Field research - Wikipedia

Field research, field studies, or fieldwork is the collection of raw data outside a laboratory, library, or workplace setting. The approaches and methods ... Fieldresearch FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Collectionofinformationoutsidealaboratory,libraryorworkplacesetting Thisarticleisaboutthescientificmethod.Forthemilitaryterm,seefortification. "Fieldwork"and"fieldwork"redirecthere.Forthenovel,seeFieldwork(novel).Forthebooksofpoetry,seeFieldWork(poetrycollection). Thisarticleneedsadditionalcitationsforverification.Pleasehelpimprovethisarticlebyaddingcitationstoreliablesources.Unsourcedmaterialmaybechallengedandremoved.Findsources: "Fieldresearch" – news ·newspapers ·books ·scholar ·JSTOR(January2007)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) Biologistscollectinginformationinthefield PartofaseriesonResearch Listofacademicfields Appliedsciences R&D Formalsciences Humanities Naturalsciences Professions Socialsciences Researchdesign Researchproposal Researchquestion Writing Argument Referencing Philosophy Constructivism Empiricism Positivism/Antipositivism/Postpositivism Realism Criticalrealism Subtlerealism Researchstrategy Interdisciplinary Multimethodology Qualitative Quantitative Methodology Actionresearch Artmethodology Criticaltheory Feminism Groundedtheory Hermeneutics Historiography Narrativeinquiry Phenomenology Pragmatism Scientificmethod Methods Casestudy Contentanalysis Descriptivestatistics Discourseanalysis Ethnography Experiment Fieldexperiment Socialexperiment Quasi-experiment Fieldresearch Historicalmethod Inferentialstatistics Interviews Mapping Culturalmapping Phenomenography Secondaryresearch Bibliometrics Literaturereview Meta-analysis Scopingreview Systematicreview Scientificmodelling Simulation Survey Toolsandsoftware Argumenttechnology Geographicinformationsystemsoftware Libraryandinformationsciencesoftware Bibliometrics Referencemanagement Sciencesoftware Qualitativedataanalysis Simulation Statistics Philosophyportalvte Fieldresearch,fieldstudies,orfieldworkisthecollectionofrawdataoutsidealaboratory,library,orworkplacesetting.Theapproachesandmethodsusedinfieldresearchvaryacrossdisciplines.Forexample,biologistswhoconductfieldresearchmaysimplyobserveanimalsinteractingwiththeirenvironments,whereassocialscientistsconductingfieldresearchmayintervieworobservepeopleintheirnaturalenvironmentstolearntheirlanguages,folklore,andsocialstructures. Fieldresearchinvolvesarangeofwell-defined,althoughvariable,methods:informalinterviews,directobservation,participationinthelifeofthegroup,collectivediscussions,analysesofpersonaldocumentsproducedwithinthegroup,self-analysis,resultsfromactivitiesundertakenoff-oron-line,andlife-histories.Althoughthemethodgenerallyischaracterizedasqualitativeresearch,itmay(andoftendoes)includequantitativedimensions. Contents 1History 2Conductingfieldresearch 3Fieldnotes 3.1Kindsoffieldnotes 4Interviewing 5Analyzingdata 6Fieldresearchacrossdifferentdisciplines 6.1Anthropology 6.2Ethnomusicology 6.3Archaeology 6.4Biology 6.5Earthandatmosphericsciences 6.6Economics 6.7Publichealth 6.8Management 6.9Sociology 7Famousfield-workers 7.1Inanthropology 7.2Insociology 7.3Inmanagement 7.4Ineconomics 7.5Inmusic 8Seealso 9References 10Furtherreading 11Externallinks History[edit] Fieldresearchhasalonghistory.Culturalanthropologistshavelongusedfieldresearchtostudyothercultures.Althoughtheculturesdonothavetobedifferent,thishasoftenbeenthecaseinthepastwiththestudyofso-calledprimitivecultures,andeveninsociologytheculturaldifferenceshavebeenonesofclass.Theworkisdone...in"'Fields'thatis,circumscribedareasofstudywhichhavebeenthesubjectofsocialresearch".