Big Five personality traits - Wikipedia

Big Five personality traits ; openness to experience (inventive/curious vs. consistent/cautious) ; conscientiousness (efficient/organized vs. extravagant/careless) ... BigFivepersonalitytraits FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Personalitymodelconsistingoffivebroaddimensions "OCEAN"and"CANOE"redirecthere.Forthebodyofwater,seeOcean.Forthepaddlingboat,seeCanoe.Forotheruses,seeOcean(disambiguation)andCanoe(disambiguation). PartofaseriesonPsychology Outline History Subfields Basictypes Abnormal Behavioral Behavioralgenetics Biological Cognitive/Cognitivism Comparative Cross-cultural Cultural Differential Developmental Evolutionary Experimental Mathematical Neuropsychology Personality Positive Psychodynamic Psychometrics Quantitative Social Appliedpsychology Appliedbehavioranalysis Clinical Community Consumer Counseling Critical Educational Environmental Ergonomics Food Forensic Health Humanistic Industrialandorganizational Legal Medical Military Music Occupationalhealth Political Psychometrics Religion School Sport Traffic Lists Disciplines Organizations Psychologists Psychotherapies Researchmethods Theories Timeline Topics  Psychologyportalvte TheBigFivepersonalitytraitsisasuggestedtaxonomy,orgrouping,forpersonalitytraits,[1]developedfromthe1980sonwardinpsychologicaltraittheory. Startinginthe1990s,thetheoryidentifiedfivefactorsbylabels,fortheUSEnglishspeakingpopulation,typicallyreferredtoas: opennesstoexperience(inventive/curiousvs.consistent/cautious) conscientiousness(efficient/organizedvs.extravagant/careless) extraversion(outgoing/energeticvs.solitary/reserved) agreeableness(friendly/compassionatevs.critical/rational) neuroticism(sensitive/nervousvs.resilient/confident)[2] Whenfactoranalysis(astatisticaltechnique)isappliedtopersonalitysurveydata,itrevealssemanticassociations:somewordsusedtodescribeaspectsofpersonalityareoftenappliedtothesameperson.Forexample,someonedescribedasconscientiousismorelikelytobedescribedas"alwaysprepared"ratherthan"messy".Theseassociationssuggestfivebroaddimensionsusedincommonlanguagetodescribethehumanpersonality,temperamentandpsyche.[3][4] Thoselabelsforthefivefactorsmayberememberedusingtheacronyms"OCEAN"or"CANOE".Beneatheachproposedglobalfactor,thereareanumberofcorrelatedandmorespecificprimaryfactors.Forexample,extraversionistypicallyassociatedwithqualitiessuchasgregariousness,assertiveness,excitement-seeking,warmth,activity,andpositiveemotions.[5]Thesetraitsarenotblackandwhite,butratherplacedoncontinua.[6] Contents 1Development 2Descriptionsoftheparticularpersonalitytraits 2.1Opennesstoexperience 2.1.1Sampleitems 2.2Conscientiousness 2.2.1Sampleitems 2.3Extraversion 2.3.1Sampleitems 2.4Agreeableness 2.4.1Sampleitems 2.5Neuroticism 2.5.1Sampleitems 3History 3.1Earlytraitresearch 3.2Hiatusinresearch 3.3Renewedattention 4Biologicalanddevelopmentalfactors 4.1Temperamentvis-à-vispersonality 4.2Heritability 4.3Non-humans 4.4Developmentduringchildhoodandadolescence 4.4.1Extraversion/positiveemotionality 4.5Developmentthroughoutadulthood 5Groupdifferences 5.1Genderdifferences 5.2Birth-orderdifferences 6Culturaldifferences 7Health 7.1Personalitychangefromdisease 7.2Personalitydisorders 7.3Commonmentaldisorders 7.3.1Thepersonality-psychopathologymodels 7.4Physicalhealth 8Effectofpersonalitytraitsthroughlife 8.1Education 8.1.1Academicachievement 8.1.2Learningstyles 8.1.3DistanceLearning 8.2Employment 8.3Occupationandpersonalityfit 8.4Worksuccess 8.5Romanticrelationships 8.6Politicalidentification 8.7Scopeofpredictivepower 8.8Religiosity 9Measurements 10Critique 10.1Limitedscope 10.2Methodologicalissues 10.3Theoreticalstatus 10.4Evidenceforsixfactorsratherthanfive 11Seealso 12References 13Externallinks Development[edit] TheBigFivepersonalitytraitswasthemodeltocomprehendtherelationshipbetweenpersonalityandacademicbehaviors.[7]Thismodelwasdefinedbyseveralindependentsetsofresearcherswhousedfactoranalysisofverbaldescriptorsofhumanbehavior.[8]Theseresearchersbeganbystudyingrelationshipsbetweenalargenumberofverbaldescriptorsrelatedtopersonalitytraits.Theyreducedthelistsofthesedescriptorsby5–10foldandthenusedfactoranalysistogrouptheremainingtraits(usingdatamostlybaseduponpeople'sestimations,inself-reportquestionnaireandpeerratings)inordertofindtheunderlyingfactorsofpersonality.[9][10][11][12][13] TheinitialmodelwasadvancedbyErnestTupesandRaymondChristalin1961,[12]butfailedtoreachanacademicaudienceuntilthe1980s.In1990,J.M.Digmanadvancedhisfive-factormodelofpersonality,whichLewisGoldbergextendedtothehighestleveloforganization.[14]Thesefiveoverarchingdomainshavebeenfoundtocontainandsubsumemostknownpersonalitytraitsandareassumedtorepresentthebasicstructurebehindallpersonalitytraits.[15] Atleastfoursetsofresearchershaveworkedindependentlywithinlexicalhypothesisinpersonalitytheoryfordecadesonthisproblemandhaveidentifiedgenerallythesamefivefactors:TupesandChristalwerefirst,followedbyGoldbergattheOregonResearchInstitute,[16][17][18][19][20]CattellattheUniversityofIllinois,[11][21][22][23]andCostaandMcCrae.[24][25][26][27]Thesefoursetsofresearchersusedsomewhatdifferentmethodsinfindingthefivetraits,andthuseachsetoffivefactorshassomewhatdifferentnamesanddefinitions.However,allhavebeenfoundtobehighlyinter-correlatedandfactor-analyticallyaligned.[28][29][30][31][32]StudiesindicatethattheBigFivetraitsarenotnearlyaspowerfulinpredictingandexplainingactualbehaviorasarethemorenumerousfacetsorprimarytraits.[33][34] EachoftheBigFivepersonalitytraitscontainstwoseparate,butcorrelated,aspectsreflectingalevelofpersonalitybelowthebroaddomainsbutabovethemanyfacetscalesthatarealsopartoftheBigFive.[35]Theaspectsarelabeledasfollows:VolatilityandWithdrawalforNeuroticism;EnthusiasmandAssertivenessforExtraversion;IntellectandOpennessforOpennesstoExperience;IndustriousnessandOrderlinessforConscientiousness;andCompassionandPolitenessforAgreeableness.[35]Peoplewhodonotexhibitaclearpredispositiontoasinglefactorineachdimensionaboveareconsideredadaptable,moderateandreasonable,yettheycanalsobeperceivedasunprincipled,inscrutableandcalculating.[36] Descriptionsoftheparticularpersonalitytraits[edit] Opennesstoexperience[edit] Opennesstoexperienceisageneralappreciationforart,emotion,adventure,unusualideas,imagination,curiosity,andvarietyofexperience.Peoplewhoareopentoexperienceareintellectuallycurious,opentoemotion,sensitivetobeautyandwillingtotrynewthings.Theytendtobe,whencomparedtoclosedpeople,morecreativeandmoreawareoftheirfeelings.Theyarealsomorelikelytoholdunconventionalbeliefs.Highopennesscanbeperceivedasunpredictabilityorlackoffocus,andmorelikelytoengageinriskybehaviorordrug-taking.[37]Moreover,individualswithhighopennessaresaidtopursueself-actualizationspecificallybyseekingoutintense,euphoricexperiences.Conversely,thosewithlowopennessseektogainfulfillmentthroughperseveranceandarecharacterizedaspragmaticanddata-driven –sometimesevenperceivedtobedogmaticandclosed-minded.Somedisagreementremainsabouthowtointerpretandcontextualizetheopennessfactorasthereisalackofbiologicalsupportforthisparticulartrait.Opennesshasnotshownasignificantassociationwithanybrainregionsasopposedtotheotherfourtraitswhichdidwhenusingbrainimagingtodetectchangesinvolumeassociatedwitheachtrait.[38] Sampleitems[edit] Ihavearichvocabulary. Ihaveavividimagination. Ihaveexcellentideas. Iamquicktounderstandthings. Iusedifficultwords. Ispendtimereflectingonthings. Iamfullofideas. Ihavedifficultyunderstandingabstractideas.(Reversed) Iamnotinterestedinabstractideas.(Reversed) Idonothaveagoodimagination.(Reversed)[39] Conscientiousness[edit] Conscientiousnessisatendencytodisplayself-discipline,actdutifully,andstriveforachievementagainstmeasuresoroutsideexpectations.Itisrelatedtothewayinwhichpeoplecontrol,regulate,anddirecttheirimpulses.Highconscientiousnessisoftenperceivedasbeingstubbornandfocused.Lowconscientiousnessisassociatedwithflexibilityandspontaneity,butcanalsoappearassloppinessandlackofreliability.[36]Highscoresonconscientiousnessindicateapreferenceforplannedratherthanspontaneousbehavior.[40]Theaveragelevelofconscientiousnessrisesamongyoungadultsandthendeclinesamongolderadults.[41] Sampleitems[edit] Iamalwaysprepared. Ipayattentiontodetails. Igetchoresdonerightaway. Ilikeorder. Ifollowaschedule. Iamexactinginmywork. Ileavemybelongingsaround.(Reversed) Imakeamessofthings.(Reversed) Ioftenforgettoputthingsbackintheirproperplace.(Reversed) Ishirkmyduties.(Reversed)[39] Extraversion[edit] Extraversionischaracterizedbybreadthofactivities(asopposedtodepth),surgencyfromexternalactivity/situations,andenergycreationfromexternalmeans.[42]Thetraitismarkedbypronouncedengagementwiththeexternalworld.Extravertsenjoyinteractingwithpeople,andareoftenperceivedasfullofenergy.Theytendtobeenthusiastic,action-orientedindividuals.Theypossesshighgroupvisibility,liketotalk,andassertthemselves.Extravertedpeoplemayappearmoredominantinsocialsettings,asopposedtointrovertedpeopleinthissetting.[43] Introvertshavelowersocialengagementandenergylevelsthanextraverts.Theytendtoseemquiet,low-key,deliberate,andlessinvolvedinthesocialworld.Theirlackofsocialinvolvementshouldnotbeinterpretedasshynessordepression;insteadtheyaremoreindependentoftheirsocialworldthanextraverts.Introvertsneedlessstimulation,andmoretimealonethanextraverts.Thisdoesnotmeanthattheyareunfriendlyorantisocial;rather,theyarereservedinsocialsituations.