically,我(wǒ)wasusedsolelyasthefirstpersonaccusative.吾(Wú)wasgenerallyusedasthefirstpersonnominative.[21] CertainvarietiesofChineseareknowntoexpressmeaningbymeansoftonechange,althoughfurtherinvestigationsarerequired[dubious–discuss].Notethatthetonechangemustbedistinguishedfromtonesandhi.Tonesandhiisacompulsorychangethatoccurswhencertaintonesarejuxtaposed.Tonechange,however,isamorphologicallyconditionedalternationandisusedasaninflectionaloraderivationalstrategy.ExamplesfromTaishanandZhongshan(bothYuedialectsspokeninGuangdongProvince)areshownbelow:[22] Taishan ngwoi33 ‘I’(singular) ngwoi22 ‘we’(plural) Zhongshan hy22 ‘go’ hy35 ‘gone’(perfective) ThefollowingtablecomparesthepersonalpronounsofSixiandialect(adialectofTaiwaneseHakka)[23]withZaiwaandJingpho[24](bothTibeto-BurmanlanguagesspokeninYunnanandBurma).ThesuperscriptednumbersindicatetheChaotonenumerals. ComparisonofPersonalPronouns Sixian Zaiwa Jingpho 1Nom ŋai11 ŋo51 ŋai33 1Gen ŋa24orŋai11ke55 ŋa55 ŋjeʔ55 1Acc ŋai11 ŋo31 ŋai33 2Nom ŋ̍11 naŋ51 naŋ33 2Gen ŋia24orŋ̍11ke55 naŋ55 naʔ55 2Acc ŋ̍11 naŋ31 naŋ33 3Nom ki11 jaŋ31 khji33 3Gen kia24orki11ke55 jaŋ51 khjiʔ55 3Acc ki11 jaŋ31 khji33 InShanghainese,thethird-personsingularpronounisovertlyinflectedastocaseandthefirst-andsecond-personsingularpronounsexhibitachangeintonedependingoncase.[citationneeded] Japanese(agglutinative)[edit] Japaneseshowsahighdegreeofovertinflectionofverbs,lesssoofadjectives,andverylittleofnouns,butitismostlystrictlyagglutinativeandextremelyregular.Fusionofmorphemesalsohappenincolloquialspeech,forexample:thecausative-passive〜せられ〜(-serare-)fusesinto〜され〜(-sare-),asin行かされる(ikasareru,"ismadetogo"),andthenon-pastprogressive〜ている(-teiru)fusesinto〜てる(-teru)asin食べてる(tabeteru,"iseating").Formally,everynounphrasemustbemarkedforcase,butthisisdonebyinvariableparticles(cliticpostpositions).(Many[citationneeded]grammariansconsiderJapaneseparticlestobeseparatewords,andthereforenotaninflection,whileothers[citationneeded]consideragglutinationatypeofovertinflection,andthereforeconsiderJapanesenounsasovertlyinflected.) Auxiliarylanguages[edit] Someauxiliarylanguages,suchasLinguaFrancaNova,Glosa,andFrater,havenoinflection.Otherauxiliarylanguages,suchasEsperanto,Ido,andInterlinguahavecomparativelysimpleinflectionalsystems. Esperanto[edit] Furtherinformation:Esperantogrammar InEsperanto,anagglutinativelanguage,nounsandadjectivesareinflectedforcase(nominative,accusative)andnumber(singular,plural),accordingtoasimpleparadigmwithoutirregularities.Verbsarenotinflectedforpersonornumber,buttheyareinflectedfortense(past,present,future)andmood(indicative,infinitive,conditional,jussive).Theyalsoformactiveandpassiveparticiples,whichmaybepast,presentorfuture.Allverbsareregular. Ido[edit] Idohasadifferentformforeachverbaltense(past,present,future,volitiveandimperative)plusaninfinitive,andbothapresentandpastparticiple.Therearethoughnoverbalinflectionsforpersonornumber,andallverbsareregular. Nounsaremarkedfornumber(singularandplural),andtheaccusativecasemaybeshownincertainsituations,typicallywhenthedirectobjectofasentenceprecedesitsverb.Ontheotherhand,adjectivesareunmarkedforgender,numberorcase(unlesstheystandontheirown,withoutanoun,inwhichcasetheytakeonthesamedesinencesasthemissingnounwouldhavetaken).Thedefinitearticle"la"("the")remainsunalteredregardlessofgenderorcase,andalsoofnumber,exceptwhenthereisnootherwordtoshowplurality.Pronounsareidenticalinallcases,thoughexceptionallytheaccusativecasemaybemarked,asfornouns. Interlingua[edit] Interlingua,incontrastwiththeRomancelanguages,hasnoirregularverbconjugations,anditsverbformsarethesameforallpersonsandnumbers.Itdoes,however,havecompoundverbtensessimilartothoseintheRomance,Germanic,andSlaviclanguages:illehavivite,"hehaslived";illahabevavivite,"shehadlived".Nounsareinflectedbynumber,takingaplural-s,butrarelybygender:onlywhenreferringtoamaleorfemalebeing.Interlinguahasnonoun-adjectiveagreementbygender,number,orcase.Asaresult,adjectivesordinarilyhavenoinflections.Theymaytakethepluralformiftheyarebeingusedinplaceofanoun:lepovres,"thepoor". Seealso[edit] Agreement(linguistics) Diction Intonation(linguistics) Introflection Lexeme Marker(linguistics) Morpheme NominalTAM Periphrasis Righthandheadrule Suppletion Syntheticlanguage Tense–aspect–mood Uninflectedword Linguisticrelativity Notes[edit] Citations[edit] Footnotes[edit] ^Crystal,David.(2008).ADictionaryofLinguisticsandPhonetics(6thed.,pp.243-244).Malden,MA:Blackwell. ^Owens,Jonathan(1998)."Caseandproto-Arabic,PartI".BulletinoftheSchoolofOrientalandAfricanStudies.61:51–73.doi:10.1017/S0041977X00015755.S2CID 204970487. ^Brinton,LaurelJ.(2000).TheStructureofModernEnglish:ALinguisticIntroduction.Amsterdam,Philadelphia:JohnBenjamins.p. 104.ISBN 9781556196621. ^Anderson,StephenR.(1985),"InflectionalMorphology",inShopen,Timothy(ed.),Languagetypologyandsyntacticdescription,Cambridge,NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,pp. 162–164 ^Nadarajan,S.(2006)."ACrosslinguisticstudyofReduplication".TheArizonaWorkingPapersinSecondLanguageAcquisitionandTeaching.13:39–53. ^Xu,D.(2012)."Reduplicationinlanguages:AcasestudyoflanguagesofChina".PluralityandclassifiersacrosslanguagesinChina.Berlin,Germany:MoutondeGruyter.pp. 43–66. ^Hsu,S.-C.(2008)."TheStructureAnalysisandToneSandhiofReduplicativeAdjectivesinTaiwanese".JournalofHumanitiesandSocialSciencesofNHCUE.1(1):27–48. ^abRubino,C.(2005).Reduplication:Form,functionanddistribution.InB.Hurch(Ed.).StudiesonReduplication(pp.11-29).Berlin,Germany:MoutondeGruyter. ^Reid,L.A.(2009)."OnthediachronicdevelopmentofC1V1reduplicationinsomeAustronesianlanguages".Morphology.19(2):239.doi:10.1007/s11525-009-9142-9.hdl:10125/33040.S2CID 40795368. ^Palancar,EnriqueL.&Léonard,Jean-Léo.(2014).Toneandinflection:Anintroduction.InEnriqueL.Palancar&Jean-LéoLéonard(Eds.),ToneandInflection:Newfactsundernewperspectives.HAL01099327 ^Feist,Timothy&EnriqueL.Palancar.(2015).Oto-MangueanInflectionalClassDatabase:TlatepuzcoChinantec.UniversityofSurrey.doi:10.15126/SMG.28/1.01 ^Hyman,L.M.(2016)."Morphologicaltonalassignmentsinconflict:Whowins?".InPalancar,E.L.;Léonard,J.L.(eds.).ToneandInflection:NewFactsandNewPerspectives.Berlin,Germany:WalterdeGruyter.pp. 15–39. ^Lyons,C.