[1] Generally,peopleareacombinationofextraversionandintroversion,withpersonalitypsychologistHansEysencksuggestingamodelbywhichindividualneurologicaldifferencesproducethesetraits.[43]: 106  Sampleitems[edit] Iamthelifeoftheparty. Ifeelcomfortablearoundpeople. Istartconversations. Italktoalotofdifferentpeopleatparties. Idonotmindbeingthecenterofattention. Idonottalkalot.(Reversed) Ikeepinthebackground.(Reversed) Ihavelittletosay.(Reversed) Idonotliketodrawattentiontomyself.(Reversed) Iamquietaroundstrangers.(Reversed) [39] Agreeableness[edit] Theagreeablenesstraitreflectsindividualdifferencesingeneralconcernforsocialharmony.Agreeableindividualsvaluegettingalongwithothers.Theyaregenerallyconsiderate,kind,generous,trustingandtrustworthy,helpful,andwillingtocompromisetheirinterestswithothers.[1]Agreeablepeoplealsohaveanoptimisticviewofhumannature. Disagreeableindividualsplaceself-interestabovegettingalongwithothers.Theyaregenerallyunconcernedwithothers'well-beingandarelesslikelytoextendthemselvesforotherpeople.Sometimestheirskepticismaboutothers'motivescausesthemtobesuspicious,unfriendly,anduncooperative.[44]Lowagreeablenesspersonalitiesareoftencompetitiveorchallengingpeople,whichcanbeseenasargumentativeoruntrustworthy.[36] Becauseagreeablenessisasocialtrait,researchhasshownthatone'sagreeablenesspositivelycorrelateswiththequalityofrelationshipswithone'steammembers.Agreeablenessalsopositivelypredictstransformationalleadershipskills.Inastudyconductedamong169participantsinleadershippositionsinavarietyofprofessions,individualswereaskedtotakeapersonalitytestandhavetwoevaluationscompletedbydirectlysupervisedsubordinates.Leaderswithhighlevelsofagreeablenessweremorelikelytobeconsideredtransformationalratherthantransactional.Althoughtherelationshipwasnotstrong(r=0.32,β=0.28,p<0.01),itwasthestrongestoftheBigFivetraits.However,thesamestudyshowednopredictivepowerofleadershipeffectivenessasevaluatedbytheleader'sdirectsupervisor.[45] Conversely,agreeablenesshasbeenfoundtobenegativelyrelatedtotransactionalleadershipinthemilitary.AstudyofAsianmilitaryunitsshowedleaderswithahighlevelofagreeablenesstobemorelikelytoreceivealowratingfortransformationalleadershipskills.[46]Therefore,withfurtherresearch,organizationsmaybeabletodetermineanindividual'spotentialforperformancebasedontheirpersonalitytraits.Forinstance,[47]intheirjournalarticle"WhichPersonalityAttributesAreMostImportantintheWorkplace?"PaulSackettandPhilipWalmsleyclaimthatconscientiousnessandagreeablenessare"importanttosuccessacrossmanydifferentjobs." Sampleitems[edit] Iaminterestedinpeople. Isympathizewithothers'feelings. Ihaveasoftheart. Itaketimeoutforothers. Ifeelothers'emotions. Imakepeoplefeelatease. Iamnotreallyinterestedinothers.(Reversed) Iinsultpeople.(Reversed) Iamnotinterestedinotherpeople'sproblems.(Reversed) Ifeellittleconcernforothers.(Reversed) [39] Neuroticism[edit] Neuroticismisthetendencytoexperiencenegativeemotions,suchasanger,anxiety,ordepression.[48]Itissometimescalledemotionalinstability,orisreversedandreferredtoasemotionalstability.AccordingtoHansEysenck's(1967)theoryofpersonality,neuroticismisinterlinkedwithlowtoleranceforstressoraversivestimuli.[49]Neuroticismisaclassictemperamenttraitthathasbeenstudiedintemperamentresearchfordecades,beforeitwasadaptedbytheFiveFactorsModel.[50] Thosewhoscorehighinneuroticismareemotionallyreactiveandvulnerabletostress.Theyaremorelikelytointerpretordinarysituationsasthreatening.Theycanperceiveminorfrustrationsashopelesslydifficult.Theyalsotendtobeflippantinthewaytheyexpressemotions.Theirnegativeemotionalreactionstendtopersistforunusuallylongperiodsoftime,whichmeanstheyareofteninabadmood.Forinstance,neuroticismisconnectedtoapessimisticapproachtowardwork,tocertaintythatworkimpedespersonalrelationships,andtohigherlevelsofanxietyfromthepressuresatwork.[51]Furthermore,thosewhoscorehighonneuroticismmaydisplaymoreskin-conductancereactivitythanthosewhoscorelowonneuroticism.[49][52]Theseproblemsinemotionalregulationcandiminishtheabilityofapersonscoringhighonneuroticismtothinkclearly,makedecisions,andcopeeffectivelywithstress.Lackingcontentmentinone'slifeachievementscancorrelatewithhighneuroticismscoresandincreaseone'slikelihoodoffallingintoclinicaldepression.Moreover,individualshighinneuroticismtendtoexperiencemorenegativelifeevents,[48][53]butneuroticismalsochangesinresponsetopositiveandnegativelifeexperiences.[48][53]Also,individualswithhigherlevelsofneuroticismtendtohaveworsepsychologicalwell-being.[54] Attheotherendofthescale,individualswhoscorelowinneuroticismarelesseasilyupsetandarelessemotionallyreactive.Theytendtobecalm,emotionallystable,andfreefrompersistentnegativefeelings.Freedomfromnegativefeelingsdoesnotmeanthatlowscorersexperiencealotofpositivefeelings.[55] NeuroticismissimilarbutnotidenticaltobeingneuroticintheFreudiansense(i.e.,neurosis).Somepsychologists[who?]prefertocallneuroticismbythetermemotionalinstabilitytodifferentiateitfromthetermneuroticinacareertest. Sampleitems[edit] Igetstressedouteasily. Iworryaboutthings. Iameasilydisturbed. Igetupseteasily. Ichangemymoodalot. Ihavefrequentmoodswings. Igetirritatedeasily. Ioftenfeelblue. Iamrelaxedmostofthetime.(Reversed) Iseldomfeelblue.(Reversed) [39] History[edit] Earlytraitresearch[edit] HistoricallyprecedingtheBigFivepersonalitytraits(B5)ortheFiveFactorsModel(FFM)wasHippocrates'sfourtypesoftemperament:sanguine,phlegmatic,choleric,andmelancholic.Thesanguinetypeismostcloselyrelatedtoemotionalstabilityandextraversion,thephlegmatictypeisalsostablebutintroverted,thecholerictypeisunstableandextraverted,andthemelancholictypeisunstableandintroverted.[56] In1884,SirFrancisGaltonwasthefirstpersonwhoisknowntohaveinvestigatedthehypothesisthatitispossibletoderiveacomprehensivetaxonomyofhumanpersonalitytraitsbysamplinglanguage:thelexicalhypothesis.[9] In1936,GordonAllportandS.OdbertputSirFrancisGalton'shypothesisintopracticebyextracting4,504adjectiveswhichtheybelievedweredescriptiveofobservableandrelativelypermanenttraitsfromthedictionariesatthattime.[57] In1940,RaymondCattellretainedtheadjectives,andeliminatedsynonymstoreducethetotalto171.[11]Heconstructedaself-reportinstrumentfortheclustersofpersonalitytraitshefoundfromtheadjectives,whichhecalledtheSixteenPersonalityFactorQuestionnaire. In1949,thefirstsystematicmultivariateresearchofpersonalitywasconductedbyJoyP.Guilford.Guilfordanalyzedtenfactorsofpersonality,whichhemeasuredbytheGuilford-ZimmermanTemperamentSurvey.Thesescalesincludedgeneralactivity(energyvsinactivity);restraint(seriousnessvsimpulsiveness);ascendance(socialboldnessvssubmissiveness);sociability(socialinterestvsshyness);emotionalstability(evennessvsfluctuationofmood);objectivity(thick-skinnedvshypersensitive);friendliness(agreeablenessvsbelligerence);thoughtfulness(reflectivevsdisconnected),personalrelations(tolerancevshypercritical);masculinity(hard-boiledvssympathetic).[56]TheseoverlappingscaleswerelaterfurtheranalyzedbyGuilfordetal.,andcondensedintothreedimensions:socialactivity(generalactivity,ascendence,sociability),introversion-extraversion(restraint,thoughtfulness),andemotionalhealth(emotionalstability,objectivity,friendliness,personalrelations).[56] Basedonasubsetofonly20ofthe36dimensionsthatCattellhadoriginallydiscovered,ErnestTupesandRaymondChristal(1961)claimedtohavefoundjustfivebroadfactorswhichtheylabeled:"surgency","agreeableness","dependability","emotionalstability",and"culture".[12]WarrenNormansubsequentlyrelabeled"dependability"as"conscientiousness".[13] Hiatusinresearch[edit] Duringthelate1960sto1970s,thechangingzeitgeistmadepublicationofpersonalityresearchdifficult. Inhis1968bookPersonalityandAssessment,WalterMischelassertedthatpersonalityinstrumentscouldnotpredictbehaviorwithacorrelationofmorethan0.3.SocialpsychologistslikeMischelarguedthatattitudesandbehaviorwerenotstable,butvariedwiththesituation.Predictingbehaviorfrompersonalityinstrumentswasclaimedtobeimpossible.[bywhom?] Renewedattention[edit] Theparadigmshiftbacktoacceptanceofthefive-factormodelcameintheearly1980s. Ina1980symposiuminHonolulu,fourprominentresearchers,LewisGoldberg,NaomiTakemoto-Chock,AndrewComrey,andJohnM.Digman,reviewedtheavailablepersonalityinstrumentsoftheday.[58] Thiseventwasfollowedbywidespreadacceptanceofthefive-factormodelamongpersonalityresearchersduringthe1980s. By1983,experimentshaddemonstratedthatthepredictionsofpersonalitymodelscorrelatedbetterwithreal-lifebehaviorunderstressfulemotionalconditions,asopposedtotypicalsurveyadministrationunderneutralemotionalconditions.[59] PeterSavilleandhisteamincludedthefive-factor"Pentagon"modelwiththeoriginalOPQin1984.PentagonwascloselyfollowedbytheNEOfive-factorpersonalityinventory,publishedbyCostaandMcCraein1985.However,themethodologyemployedinconstructingtheNEOinstrumenthasbeensubjecttocriticalscrutiny(seesectionbelow).[60]: 431–33  Emergingmethodologiesincreasinglyconfirmedpersonalitytheoriesduringthe1980s.Thoughgenerallyfailingtopredictsingleinstancesofbehavior,researchersfoundthattheycouldpredictpatternsofbehaviorbyaggregatinglargenumbersofobservations.[61]Asaresult,correlationsbetweenpersonalityandbehaviorincreasedsubstantially,anditwasclearthat"personality"didinfactexist.[62] Personalityandsocialpsychologistsnowgenerallyagreethatbothpersonalandsituationalvariablesareneededtoaccountforhumanbehavior.[63]Traittheoriesamassedfavorableevidence,andtherewasaresurgenceofinterestinthisarea.[64]Inthe1980s,LewisGoldbergstartedhisownlexicalproject,againemphasizingfivebroadfactors[65]whichhelaterlabeledthe"BigFive". In2007,ColinG.DeYoung,LenaC.QuiltyandJordanB.Petersonconcludedthatthe10aspectsoftheBigFivemayhavedistinctbiologicalsubstrates.[66]ThiswasderivedthroughfactoranalysesoftwodatasampleswiththeInternationalPersonalityItemPool(L.R.Goldberg,1999),[67]followedbycross-correlationwithscoresderivedfrom10geneticfactorsidentifiedasunderlyingthesharedvarianceamongtheRevisedNEOPersonalityInventoryfacets(K.L.Jangetal.,2002).[68] ColinG.DeYoungetal.(2016)researchedtheBigFivemodelandhowthefivebroadfactorsarecompatiblewiththe25scalesofthePersonalityInventory(PID-5)fortheDSM-5.DeYoungetal.considersthePID-5tomeasurefacet-leveltraits.[69]BecausetheBigFivefactorsarebroaderthanthe25scalesofthePID-5,thereisdisagreementinpersonalitypsychologyrelatingtothenumberoffactorswithintheBigFive.AccordingtoDeYoungetal.(2016),"thenumberofvalidfacetsmightbelimitedonlybythenumberoftraitsthatcanbeshowntohavediscriminantvalidity."[69] TheFFM-associatedtestwasusedbyCambridgeAnalytica,andwaspartofthe"psychographicprofiling"controversyduringthe2016USpresidentialelection.[70][71] Biologicalanddevelopmentalfactors[edit] Thereofcoursearefactorsthatinfluenceapersonalityandthesearecalledthedeterminantsofpersonality.Thesefactorsdeterminethetraitswhichapersondevelopsinthecourseofdevelopmentfromachild. Temperamentvis-à-vispersonality[edit] Therearedebatesbetweenresearchersoftemperamentandresearchersofpersonalityastowhetherornotbiologicallybaseddifferencesdefineaconceptoftemperamentorapartofpersonality.Thepresenceofsuchdifferencesinpre-culturalindividuals(suchasanimalsoryounginfants)suggeststhattheybelongtotemperamentsincepersonalityisasocio-culturalconcept.Forthisreasondevelopmentalpsychologistsgenerallyinterpretindividualdifferencesinchildrenasanexpressionoftemperamentratherthanpersonality.[72]Someresearchersarguethattemperamentsandpersonalitytraitsareage-specificmanifestationsofvirtuallythesamelatentqualities.[73][74]Somebelievethatearlychildhoodtemperamentsmaybecomeadolescentandadultpersonalitytraitsasindividuals'basicgeneticcharacteristicsactively,reactively,andpassivelyinteractwiththeirchangingenvironments.[72][73][75][clarificationneeded] Researchersofadulttemperamentpointoutthat,similarlytosex,age,andmentalillness,temperamentisbasedonbiochemicalsystemswhereaspersonalityisaproductofsocializationofanindividualpossessingthesefourtypesoffeatures.Temperamentinteractswithsocial-culturalfactors,butstillcannotbecontrolledoreasilychangedbythesefactors.[76][77][78][79] Therefore,itissuggestedthattemperamentshouldbekeptasanindependentconceptforfurtherstudiesandnotbeconflatedwithpersonality.[80]Moreover,temperamentreferstodynamicalfeaturesofbehavior(energetic,tempo,sensitivityandemotionality-related),whereaspersonalityistobeconsideredapsycho-socialconstructcomprisingthecontentcharacteristicsofhumanbehavior(suchasvalues,attitudes,habits,preferences,personalhistory,self-image).[77][78][79]TemperamentresearcherspointoutthatthelackofattentiontoextanttemperamentresearchbythedevelopersoftheBigFivemodelleadtoanoverlapbetweenitsdimensionsanddimensionsdescribedinmultipletemperamentmodelsmuchearlier.Forexample,neuroticismreflectsthetraditionaltemperamentdimensionofemotionality,extraversionthetemperamentdimensionof"energy"or"activity",andopennesstoexperiencethetemperamentdimensionofsensation-seeking.[79][81] Heritability[edit] PersonalityresearchoftenusestwinstudiestodeterminehowmuchheritableandenvironmentalfactorscontributetotheBigFivepersonalitytraits. A1996behaviouralgeneticsstudyoftwinssuggestedthatheritabilityandenvironmentalfactorsbothinfluenceallfivefactorstothesamedegree.[82]Amongfourtwinstudiesexaminedin2003,themeanpercentageforheritabilitywascalculatedforeachpersonalityanditwasconcludedthatheritabilityinfluencedthefivefactorsbroadly.Theself-reportmeasureswereasfollows:opennesstoexperiencewasestimatedtohavea57%geneticinfluence,extraversion54%,conscientiousness49%,neuroticism48%,andagreeableness42%.[83] Non-humans[edit] TheBig5personalitytraitscanbeseeninchimpanzees. TheBigFivepersonalitytraitshavebeenassessedinsomenon-humanspeciesbutmethodologyisdebatable.Inoneseriesofstudies,humanratingsofchimpanzeesusingtheHominoidPersonalityQuestionnaire,revealedfactorsofextraversion,conscientiousnessandagreeableness –aswellasanadditionalfactorofdominance –acrosshundredsofchimpanzeesinzoologicalparks,alargenaturalisticsanctuary,andaresearchlaboratory.Neuroticismandopennessfactorswerefoundinanoriginalzoosample,butwerenotreplicatedinanewzoosampleorinothersettings(perhapsreflectingthedesignoftheCPQ).[84]Astudyreviewfoundthatmarkersforthethreedimensionsextraversion,neuroticism,andagreeablenesswerefoundmostconsistentlyacrossdifferentspecies,followedby openness;onlychimpanzeesshowedmarkersforconscientiousbehavior.[85] Astudycompletedin2020concludedthatdolphinshavesomesimilarpersonalitytraitstohumans.Botharelargebrainedintelligentanimalsbuthaveevolvedseparatelyformillionsofyears.[86] Developmentduringchildhoodandadolescence[edit] ResearchontheBigFive,andpersonalityingeneral,hasfocusedprimarilyonindividualdifferencesinadulthood,ratherthaninchildhoodandadolescence,andoftenincludetemperamenttraits.[72][73][75]Recently,therehasbeengrowingrecognitionoftheneedtostudychildandadolescentpersonalitytraitdevelopmentinordertounderstandhowtraitsdevelopandchangethroughoutthelifespan.[87] RecentstudieshavebeguntoexplorethedevelopmentaloriginsandtrajectoriesoftheBigFiveamongchildrenandadolescents,especiallythosethatrelatetotemperament.[72][73][75]Manyresearchershavesoughttodistinguishbetweenpersonalityandtemperament.[88]Temperamentoftenreferstoearlybehavioralandaffectivecharacteristicsthatarethoughttobedrivenprimarilybygenes.[88]Modelsoftemperamentoftenincludefourtraitdimensions:surgency/sociability,negativeemotionality,persistence/effortfulcontrol,andactivitylevel.[88]Someofthesedifferencesintemperamentareevidentat,ifnotbefore,birth.[72][73]Forexample,bothparentsandresearchersrecognizethatsomenewborninfantsarepeacefulandeasilysoothedwhileothersarecomparativelyfussyandhardtocalm.[73]Unliketemperament,however,manyresearchersviewthedevelopmentofpersonalityasgraduallyoccurringthroughoutchildhood.[88]Contrarytosomeresearcherswhoquestionwhetherchildrenhavestablepersonalitytraits,BigFiveorotherwise,[89]mostresearcherscontendthattherearesignificantpsychologicaldifferencesbetweenchildrenthatareassociatedwithrelativelystable,distinct,andsalientbehaviorpatterns.[72][73][75] Thestructure,manifestations,anddevelopmentoftheBigFiveinchildhoodandadolescencehavebeenstudiedusingavarietyofmethods,includingparent-andteacher-ratings,[90][91][92]preadolescentandadolescentself-andpeer-ratings,[93][94][95]andobservationsofparent-childinteractions.[75]Resultsfromthesestudiessupporttherelativestabilityofpersonalitytraitsacrossthehumanlifespan,atleastfrompreschoolagethroughadulthood.[73][75][96][97]Morespecifically,researchsuggeststhatfouroftheBigFive–namelyExtraversion,Neuroticism,Conscientiousness,andAgreeableness–reliablydescribepersonalitydifferencesinchildhood,adolescence,andadulthood.[73][75][96][97]However,someevidencesuggeststhatOpennessmaynotbeafundamental,stablepartofchildhoodpersonality.AlthoughsomeresearchershavefoundthatOpennessinchildrenandadolescentsrelatestoattributessuchascreativity,curiosity,imagination,andintellect,[98]manyresearchershavefailedtofinddistinctindividualdifferencesinOpennessinchildhoodandearlyadolescence.[73][75]Potentially,Opennessmay(a)manifestinunique,currentlyunknownwaysinchildhoodor(b)mayonlymanifestaschildrendevelopsociallyandcognitively.[73][75]OtherstudieshavefoundevidenceforalloftheBigFivetraitsinchildhoodandadolescenceaswellastwootherchild-specifictraits:IrritabilityandActivity.[99]Despitethesespecificdifferences,themajorityoffindingssuggestthatpersonalitytraits–particularlyExtraversion,Neuroticism,Conscientiousness,andAgreeableness–areevidentinchildhoodandadolescenceandareassociatedwithdistinctsocial-emotionalpatternsofbehaviorthatarelargelyconsistentwithadultmanifestationsofthosesamepersonalitytraits.[73][75][96][97]Someresearchershaveproposedtheyouthpersonalitytraitisbestdescribedbysixtraitdimensions:neuroticism,extraversion,opennesstoexperience,agreeableness,conscientiousness,andactivity.[100]Despitesomepreliminaryevidenceforthis"LittleSix"model,[88][100]researchinthisareahasbeendelayedbyalackofavailablemeasures. Previousresearchhasfoundevidencethatmostadultsbecomemoreagreeable,conscientious,andlessneuroticastheyage.[101]Thishasbeenreferredtoasthematurationeffect.[74]Manyresearchershavesoughttoinvestigatehowtrendsinadultpersonalitydevelopmentcomparetotrendsinyouthpersonalitydevelopment.