(1986).TheSyntaxofEnglishGenitiveConstructions.JournalofLinguistics,22(1),123-143. ^Lowe,J.J.NatLangLinguistTheory(2016)34:157.doi:10.1007/s11049-015-9300-1 ^Dahl,Östen;Koptjevskaja-Tamm,Maria(2001).TheCircum-BalticLanguages:Grammarandtypology.Vol. 2:GrammarandTypology.Amsterdam,Philadelphia:JohnBenjamins.p. 672. ^Hewson,John;Bubeník,Vít(2006).Fromcasetoadposition :thedevelopmentofconfigurationalsyntaxinIndo-Europeanlanguages.Amsterdamstudiesinthetheoryandhistoryoflinguisticscience,Volume4.Amsterdam:Benjamins.p. 206. ^abRyding,KarinC.(2005).AReferenceGrammarofModernStandardArabic. ^abcdefKing,AlanR.TheBasqueLanguage:APracticalIntroduction.UniversityofNevadaPress.Reno,Nevada ^Manandise,Esméralda."EvidencefromBasqueforaNewTheoryofGrammar,"doctoraldissertationinOutstandingDissertationsinLinguistics:AGarlandSeries,JorgeHankamer,generaled.GarlandPublishing,Inc.NewYork&London. ^Manandise,Esméralda."EvidencefromBasqueforaNewTheoryofGrammar,"doctoraldissertationinOutstandingDissertationsinLinguistics:AGarlandSeries,JorgeHankamer,generaled.GarlandPublishing,Inc.NewYork&London. ^Norman,Jerry.(1988).Chinese(p.98).Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress. ^Chen,M.Y.(2000).ToneSandhi:PatternsacrossChinesedialects.Cambridge,England:CambridgeUniversityPress. ^Lai,W.-Y.(2010)."TheSourceofHakkaPersonalPronounandGenitivewiththeViewpointofDiminutive".JournalofTaiwaneseLanguagesandLiterature.5(1):53–80. ^Sun,H.-K.(1996)."CasemarkersofpersonalpronounsinTibeto-Burmanlanguages".LinguisticsoftheTibeto-BurmanArea.19(2):1–15. References[edit] Agirre,E.;et al.(1992),"XUXEN:Aspellingchecker/correctorforBasquebasedontwo-levelmorphology",ProceedingsoftheThirdConferenceofAppliedNaturalLanguageProcessing(PDF),pp. 119–125,archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)on2005-09-30 Bubeník,Vit.(1999).Anintroductiontothestudyofmorphology.LINCOMcoursebooksinlinguistics,07.Munich:LINCOMEuropa.ISBN 3-89586-570-2. Norman,Jerry(1988).Chinese.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN 0-521-29653-6.(pbk). Furtherreading[edit] Bauer,Laurie(2003).Introducinglinguisticmorphology(2nd ed.).Washington,D.C.:GeorgetownUniversityPress.ISBN 0-87840-343-4. Haspelmath,Martin(2002).Understandingmorphology.London:Arnold,OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 0-340-76025-7.(hb);(pbk). Katamba,Francis(1993).Morphology.Modernlinguisticsseries.NewYork:St.Martin'sPress.ISBN 0-312-10101-5.(hb);(pbk). Matthews,Peter(1991).Morphology(2nd ed.).Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN 0-521-41043-6.(hb);(pbk). Nichols,Johanna(1986)."Head-markinganddependent-markinggrammar".Language.62(1):56–119.doi:10.1353/lan.1986.0014.S2CID 144574879. DeReuse,WillemJ.(1996).ApracticalgrammaroftheSanCarlosApachelanguage.LINCOMStudiesinNativeAmericanLinguistics51.LINCOM.ISBN 3-89586-861-2. Spencer,Andrew;Zwicky,ArnoldM.,eds.(1998).Thehandbookofmorphology.Blackwellhandbooksinlinguistics.Oxford:Blackwell.ISBN 0-631-18544-5. Stump,GregoryT.(2001).Inflectionalmorphology:Atheoryofparadigmstructure.Cambridgestudiesinlinguistics.