[100]Twomainpopulation-levelindiceshavebeenimportantinthisareaofresearch:rank-orderconsistencyandmean-levelconsistency.Rank-orderconsistencyindicatestherelativeplacementofindividualswithinagroup.[102]Mean-levelconsistencyindicateswhethergroupsincreaseordecreaseoncertaintraitsthroughoutthelifetime.[101] Findingsfromthesestudiesindicatethat,consistentwithadultpersonalitytrends,youthpersonalitybecomesincreasinglymorestableintermsofrank-orderthroughoutchildhood.[100]Unlikeadultpersonalityresearch,whichindicatesthatpeoplebecomeagreeable,conscientious,andemotionallystablewithage,[101]somefindingsinyouthpersonalityresearchhaveindicatedthatmeanlevelsofagreeableness,conscientiousness,andopennesstoexperiencedeclinefromlatechildhoodtolateadolescence.[100]Thedisruptionhypothesis,whichproposesthatbiological,social,andpsychologicalchangesexperiencedduringyouthresultintemporarydipsinmaturity,hasbeenproposedtoexplainthesefindings.[88][100] Extraversion/positiveemotionality[edit] InBigFivestudies,extraversionhasbeenassociatedwithsurgency.[72]ChildrenwithhighExtraversionareenergetic,talkative,social,anddominantwithchildrenandadults;whereas,childrenwithlowExtraversiontendtobequiet,calm,inhibited,andsubmissivetootherchildrenandadults.[73]IndividualdifferencesinExtraversionfirstmanifestininfancyasvaryinglevelsofpositiveemotionality.[103]Thesedifferencesinturnpredictsocialandphysicalactivityduringlaterchildhoodandmayrepresent,orbeassociatedwith,thebehavioralactivationsystem.[72][73]Inchildren,Extraversion/PositiveEmotionalityincludesfoursub-traits:threetraitsthataresimilartothepreviouslydescribedtraitsoftemperament–activity,sociability,shyness,[104][50]andthetraitofdominance. Activity:Similarlytofindingsintemperamentresearch,childrenwithhighactivitytendtohavehighenergylevelsandmoreintenseandfrequentmotoractivitycomparedtotheirpeers.[73][90][105]Salientdifferencesinactivityreliablymanifestininfancy,persistthroughadolescence,andfadeasmotoractivitydecreasesinadulthood[106]orpotentiallydevelopsintotalkativeness.[73][107] Dominance:Childrenwithhighdominancetendtoinfluencethebehaviorofothers,particularlytheirpeers,toobtaindesirablerewardsoroutcomes.[73][108][109]Suchchildrenaregenerallyskilledatorganizingactivitiesandgames[110]anddeceivingothersbycontrollingtheirnonverbalbehavior.[111] Shyness:Childrenwithhighshynessaregenerallysociallywithdrawn,nervous,andinhibitedaroundstrangers.[73]Intime,suchchildrenmaybecomefearfulevenaround"knownothers",especiallyiftheirpeersrejectthem.[73][112]Similarpatternwasdescribedintemperamentlongitudinalstudiesofshyness[50] Sociability:Childrenwithhighsociabilitygenerallyprefertobewithothersratherthanalone.[73][113]Duringmiddlechildhood,thedistinctionbetweenlowsociabilityandhighshynessbecomesmorepronounced,particularlyaschildrengaingreatercontroloverhowandwheretheyspendtheirtime.[73][114][115] Developmentthroughoutadulthood[edit] Manystudiesoflongitudinaldata,whichcorrelatepeople'stestscoresovertime,andcross-sectionaldata,whichcomparepersonalitylevelsacrossdifferentagegroups,showahighdegreeofstabilityinpersonalitytraitsduringadulthood,especiallyNeuroticismtraitthatisoftenregardedasatemperamenttrait[116]similarlytolongitudinalresearchintemperamentforthesametraits.[50]Itisshownthatthepersonalitystabilizesforworking-ageindividualswithinaboutfouryearsafterstartingworking.Thereisalsolittleevidencethatadverselifeeventscanhaveanysignificantimpactonthepersonalityofindividuals.[117]Morerecentresearchandmeta-analysesofpreviousstudies,however,indicatethatchangeoccursinallfivetraitsatvariouspointsinthelifespan.Thenewresearchshowsevidenceforamaturationeffect.Onaverage,levelsofagreeablenessandconscientiousnesstypicallyincreasewithtime,whereasextraversion,neuroticism,andopennesstendtodecrease.[118]ResearchhasalsodemonstratedthatchangesinBigFivepersonalitytraitsdependontheindividual'scurrentstageofdevelopment.Forexample,levelsofagreeablenessandconscientiousnessdemonstrateanegativetrendduringchildhoodandearlyadolescencebeforetrendingupwardsduringlateadolescenceandintoadulthood.[87]Inadditiontothesegroupeffects,thereareindividualdifferences:differentpeopledemonstrateuniquepatternsofchangeatallstagesoflife.[119] Inaddition,someresearch(Fleeson,2001)suggeststhattheBigFiveshouldnotbeconceivedofasdichotomies(suchasextraversionvs.introversion)butascontinua.Eachindividualhasthecapacitytomovealongeachdimensionascircumstances(socialortemporal)change.Heisorsheisthereforenotsimplyononeendofeachtraitdichotomybutisablendofboth,exhibitingsomecharacteristicsmoreoftenthanothers:[120] Researchregardingpersonalitywithgrowingagehassuggestedthatasindividualsentertheirelderyears(79–86),thosewithlowerIQseearaiseinextraversion,butadeclineinconscientiousnessandphysicalwell-being.[121] Groupdifferences[edit] Genderdifferences[edit] Somecross-culturalresearchhasshownsomepatternsofgenderdifferencesonresponsestotheNEO-PI-RandtheBigFiveInventory.[122][123]Forexample,womenconsistentlyreporthigherNeuroticism,Agreeableness,warmth(anextraversionfacet)andopennesstofeelings,andmenoftenreporthigherassertiveness(afacetofextraversion)andopennesstoideasasassessedbytheNEO-PI-R.[124] Astudyofgenderdifferencesin55nationsusingtheBigFiveInventoryfoundthatwomentendedtobesomewhathigherthanmeninneuroticism,extraversion,agreeableness,andconscientiousness.Thedifferenceinneuroticismwasthemostprominentandconsistent,withsignificantdifferencesfoundin49ofthe55nationssurveyed.[125] Genderdifferencesinpersonalitytraitsarelargestinprosperous,healthy,andmoregender-egalitariannations.Theexplanationforthisgivenbytheresearchersofa2001paperisthatactsbywomeninindividualistic,egalitariancountriesaremorelikelytobeattributedtotheirpersonality,ratherthanbeingattributedtoascribedgenderroleswithincollectivist,traditionalcountries.[124] Measureddifferencesinthemagnitudeofsexdifferencesbetweenmoreorlessdevelopedworldregionswerecausedbythechangesinthemeasuredpersonalitiesofmen,notwomen,intheserespectiveregions.Thatis,meninhighlydevelopedworldregionswerelessneurotic,lessextraverted,lessconscientiousandlessagreeablecomparedtomeninlessdevelopedworldregions.Women,ontheotherhandtendednottodifferinpersonalitytraitsacrossregions.[125] Theauthorsofthis2008studyspeculatedthatresource-poorenvironments(thatis,countrieswithlowlevelsofdevelopment)mayinhibitthedevelopmentofgenderdifferences,whereasresource-richenvironmentsfacilitatethem.Thismaybebecausemalesrequiremoreresourcesthanfemalesinordertoreachtheirfullpersonalitypotentialoflessconscientious,lessagreeable,lessneurotic,andlessextraverted.Theauthorsalsospeculatedintheirdiscussionthatduetodifferentevolutionarypressures,menmayhaveevolvedtobemorerisktakingandsociallydominant,whereaswomenevolvedtobemorecautiousandnurturing.Theauthorsfurtherpositedthatancienthunter-gatherersocietiesmayhavebeenmoreegalitarianthanlateragriculturallyorientedsocieties.Hence,thedevelopmentofgenderinequalitiesmayhaveactedtoconstrainthedevelopmentofgenderdifferencesinpersonalitythatoriginallyevolvedinhunter-gatherersocieties.Asmodernsocietieshavebecomemoreegalitarian,again,itmaybethatinnatesexdifferencesarenolongerconstrainedandhencemanifestmorefullythaninless-wealthycultures.[125]Thisisoneinterpretationoftheresultsamongotherpossibleinterpretations. Birth-orderdifferences[edit] Mainarticle:Birthorder FrankSullowayarguesthatfirstbornsaremoreconscientious,moresociallydominant,lessagreeable,andlessopentonewideascomparedtosiblingsthatwerebornlater.Large-scalestudiesusingrandomsamplesandself-reportpersonalitytests,however,havefoundmildereffectsthanSullowayclaimed,ornosignificanteffectsofbirthorderonpersonality.[126][127]AstudyusingtheProjectTalentdata,whichisalarge-scalerepresentativesurveyofAmericanhighschoolstudents,with272,003eligibleparticipants,foundstatisticallysignificantbutverysmalleffects(theaverageabsolutecorrelationbetweenbirthorderandpersonalitywas.02)ofbirthorderonpersonality,suchthatfirstbornswereslightlymoreconscientious,dominant,andagreeable,whilealsobeinglessneuroticandlesssociable.[128]Parentalsocioeconomicstatusandparticipantgenderhadmuchlargercorrelationswithpersonality. In2002,theJournalofPsychologypostedaBigFivePersonalityTraitDifference;whereresearchersexploredtherelationshipbetweenthefive-factormodelandtheUniversal-DiverseOrientation(UDO)incounselortrainees.(Thompson,R.,Brossart,D.,andMivielle,A.,2002).UDOisknownasonesocialattitudethatproducesastrongawarenessand/oracceptancetowardsthesimilaritiesanddifferencesamongindividuals.(Miville,M.,Romas,J.,Johnson,J.,andLon,R.2002)Thestudyfoundthatthecounselortraineesthataremoreopentotheideaofcreativeexpression(afacetofOpennesstoExperience,OpennesstoAesthetics)amongindividualsaremorelikelytoworkwithadiversegroupofclients,andfeelcomfortableintheirrole.[129] Culturaldifferences[edit] Mainarticle:BigFivepersonalitytraitsandculture TheBigFivehavebeenpursuedinavarietyoflanguagesandcultures,suchasGerman,[130]Chinese,[131]andIndian.[132][133]Forexample,ThompsonhasclaimedtofindtheBigFivestructureacrossseveralculturesusinganinternationalEnglishlanguagescale.[134] Cheung,vandeVijver,andLeong(2011)suggest,however,thattheOpennessfactorisparticularlyunsupportedinAsiancountriesandthatadifferentfifthfactorisidentified.[135] RecentworkhasfoundrelationshipsbetweenGeertHofstede'sculturalfactors,Individualism,PowerDistance,Masculinity,andUncertaintyAvoidance,withtheaverageBigFivescoresinacountry.[136]Forinstance,thedegreetowhichacountryvaluesindividualismcorrelateswithitsaverageextraversion,whereaspeoplelivingincultureswhichareacceptingoflargeinequalitiesintheirpowerstructurestendtoscoresomewhathigheronconscientiousness.[137][138] Personalitydifferencesaroundtheworldmightevenhavecontributedtotheemergenceofdifferentpoliticalsystems.Arecentstudyhasfoundthatcountries'averagepersonalitytraitlevelsarecorrelatedwiththeirpoliticalsystems:countrieswithhigheraveragetraitOpennesstendedtohavemoredemocraticinstitutions,anassociationthatheldevenafterfactoringoutotherrelevantinfluencessuchaseconomicdevelopment.[139] AttemptstoreplicatetheBigFiveinothercountrieswithlocaldictionarieshavesucceededinsomecountriesbutnotinothers.Apparently,forinstance,Hungariansdonotappeartohaveasingleagreeablenessfactor.[140]Otherresearchershavefoundevidenceforagreeablenessbutnotforotherfactors.[141]Itisimportanttorecognizethatindividualdifferencesintraitsarerelevantinaspecificculturalcontext,andthatthetraitsdonothavetheireffectsoutsideofthatcontext.[43]: 189  Health[edit] Personalitychangefromdisease[edit] Somediseasescausechangesinpersonality.Forexample,althoughgradualmemoryimpairmentisthehallmarkfeatureofAlzheimer'sdisease,asystematicreviewofpersonalitychangesinAlzheimer'sdiseasebyRobinsWahlinandByrne,publishedin2011,foundsystematicandconsistenttraitchangesmappedtotheBigFive.Thelargestchangeobservedwasadecreaseinconscientiousness.ThenextmostsignificantchangeswereanincreaseinNeuroticismanddecreaseinExtraversion,butOpennessandAgreeablenesswerealsodecreased.Thesechangesinpersonalitycouldassistwithearlydiagnosis.[142] Personalitydisorders[edit] Mainarticle:Personalitydisorders Asof2002[update],therewereoverfiftypublishedstudiesrelatingtheFFMtopersonalitydisorders.[143]Sincethattime,quiteanumberofadditionalstudieshaveexpandedonthisresearchbaseandprovidedfurtherempiricalsupportforunderstandingtheDSMpersonalitydisordersintermsoftheFFMdomains.[144] Inherreviewofthepersonalitydisorderliteraturepublishedin2007,LeeAnnaClarkassertedthat"thefive-factormodelofpersonalityiswidelyacceptedasrepresentingthehigher-orderstructureofbothnormalandabnormalpersonalitytraits".[145]However,otherresearchersdisagreethatthismodeliswidelyaccepted(seethesectionCritiquebelow)andsuggestthatitsimplyreplicatesearlytemperamentresearch.[79][146]Noticeably,FFMpublicationsnevercomparetheirfindingstotemperamentmodelseventhoughtemperamentandmentaldisorders(especiallypersonalitydisorders)arethoughttobebasedonthesameneurotransmitterimbalances,justtovaryingdegrees.[79][147][148][149] Thefive-factormodelwasclaimedtosignificantlypredictalltenpersonalitydisordersymptomsandoutperformtheMinnesotaMultiphasicPersonalityInventory(MMPI)inthepredictionofborderline,avoidant,anddependentpersonalitydisordersymptoms.[150]However,mostpredictionsrelatedtoanincreaseinNeuroticismandadecreaseinAgreeableness,andthereforedidnotdifferentiatebetweenthedisordersverywell.[151] Commonmentaldisorders[edit] Averagedeviationoffivefactorpersonalityprofileofheroinusersfromthepopulationmean.[152]NstandsforNeuroticism,EforExtraversion,OforOpennesstoexperience,AforAgreeablenessandCforConscientiousness. Convergingevidencefromseveralnationallyrepresentativestudieshasestablishedthreeclassesofmentaldisorderswhichareespeciallycommoninthegeneralpopulation:Depressivedisorders(e.g.,majordepressivedisorder(MDD),dysthymicdisorder),[153]anxietydisorders(e.g.,generalizedanxietydisorder(GAD),post-traumaticstressdisorder(PTSD),panicdisorder,agoraphobia,specificphobia,andsocialphobia),[153]andsubstanceusedisorders(SUDs).[154][155]TheFiveFactorpersonalityprofilesofusersofdifferentdrugsmaybedifferent.[156]Forexample,thetypicalprofileforheroinusersis N ⇑ , O ⇑ , A ⇓ , C ⇓ {\displaystyle{\rm{N}}\Uparrow,{\rm{O}}\Uparrow,{\rm{A}}\Downarrow,{\rm{C}}\Downarrow} ,whereasforecstasyusersthehighlevelofNisnotexpectedbutEishigher: E ⇑ , O ⇑ , A ⇓ , C ⇓ {\displaystyle{\rm{E}}\Uparrow,{\rm{O}}\Uparrow,{\rm{A}}\Downarrow,{\rm{C}}\Downarrow} .[156] Thesecommonmentaldisorders(CMDs)havebeenempiricallylinkedtotheBigFivepersonalitytraits,neuroticisminparticular.Numerousstudieshavefoundthathavinghighscoresofneuroticismsignificantlyincreasesone'sriskfordevelopingacommonmentaldisorder.[157][158]Alarge-scalemeta-analysis(n>75,000)examiningtherelationshipbetweenalloftheBigFivepersonalitytraitsandcommonmentaldisordersfoundthatlowconscientiousnessyieldedconsistentlystrongeffectsforeachcommonmentaldisorderexamined(i.e.,MDD,dysthymicdisorder,GAD,PTSD,panicdisorder,agoraphobia,socialphobia,specificphobia,andSUD).[159]Thisfindingparallelsresearchonphysicalhealth,whichhasestablishedthatconscientiousnessisthestrongestpersonalitypredictorofreducedmortality,andishighlynegativelycorrelatedwithmakingpoorhealthchoices.[160][161]Inregardstotheotherpersonalitydomains,themeta-analysisfoundthatallcommonmentaldisordersexaminedweredefinedbyhighneuroticism,mostexhibitedlowextraversion,onlySUDwaslinkedtoagreeableness(negatively),andnodisorderswereassociatedwithOpenness.[159]Ameta-analysisof59longitudinalstudiesshowedthathighneuroticismpredictedthedevelopmentofanxiety,depression,substanceabuse,psychosis,schizophrenia,andnon-specificmentaldistress,alsoafteradjustmentforbaselinesymptomsandpsychiatrichistory.[162] Thepersonality-psychopathologymodels[edit] Fivemajormodelshavebeenposedtoexplainthenatureoftherelationshipbetweenpersonalityandmentalillness.Thereiscurrentlynosingle"bestmodel",aseachofthemhasreceivedatleastsomeempiricalsupport.Itisalsoimportanttonotethatthesemodelsarenotmutuallyexclusive–morethanonemaybeoperatingforaparticularindividualandvariousmentaldisordersmaybeexplainedbydifferentmodels.[162][163] TheVulnerability/RiskModel:Accordingtothismodel,personalitycontributestotheonsetoretiologyofvariouscommonmentaldisorders.Inotherwords,pre-existingpersonalitytraitseithercausethedevelopmentofCMDsdirectlyorenhancetheimpactofcausalriskfactors.[159][164][165][166]Thereisstrongsupportforneuroticismbeingarobustvulnerabilityfactor.[162] ThePathoplastyModel:Thismodelproposesthatpremorbidpersonalitytraitsimpacttheexpression,course,severity,and/ortreatmentresponseofamentaldisorder.[159][165][6]Anexampleofthisrelationshipwouldbeaheightenedlikelihoodofcommittingsuicideinadepressedindividualwhoalsohaslowlevelsofconstraint.[165] TheCommonCauseModel:Accordingtothecommoncausemodel,personalitytraitsarepredictiveofCMDsbecausepersonalityandpsychopathologyhavesharedgeneticandenvironmentaldeterminantswhichresultinnon-causalassociationsbetweenthetwoconstructs.[159][164] TheSpectrumModel:Thismodelproposesthatassociationsbetweenpersonalityandpsychopathologyarefoundbecausethesetwoconstructsbothoccupyasingledomainorspectrumandpsychopathologyissimplyadisplayoftheextremesofnormalpersonalityfunction.[159][164][165][166]Supportforthismodelisprovidedbyanissueofcriterionoverlap.Forinstance,twooftheprimaryfacetscalesofneuroticismintheNEO-PI-Rare"depression"and"anxiety".Thusthefactthatdiagnosticcriteriafordepression,anxiety,andneuroticismassessthesamecontentincreasesthecorrelationsbetweenthesedomains.[166] TheScarModel:Accordingtothescarmodel,episodesofamentaldisorder'scar'anindividual'spersonality,changingitinsignificantwaysfrompremorbidfunctioning.[159][164][165][166]AnexampleofascareffectwouldbeadecreaseinopennesstoexperiencefollowinganepisodeofPTSD.[165] Physicalhealth[edit] ToexaminehowtheBigFivepersonalitytraitsarerelatedtosubjectivehealthoutcomes(positiveandnegativemood,physicalsymptoms,andgeneralhealthconcern)andobjectivehealthconditions(chronicillness,seriousillness,andphysicalinjuries),JasnaHudek-KnezevicandIgorKardumconductedastudyfromasampleof822healthyvolunteers(438womenand384men).[167]OutoftheBigFivepersonalitytraits,theyfoundneuroticismmostrelatedtoworsesubjectivehealthoutcomesandoptimisticcontroltobettersubjectivehealthoutcomes.Whenrelatingtoobjectivehealthconditions,connectionsdrawnwerepresentedweak,exceptthatneuroticismsignificantlypredictedchronicillness,whereasoptimisticcontrolwasmorecloselyrelatedtophysicalinjuriescausedbyaccident.[167] Beinghighlyconscientiousmayaddasmuchasfiveyearstoone'slife.[vague][161]TheBigFivepersonalitytraitsalsopredictpositivehealthoutcomes.[168][169]InanelderlyJapanesesample,conscientiousness,extraversion,andopennesswererelatedtolowerriskofmortality.[170] Higherconscientiousnessisassociatedwithlowerobesityrisk.Inalreadyobeseindividuals,higherconscientiousnessisassociatedwithahigherlikelihoodofbecomingnon-obeseoverafive-yearperiod.[171] Effectofpersonalitytraitsthroughlife[edit] Education[edit] Academicachievement[edit] Personalityplaysanimportantroleinacademicachievement.Astudyof308undergraduateswhocompletedtheFiveFactorInventoryProcessesandreportedtheirGPAsuggestedthatconscientiousnessandagreeablenesshaveapositiverelationshipwithalltypesoflearningstyles(synthesis-analysis,methodicalstudy,factretention,andelaborativeprocessing),whereasneuroticismshowsaninverserelationship.Moreover,extraversionandopennesswereproportionaltoelaborativeprocessing.TheBigFivepersonalitytraitsaccountedfor14%ofthevarianceinGPA,suggestingthatpersonalitytraitsmakesomecontributionstoacademicperformance.Furthermore,reflectivelearningstyles(synthesis-analysisandelaborativeprocessing)wereabletomediatetherelationshipbetweenopennessandGPA.Theseresultsindicatethatintellectualcuriositysignificantlyenhancesacademicperformanceifstudentscombinetheirscholarlyinterestwiththoughtfulinformationprocessing.