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN 0-521-78047-0. VanValin,RobertD.,Jr.(2001).Anintroductiontosyntax.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN 0-521-63566-7.(pbk);(hb). Externallinks[edit] LookupinflectioninWiktionary,thefreedictionary. SILarticles[edit] ForinformationonSIL,seeSILInternational. SIL:Whatisinflection? SIL:Whatisaninflectionalaffix? SIL:Whatisaninflectionalcategory? SIL:Whatisamorphologicalprocess? SIL:Whatisderivation? SIL:Comparisonofinflectionandderivation SIL:Whatisanagglutinativelanguage? SIL:Whatisafusionallanguage? SIL:Whatisanisolatinglanguage? SIL:Whatisapolysyntheticlanguage? LexiconofLinguisticsarticles[edit] LexiconofLinguistics:AgglutinatingLanguage,FusionalMorphology,IsolatingLanguage,PolysyntheticLanguage LexiconofLinguistics:Inflection,Derivation LexiconofLinguistics:Conjugation,Declension LexiconofLinguistics:Base,Stem,Root LexiconofLinguistics:DefectiveParadigm LexiconofLinguistics:StrongVerb LexiconofLinguistics:InflectionPhrase(IP),INFL,AGR,Tense LexiconofLinguistics:LexicalistHypothesis Authoritycontrol:Nationallibraries Germany Israel UnitedStates Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Inflection&oldid=1091457619" Categories:GrammarLinguisticmorphologyLinguisticsterminologyHiddencategories:CS1:longvolumevalueArticleswithshortdescriptionShortdescriptionisdifferentfromWikidataArticleslackingin-textcitationsfromJune2019Allarticleslackingin-textcitationsArticlescontainingScottishGaelic-languagetextArticlescontainingLatin-languagetextAllarticleswithunsourcedstatementsArticleswithunsourcedstatementsfromSeptember2018ArticlescontainingFrench-languagetextArticlescontainingSpanish-languagetextArticlescontainingPortuguese-languagetextArticlescontainingGerman-languagetextArticlescontainingAncientGreek(to1453)-languagetextArticleswithunsourcedstatementsfromOctober2009WikipediaarticlesneedingclarificationfromOctober2009ArticlescontainingArabic-languagetextAllaccuracydisputesArticleswithdisputedstatementsfromMay2014ArticleswithunsourcedstatementsfromDecember2014ArticlescontainingJapanese-languagetextArticleswithunsourcedstatementsfromJune2021ArticleswithGNDidentifiersArticleswithJ9UidentifiersArticleswithLCCNidentifiers Navigationmenu Personaltools NotloggedinTalkContributionsCreateaccountLogin Namespaces ArticleTalk English Views ReadEditViewhistory More Search Navigation MainpageContentsCurrenteventsRandomarticleAboutWikipediaContactusDonate Contribute HelpLearntoeditCommunityportalRecentchangesUploadfile Tools WhatlinkshereRelatedchangesUploadfileSpecialpagesPermanentlinkPageinformationCitethispageWikidataitem Print/export DownloadasPDFPrintableversion Inotherprojects WikimediaCommons Languages AfrikaansالعربيةБеларускаяБеларуская(тарашкевіца)BoarischCatalàČeštinaCymraegDanskDeutschEspañolEsperantoEuskaraفارسیFrançais한국어ՀայերենIdoItalianoעבריתქართულიКыргызчаLatinaLatviešuLietuviųMagyarBahasaMelayuNederlands日本語NorskbokmålNorsknynorskPolskiPortuguêsRomânăРусскийСахатылаSeelterskSimpleEnglishSuomiSvenskaไทยTürkçeУкраїнськаTiếngViệt粵語中文 Editlinks