[172] ArecentstudyofIsraelihigh-schoolstudentsfoundthatthoseinthegiftedprogramsystematicallyscoredhigheronopennessandloweronneuroticismthanthosenotinthegiftedprogram.WhilenotameasureoftheBigFive,giftedstudentsalsoreportedlessstateanxietythanstudentsnotinthegiftedprogram.[173]SpecificBigFivepersonalitytraitspredictlearningstylesinadditiontoacademicsuccess. GPAandexamperformancearebothpredictedbyconscientiousness neuroticismisnegativelyrelatedtoacademicsuccess opennesspredictsutilizingsynthesis-analysisandelaborative-processinglearningstyles neuroticismnegativelycorrelateswithlearningstylesingeneral opennessandextraversionbothpredictallfourlearningstyles.[172] Studiesconductedoncollegestudentshaveconcludedthathope,whichislinkedtoagreeableness,[174]conscientiousness,neuroticism,andopenness,[174]hasapositiveeffectonpsychologicalwell-being.Individualshighinneurotictendenciesarelesslikelytodisplayhopefultendenciesandarenegativelyassociatedwithwell-being.[175]Personalitycansometimesbeflexibleandmeasuringthebigfivepersonalityforindividualsastheyentercertainstagesoflifemaypredicttheireducationalidentity.Recentstudieshavesuggestedthelikelihoodofanindividual'spersonalityaffectingtheireducationalidentity.[176] Learningstyles[edit] Learningstyleshavebeendescribedas"enduringwaysofthinkingandprocessinginformation".[172] In2008,theAssociationforPsychologicalScience(APS)commissionedareportthatconcludesthatnosignificantevidenceexiststhatlearning-styleassessmentsshouldbeincludedintheeducationsystem.[177]Thusitispremature,atbest,toconcludethattheevidencelinkstheBigFiveto"learningstyles",or"learningstyles"tolearningitself. However,theAPSreportalsosuggestedthatallexistinglearningstyleshavenotbeenexhaustedandthattherecouldexistlearningstylesworthyofbeingincludedineducationalpractices.TherearestudiesthatconcludethatpersonalityandthinkingstylesmaybeintertwinedinwaysthatlinkthinkingstylestotheBigFivepersonalitytraits.[178]Thereisnogeneralconsensusonthenumberorspecificationsofparticularlearningstyles,buttherehavebeenmanydifferentproposals. Asoneexample,Schmeck,Ribich,andRamanaiah(1997)definedfourtypesoflearningstyles:[179] synthesisanalysis methodicalstudy factretention elaborativeprocessing Whenallfourfacetsareimplicatedwithintheclassroom,theywilleachlikelyimproveacademicachievement.[172]Thismodelassertsthatstudentsdevelopeitheragentic/shallowprocessingorreflective/deepprocessing.Deepprocessorsaremoreoftenfoundtobemoreconscientious,intellectuallyopen,andextravertedthanshallowprocessors.Deepprocessingisassociatedwithappropriatestudymethods(methodicalstudy)andastrongerabilitytoanalyzeinformation(synthesisanalysis),whereasshallowprocessorspreferstructuredfactretentionlearningstylesandarebettersuitedforelaborativeprocessing.[172]Themainfunctionsofthesefourspecificlearningstylesareasfollows: Name Function Synthesisanalysis: processinginformation,formingcategories,andorganizingthemintohierarchies.Thisistheonlyoneofthelearningstylesthathasexplainedasignificantimpactonacademicperformance.[172] Methodicalstudy: methodicalbehaviorwhilecompletingacademicassignments Factretention: focusingontheactualresultinsteadofunderstandingthelogicbehindsomething Elaborativeprocessing: connectingandapplyingnewideastoexistingknowledge Opennesshasbeenlinkedtolearningstylesthatoftenleadtoacademicsuccessandhighergradeslikesynthesisanalysisandmethodicalstudy.Becauseconscientiousnessandopennesshavebeenshowntopredictallfourlearningstyles,itsuggeststhatindividualswhopossesscharacteristicslikediscipline,determination,andcuriosityaremorelikelytoengageinalloftheabovelearningstyles.[172] AccordingtotheresearchcarriedoutbyKomarraju,Karau,Schmeck&Avdic(2011),conscientiousnessandagreeablenessarepositivelyrelatedwithallfourlearningstyles,whereasneuroticismwasnegativelyrelatedwiththosefour.Furthermore,extraversionandopennesswereonlypositivelyrelatedtoelaborativeprocessing,andopennessitselfcorrelatedwithhigheracademicachievement.[172] Inaddition,apreviousstudybypsychologistMikaelJensenhasshownrelationshipsbetweentheBigFivepersonalitytraits,learning,andacademicachievement.AccordingtoJensen,allpersonalitytraits,exceptneuroticism,areassociatedwithlearninggoalsandmotivation.Opennessandconscientiousnessinfluenceindividualstolearntoahighdegreeunrecognized,whileextraversionandagreeablenesshavesimilareffects.[180]Conscientiousnessandneuroticismalsoinfluenceindividualstoperformwellinfrontofothersforasenseofcreditandreward,whileagreeablenessforcesindividualstoavoidthisstrategyoflearning.[180]Jensen'sstudyconcludesthatindividualswhoscorehighontheagreeablenesstraitwilllikelylearnjusttoperformwellinfrontofothers.[180] Besidesopenness,allBigFivepersonalitytraitshelpedpredicttheeducationalidentityofstudents.Basedonthesefindings,scientistsarebeginningtoseethattheBigFivetraitsmighthavealargeinfluenceofonacademicmotivationthatleadstopredictingastudent'sacademicperformance.[176] SomeauthorssuggestedthatBigFivepersonalitytraitscombinedwithlearningstylescanhelppredictsomevariationsintheacademicperformanceandtheacademicmotivationofanindividualwhichcantheninfluencetheiracademicachievements.[181]Thismaybeseenbecauseindividualdifferencesinpersonalityrepresentstableapproachestoinformationprocessing.Forinstance,conscientiousnesshasconsistentlyemergedasastablepredictorofsuccessinexamperformance,largelybecauseconscientiousstudentsexperiencefewerstudydelays.[176]Conscientiousnessshowsapositiveassociationwiththefourlearningstylesbecausestudentswithhighlevelsofconscientiousnessdevelopfocusedlearningstrategiesandappeartobemoredisciplinedandachievement-oriented. Personalityandlearningstylesarebothlikelytoplaysignificantrolesininfluencingacademicachievement.Collegestudents(308undergraduates)completedtheFiveFactorInventoryandtheInventoryofLearningProcessesandreportedtheirgradepointaverage.TwooftheBigFivetraits,conscientiousnessandagreeableness,werepositivelyrelatedwithallfourlearningstyles(synthesisanalysis,methodicalstudy,factretention,andelaborativeprocessing),whereasneuroticismwasnegativelyrelatedwithallfourlearningstyles.Inaddition,extraversionandopennesswerepositivelyrelatedwithelaborativeprocessing.TheBigFivetogetherexplained14%ofthevarianceingradepointaverage(GPA),andlearningstylesexplainedanadditional3%,suggestingthatbothpersonalitytraitsandlearningstylescontributetoacademicperformance.Further,therelationshipbetweenopennessandGPAwasmediatedbyreflectivelearningstyles(synthesis-analysisandelaborativeprocessing).Theselatterresultssuggestthatbeingintellectuallycuriousfullyenhancesacademicperformancewhenstudentscombinethisscholarlyinterestwiththoughtfulinformationprocessing.Implicationsoftheseresultsarediscussedinthecontextofteachingtechniquesandcurriculumdesign.— MKomarraju[172] DistanceLearning[edit] Whentherelationshipbetweenthefive-factorpersonalitytraitsandacademicachievementindistanceeducationsettingswasexaminedinbrief,theopennesspersonalitytraitwasfoundtobethemostimportantvariablethathasapositiverelationshipwithacademicachievementindistanceeducationenvironments.Inaddition,itwasfoundthatself-discipline,extraversion,andadaptabilitypersonalitytraitsaregenerallyinapositiverelationshipwithacademicachievement.Themostimportantpersonalitytraitthathasanegativerelationshipwithacademicachievementhasemergedasneuroticism.Theresultsgenerallyshowthatindividualswhoareorganized,planned,determined,whoareorientedtonewideasandindependentthinkinghaveincreasedsuccessindistanceeducationenvironments.Ontheotherhand,itcanbesaidthatindividualswithanxietyandstresstendenciesgenerallyhaveloweracademicsuccess.[182][183][184] Employment[edit] Occupationandpersonalityfit[edit] TheVocationsMap-manypeopleinthesamerolesharesimilarpersonalitytraits. Researchershavelongsuggestedthatworkismorelikelytobefulfillingtotheindividualandbeneficialtosocietywhenthereisalignmentbetweenthepersonandtheiroccupation.[185]Forinstance,softwareprogrammersandscientistsweregenerallymoreopentoexperiencingavarietyofnewactivities,wereintellectuallycurious,tendedtothinkinsymbolsandabstractions,andfoundrepetitionboring.[186] Worksuccess[edit] ControversyexistsastowhetherornottheBig5personalitytraitsarecorrelatedwithsuccessintheworkplace. ItisbelievedthattheBigFivetraitsarepredictorsoffutureperformanceoutcomes.Joboutcomemeasuresincludejobandtrainingproficiencyandpersonneldata.[187]However,researchdemonstratingsuchpredictionhasbeencriticized,inpartbecauseoftheapparentlylowcorrelationcoefficientscharacterizingtherelationshipbetweenpersonalityandjobperformance.Ina2007article[188]co-authoredbysixcurrentorformereditorsofpsychologicaljournals,Dr.KevinMurphy,ProfessorofPsychologyatPennsylvaniaStateUniversityandEditoroftheJournalofAppliedPsychology(1996–2002),states: Theproblemwithpersonalitytestsis ...thatthevalidityofpersonalitymeasuresaspredictorsofjobperformanceisoftendisappointinglylow.Theargumentforusingpersonalityteststopredictperformancedoesnotstrikemeasconvincinginthefirstplace. SuchcriticismswereputforwardbyWalterMischel,[189]whosepublicationcausedatwo-decades'longcrisisinpersonalitypsychometrics.However,laterworkdemonstrated(1)thatthecorrelationsobtainedbypsychometricpersonalityresearcherswereactuallyveryrespectablebycomparativestandards,[190]and(2)thattheeconomicvalueofevenincrementalincreasesinpredictionaccuracywasexceptionallylarge,giventhevastdifferenceinperformancebythosewhooccupycomplexjobpositions.[191] Therehavebeenstudiesthatlinknationalinnovationtoopennesstoexperienceandconscientiousness.Thosewhoexpressthesetraitshaveshowedleadershipandbeneficialideastowardsthecountryoforigin.[192] Somebusinesses,organizations,andinterviewersassessindividualsbasedontheBigFivepersonalitytraits.Researchhassuggestedthatindividualswhoareconsideredleaderstypicallyexhibitloweramountsofneurotictraits,maintainhigherlevelsofopenness(envisioningsuccess),balancedlevelsofconscientiousness(well-organized),andbalancedlevelsofextraversion(outgoing,butnotexcessive).[193] Furtherstudieshavelinkedprofessionalburnouttoneuroticism,andextraversiontoenduringpositiveworkexperience.[194]Whenitcomestomakingmoney,researchhassuggestedthatthosewhoarehighinagreeableness(especiallymen)arenotassuccessfulinaccumulatingincome.[195] SomeresearchsuggeststhatvocationaloutcomesarecorrelatedtoBigFivepersonalitytraits.Conscientiousnesspredictsjobperformanceingeneral.Conscientiousnessisconsideredastop-rankedinoveralljobperformance,[47]researchfurthercategorizedtheBig5behaviorsinto3perspectives:taskperformance,organizationalcitizenshipbehavior,andcounterproductiveworkbehavior.Taskperformanceisthesetofactivitythataworkerishiredtocomplete,andresultsshowedthatExtraversionrankedsecondaftertheConscientiousness,withEmotionalStabilitytiedwithAgreeablenessrankedthird.Fororganizationalcitizenshipbehavior,relativelylesstiedtothespecifictaskcorebutbenefitsanorganizationbycontributingtoitssocialandpsychologicalenvironment,AgreeablenessandEmotionalStabilityrankedsecondandthird.Lastly,AgreeablenesstiedwithConscientiousnessastoprankedforCounterproductiveworkbehavior,whichreferstointentionalbehaviorthatiscountertothelegitimateinterestsoftheorganizationoritsmembers.[47] Inaddition,researchhasdemonstratedthatagreeablenessisnegativelyrelatedtosalary.Thosehighinagreeablenessmakeless,onaverage,thanthoselowinthesametrait.Neuroticismisalsonegativelyrelatedtosalarywhileconscientiousnessandextraversionarepositivepredictorsofsalary.[196]Occupationalself-efficacyhasalsobeenshowntobepositivelycorrelatedwithconscientiousnessandnegativelycorrelatedwithneuroticism.Significantpredictorsofcareer-advancementgoalsare:extraversion,conscientiousness,andagreeableness.[196]SomeresearchhasalsosuggestedthattheConscientiousnessofasupervisorispositivelyassociatedwithanemployee'sperceptionofabusivesupervision.[197]Whileothershavesuggestedthatthosewithlowagreeablenessandhighneuroticismaretraitsmorerelatedtoabusivesupervision.[198] A2019studyofCanadianadultsfoundconscientiousnesstobepositivelyassociatedwithwages,whileagreeableness,extraversion,andneuroticismwerenegativelyassociatedwithwages.IntheUnitedStates,bycontrast,nonegativecorrelationbetweenextraversionandwageshasbeenfound.Also,themagnitudesfoundforagreeablenessandconscientiousnessinthisstudywerehigherforwomenthanformen(i.e.therewasahighernegativepenaltyforgreateragreeablenessinwomen,aswellasahigherpositiverewardforgreaterconscientiousness).[199] ResearchdesignedtoinvestigatetheindividualeffectsofBigFivepersonalitytraitsonworkperformanceviaworkercompletedsurveysandsupervisorratingsofworkperformancehasimplicatedindividualtraitsinseveraldifferentworkrolesperformances.A"workrole"isdefinedastheresponsibilitiesanindividualhaswhiletheyareworking.Nineworkroleshavebeenidentified,whichcanbeclassifiedinthreebroadercategories:proficiency(theabilityofaworkertoeffectivelyperformtheirworkduties),adaptivity(aworkersabilitytochangeworkingstrategiesinresponsetochangingworkenvironments),andproactivity(extenttowhichaworkerwillspontaneouslyputforthefforttochangetheworkenvironment).Thesethreecategoriesofbehaviorcanthenbedirectedtowardsthreedifferentlevels:eithertheindividual,team,ororganizationallevelleadingtotheninedifferentworkroleperformancepossibilities.[200] Opennessispositivelyrelatedtoproactivityattheindividualandtheorganizationallevelsandisnegativelyrelatedtoteamandorganizationalproficiency.Theseeffectswerefoundtobecompletelyindependentofoneanother.Thisisalsocounter-conscientiousandhasanegativecorrelationtoConscientiousness.[201] Agreeablenessisnegativelyrelatedtoindividualtaskproactivity.Typicallythisisassociatedwithlowercareersuccessandbeinglessabletocopewithconflict.[201] Extraversionisnegativelyrelatedtoindividualtaskproficiency.Extraversionhasahigherjobandlifesatisfactionbutmoreimpulsivebehaviors.[201] Conscientiousnessispositivelyrelatedtoallformsofworkroleperformance.Thishasahigherleadershipeffectivenessandlowerdeviancebehaviorsbutalsolowerlearninginskillacquisition.[201] Neuroticismisnegativelyrelatedtoallformsofworkroleperformance.Thishasatrendtoengageinmoreriskybehaviors[201][200] Twotheorieshavebeenintegratedinanattempttoaccountforthesedifferencesinworkroleperformance.Traitactivationtheorypositsthatwithinapersontraitlevelspredictfuturebehavior,thattraitlevelsdifferbetweenpeople,andthatwork-relatedcuesactivatetraitswhichleadstoworkrelevantbehaviors.Roletheorysuggeststhatrolesendersprovidecuestoelicitdesiredbehaviors.Inthiscontext,rolesenders(i.e.:supervisors,managers,etc.)provideworkerswithcuesforexpectedbehaviors,whichinturnactivatespersonalitytraitsandworkrelevantbehaviors.Inessence,expectationsoftherolesenderleadtodifferentbehavioraloutcomesdependingonthetraitlevelsofindividualworkersandbecausepeopledifferintraitlevels,responsestothesecueswillnotbeuniversal.[200] Romanticrelationships[edit] TheBigFivemodelofpersonalitywasusedforattemptstopredictsatisfactioninromanticrelationships,relationshipqualityindating,engaged,andmarriedcouples.[202] Datingcouples Self-reportedrelationshipqualityisnegativelyrelatedtopartner-reportedneuroticismandpositivelyrelatedtobothself-andpartner-reportedconscientiousness[202] Engagedcouples Self-reportedrelationshipqualitywashigheramongthosehighinpartner-reportedopenness,agreeablenessandconscientiousness. Self-reportedrelationshipqualitywashigheramongthosehighinself-reportedextraversionandagreeableness. Self-reportedrelationshipqualityisnegativelyrelatedtobothself-andpartner-reportedneuroticism Observersratedtherelationshipqualityhigheriftheparticipatingpartner'sself-reportedextraversionwashigh[202] Marriedcouples Highself-reportedneuroticism,extraversion,andagreeablenessarerelatedtohighlevelsofself-reportedrelationshipquality Partner-reportedagreeablenessisrelatedtoobservedrelationshipquality.[202] Thesereportsare,however,rareandnotconclusive. Politicalidentification[edit] TheBigFivePersonalityModelalsohasapplicationsinthestudyofpoliticalpsychology.Studieshavebeenfindinglinksbetweenthebigfivepersonalitytraitsandpoliticalidentification.IthasbeenfoundbyseveralstudiesthatindividualswhoscorehighinConscientiousnessaremorelikelytopossessaright-wingpoliticalidentification.[203][204][205]Ontheoppositeendofthespectrum,astrongcorrelationwasidentifiedbetweenhighscoresinOpennesstoExperienceandaleft-leaningideology.[203][206][207]Whilethetraitsofagreeableness,extraversion,andneuroticismhavenotbeenconsistentlylinkedtoeitherconservativeorliberalideology,withstudiesproducingmixedresults,suchtraitsarepromisingwhenanalyzingthestrengthofanindividual'spartyidentification.[206][207]However,correlationsbetweentheBigFiveandpoliticalbeliefs,whilepresent,tendtobesmall,withonestudyfindingcorrelationsrangedfrom0.14to0.24.[208] Scopeofpredictivepower[edit] ThepredictiveeffectsoftheBigFivepersonalitytraitsrelatemostlytosocialfunctioningandrules-drivenbehaviorandarenotveryspecificforpredictionofparticularaspectsofbehavior.Forexample,itwasnotedthathighneuroticismprecedesthedevelopmentofallcommonmentaldisorders[162]andisnotassociatedwithpersonalitybyalltemperamentresearchers.[80]Furtherevidenceisrequiredtofullyuncoverthenatureanddifferencesbetweenpersonalitytraits,temperamentandlifeoutcomes.Socialandcontextualparametersalsoplayaroleinoutcomesandtheinteractionbetweenthetwoisnotyetfullyunderstood.[209] Religiosity[edit] Thoughtheeffectsizesaresmall:OftheBigFivepersonalitytraitshighAgreeableness,ConscientiousnessandExtraversionrelatetogeneralreligiosity,whileOpennessrelatenegativelytoreligiousfundamentalismandpositivelytospirituality.HighNeuroticismmayberelatedtoextrinsicreligiosity,whereasintrinsicreligiosityandspiritualityreflectEmotionalStability.[210] Measurements[edit] SeveralmeasuresoftheBigFiveexist: InternationalPersonalityItemPool(IPIP)[211] NEO-PI-R TheTen-ItemPersonalityInventory(TIPI)andtheFiveItemPersonalityInventory(FIPI)areveryabbreviatedratingformsoftheBigFivepersonalitytraits.[212] Self-descriptivesentencequestionnaires[141] Lexicalquestionnaires[213] Self-reportquestionnaires[214] Relative-scoredBig5measure[215] ThemostfrequentlyusedmeasuresoftheBigFivecompriseeitheritemsthatareself-descriptivesentences[141]or,inthecaseoflexicalmeasures,itemsthataresingleadjectives.[213]Duetothelengthofsentence-basedandsomelexicalmeasures,shortformshavebeendevelopedandvalidatedforuseinappliedresearchsettingswherequestionnairespaceandrespondenttimearelimited,suchasthe40-itembalancedInternationalEnglishBig-FiveMini-Markers[134]oraverybrief(10item)measureoftheBigFivedomains.[216]Researchhassuggestedthatsomemethodologiesinadministeringpersonalitytestsareinadequateinlengthandprovideinsufficientdetailtotrulyevaluatepersonality.Usually,longer,moredetailedquestionswillgiveamoreaccurateportrayalofpersonality.[217]Thefivefactorstructurehasbeenreplicatedinpeerreports.[218]However,manyofthesubstantivefindingsrelyonself-reports. MuchoftheevidenceonthemeasuresoftheBig5reliesonself-reportquestionnaires,whichmakesself-reportbiasandfalsificationofresponsesdifficulttodealwithandaccountfor.[214]IthasbeenarguedthattheBigFivetestsdonotcreateanaccuratepersonalityprofilebecausetheresponsesgivenonthesetestsarenottrueinallcasesandcanbefalsified.[219]Forexample,questionnairesareansweredbypotentialemployeeswhomightchooseanswersthatpainttheminthebestlight.[220] Researchsuggeststhatarelative-scoredBigFivemeasureinwhichrespondentshadtomakerepeatedchoicesbetweenequallydesirablepersonalitydescriptorsmaybeapotentialalternativetotraditionalBigFivemeasuresinaccuratelyassessingpersonalitytraits,especiallywhenlyingorbiasedrespondingispresent.[215]WhencomparedwithatraditionalBigFivemeasureforitsabilitytopredictGPAandcreativeachievementunderbothnormaland"fakegood"-biasresponseconditions,therelative-scoredmeasuresignificantlyandconsistentlypredictedtheseoutcomesunderbothconditions;however,theLikertquestionnairelostitspredictiveabilityinthefakingcondition.Thus,therelative-scoredmeasureprovedtobelessaffectedbybiasedrespondingthantheLikertmeasureoftheBigFive. AndrewH.Schwartzanalyzed700millionwords,phrases,andtopicinstancescollectedfromtheFacebookmessagesof75,000volunteers,whoalsotookstandardpersonalitytests,andfoundstrikingvariationsinlanguagewithpersonality,gender,andage.[221] Critique[edit] TheproposedBigFivemodelhasbeensubjectedtoconsiderablecriticalscrutinyinanumberofpublishedstudies.[222][223][224][225][226][227][60][228][80]OneprominentcriticofthemodelhasbeenJackBlockattheUniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley.InresponsetoBlock,themodelwasdefendedinapaperpublishedbyCostaandMcCrae.[229]ThiswasfollowedbyanumberofpublishedcriticalrepliesfromBlock.[230][231][232] IthasbeenarguedthattherearelimitationstothescopeoftheBigFivemodelasanexplanatoryorpredictivetheory.[60][228]IthasalsobeenarguedthatmeasuresoftheBigFiveaccountforonly56%ofthenormalpersonalitytraitspherealone(notevenconsideringtheabnormalpersonalitytraitsphere).[60]Also,thestaticBigFive[233]isnottheorydriven,itismerelyastatisticallydriveninvestigationofcertaindescriptorsthattendtoclustertogetheroftenbasedonless-than-optimalfactoranalyticprocedures.[60]: 431–33 [80]MeasuresoftheBigFiveconstructsappeartoshowsomeconsistencyininterviews,self-descriptionsandobservations,andthisstaticfive-factorstructureseemstobefoundacrossawiderangeofparticipantsofdifferentagesandcultures.[234]However,whilegenotypictemperamenttraitdimensionsmightappearacrossdifferentcultures,thephenotypicexpressionofpersonalitytraitsdiffersprofoundlyacrossdifferentculturesasafunctionofthedifferentsocio-culturalconditioningandexperientiallearningthattakesplacewithindifferentculturalsettings.[235] Moreover,thefactthattheBigFivemodelwasbasedonlexicalhypothesis(i.e.ontheverbaldescriptorsofindividualdifferences)indicatedstrongmethodologicalflawsinthismodel,especiallyrelatedtoitsmainfactors,ExtraversionandNeuroticism.First,thereisanaturalpro-socialbiasoflanguageinpeople'sverbalevaluations.Afterall,languageisaninventionofgroupdynamicsthatwasdevelopedtofacilitatesocializationandtheexchangeofinformationandtosynchronizegroupactivity.Thissocialfunctionoflanguagethereforecreatesasociabilitybiasinverbaldescriptorsofhumanbehavior:therearemorewordsrelatedtosocialthanphysicalorevenmentalaspectsofbehavior.Thesheernumberofsuchdescriptorswillcausethemtogroupintothelargestfactorinanylanguage,andsuchgroupinghasnothingtodowiththewaythatcoresystemsofindividualdifferencesaresetup.Second,thereisalsoanegativitybiasinemotionality(i.e.mostemotionshavenegativeaffectivity),andtherearemorewordsinlanguagetodescribenegativeratherthanpositiveemotions.Suchasymmetryinemotionalvalencecreatesanotherbiasinlanguage.Experimentsusingthelexicalhypothesisapproachindeeddemonstratedthattheuseoflexicalmaterialskewstheresultingdimensionalityaccordingtoasociabilitybiasoflanguageandanegativitybiasofemotionality,groupingallevaluationsaroundthesetwodimensions.[226]ThismeansthatthetwolargestdimensionsintheBigFivemodelmightbejustanartifactofthelexicalapproachthatthismodelemployed. Limitedscope[edit] OnecommoncriticismisthattheBigFivedoesnotexplainallofhumanpersonality.Somepsychologistshavedissentedfromthemodelpreciselybecausetheyfeelitneglectsotherdomainsofpersonality,suchasreligiosity,manipulativeness/machiavellianism,honesty,sexiness/seductiveness,thriftiness,conservativeness,masculinity/femininity,snobbishness/egotism,senseofhumour,andrisk-taking/thrill-seeking.[227][236]DanP.McAdamshascalledtheBigFivea"psychologyofthestranger",becausetheyrefertotraitsthatarerelativelyeasytoobserveinastranger;otheraspectsofpersonalitythataremoreprivatelyheldormorecontext-dependentareexcludedfromtheBigFive.[237] Theremaybedebateastowhatcountsaspersonalityandwhatdoesnotandthenatureofthequestionsinthesurveygreatlyinfluenceoutcome.MultipleparticularlybroadquestiondatabaseshavefailedtoproducetheBigFiveasthetopfivetraits.[238] Inmanystudies,thefivefactorsarenotfullyorthogonaltooneanother;thatis,thefivefactorsarenotindependent.[239][240]Orthogonalityisviewedasdesirablebysomeresearchersbecauseitminimizesredundancybetweenthedimensions.Thisisparticularlyimportantwhenthegoalofastudyistoprovideacomprehensivedescriptionofpersonalitywithasfewvariablesaspossible. Methodologicalissues[edit] Factoranalysis,thestatisticalmethodusedtoidentifythedimensionalstructureofobservedvariables,lacksauniversallyrecognizedbasisforchoosingamongsolutionswithdifferentnumbersoffactors.[241]Afivefactorsolutiondependsonsomedegreeofinterpretationbytheanalyst.Alargernumberoffactorsmayunderliethesefivefactors.Thishasledtodisputesaboutthe"true"numberoffactors.BigFiveproponentshaverespondedthatalthoughothersolutionsmaybeviableinasingledataset,onlythefive-factorstructureconsistentlyreplicatesacrossdifferentstudies.[242] Surveysinstudiesareoftenonlinesurveysofcollegestudents.Resultsdonotalwaysreplicatewhenrunonotherpopulationsorinotherlanguages.[243] Moreover,thefactoranalysisthatthismodelisbasedonisalinearmethodincapableofcapturingnonlinear,feedbackandcontingentrelationshipsbetweencoresystemsofindividualdifferences.[226] Theoreticalstatus[edit] AfrequentcriticismisthattheBigFiveisnotbasedonanyunderlyingtheory;itismerelyanempiricalfindingthatcertaindescriptorsclustertogetherunderfactoranalysis.[241]Althoughthisdoesnotmeanthatthesefivefactorsdonotexist,theunderlyingcausesbehindthemareunknown. JackBlock'sfinalpublishedworkbeforehisdeathinJanuary2010drewtogetherhislifetimeperspectiveonthefive-factormodel.[244] Hesummarizedhiscritiqueofthemodelintermsof: theatheoreticalnatureofthefive-factors. their"cloudy"measurement. themodel'sinappropriatenessforstudyingearlychildhood. theuseoffactoranalysisastheexclusiveparadigmforconceptualizingpersonality. thecontinuingnon-consensualunderstandingsofthefive-factors. theexistenceofunrecognizedbutsuccessfuleffortstospecifyaspectsofcharacternotsubsumedbythefive-factors. HewentontosuggestthatrepeatedlyobservedhigherorderfactorshierarchicallyabovetheproclaimedBigFivepersonalitytraitsmaypromisedeeperbiologicalunderstandingoftheoriginsandimplicationsofthesesuperfactors. Evidenceforsixfactorsratherthanfive[edit] IthasbeennotedthateventhoughearlylexicalstudiesintheEnglishlanguageindicatedfivelargegroupsofpersonalitytraits,morerecent,andmorecomprehensive,cross-languagestudieshaveprovidedevidenceforsixlargegroupsratherthanfive.[245]ThesesixgroupsformthebasisoftheHEXACOmodelofpersonalitystructure.BasedonthesefindingsithasbeensuggestedthattheBigFivesystemshouldbereplacedbyHEXACO,orrevisedtobetteralignwithlexicalevidence.[246] Seealso[edit] Coreself-evaluations Darktriad DISCassessment Facet Genomicsofpersonalitytraits Goalorientation HEXACOmodelofpersonalitystructure Moralfoundationstheory Myers–BriggsTypeIndicator Personalitypsychology Szonditest Traittheory References[edit] ^abcRothmannS,CoetzerEP(24October2003)."Thebigfivepersonalitydimensionsandjobperformance".SAJournalofIndustrialPsychology.29.doi:10.4102/sajip.v29i1.88. 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Externallinks[edit] InternationalPersonalityItemPool,publicdomainlistofitemskeyedtothebigfivepersonalitytraits. Selectionfromthe"Handbookofpersonality:Theoryandresearch"forresearchers RentfrowPJ,JokelaM,LambME(2015)."RegionalpersonalitydifferencesinGreatBritain".PLOSONE.10(3):e0122245.Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1022245R.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0122245.PMC 4372610.PMID 25803819. 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