[1]Fieldscouldbeeducation,industrialsettings,orAmazonianrainforests.FieldresearchmaybeconductedbyzoologistssuchasJaneGoodall.AlfredRadcliffe-Brown[1910]andBronisławMalinowski[1922]wereearlyanthropologistswhosetthemodelsforfuturework.[2] Conductingfieldresearch[edit] Thequalityofresultsobtainedfromfieldresearchdependsonthedatagatheredinthefield.Thedatainturn,dependuponthefieldworker,hisorherlevelofinvolvement,andabilitytoseeandvisualizethingsthatotherindividualsvisitingtheareaofstudymayfailtonotice.Themoreopenresearchersaretonewideas,concepts,andthingswhichtheymaynothaveseenintheirownculture,thebetterwillbetheabsorptionofthoseideas.Bettergraspingofsuchmaterialmeansabetterunderstandingoftheforcesofcultureoperatingintheareaandthewaystheymodifythelivesofthepeopleunderstudy.Socialscientists(i.e.anthropologists,socialpsychologists,etc.)havealwaysbeentaughttobefreefromethnocentrism(i.e.thebeliefinthesuperiorityofone'sownethnicgroup),whenconductinganytypeoffieldresearch. Whenhumansthemselvesarethesubjectofstudy,protocolsmustbedevisedtoreducetheriskofobserverbiasandtheacquisitionoftootheoreticaloridealizedexplanationsoftheworkingsofaculture.Participantobservation,datacollection,andsurveyresearchareexamplesoffieldresearchmethods,incontrasttowhatisoftencalledexperimentalorlabresearch. Fieldnotes[edit] Mainarticle:Fieldnotes Whenconductingfieldresearch,keepinganethnographicrecordisessentialtotheprocess.Fieldnotesareakeypartoftheethnographicrecord.Theprocessoffieldnotesbeginastheresearcherparticipatesinlocalscenesandexperiencesinordertomakeobservationsthatwilllaterbewrittenup.Thefieldresearchertriesfirsttotakementalnotesofcertaindetailsinorderthattheybewrittendownlater. Kindsoffieldnotes[edit] FieldNoteChart TypesofFieldNotes BriefDescription JotNotes Keywordsorphrasesarewrittendownwhileinthefield. FieldNotesProper Adescriptionofthephysicalcontextandthepeopleinvolved,includingtheirbehaviorandnonverbalcommunication. MethodologicalNotes Newideasthattheresearcherhasonhowtocarryouttheresearchproject. JournalsandDiaries Thesenotesrecordtheethnographer'spersonalreactions,frustrations,andassessmentsoflifeandworkinthefield. Interviewing[edit] Anothermethodofdatacollectionisinterviewing,specificallyinterviewinginthequalitativeparadigm.Interviewingcanbedoneindifferentformats,thisalldependsonindividualresearcherpreferences,researchpurpose,andtheresearchquestionasked. Analyzingdata[edit] Inqualitativeresearch,therearemanywaysofanalyzingdatagatheredinthefield.Oneofthetwomostcommonmethodsofdataanalysisarethematicanalysisandnarrativeanalysis.Asmentionedbefore,thetypeofanalysisaresearcherdecidestousedependsontheresearchquestionasked,theresearcher'sfield,andtheresearcher'spersonalmethodofchoice. Fieldresearchacrossdifferentdisciplines[edit] Anthropology[edit] Seealso:Offtheverandah Inanthropology,fieldresearchisorganizedsoastoproduceakindofwritingcalledethnography.Ethnographycanrefertobothamethodologyandaproductofresearch,namelyamonographorbook.Ethnographyisagrounded,inductivemethodthatheavilyreliesonparticipant-observation.Participantobservationisastructuredtypeofresearchstrategy.Itisawidelyusedmethodologyinmanydisciplines,particularly,culturalanthropology,butalsosociology,communicationstudies,andsocialpsychology.Itsaimistogainacloseandintimatefamiliaritywithagivengroupofindividuals(suchasareligious,occupational,orsubculturalgroup,oraparticularcommunity)andtheirpracticesthroughanintensiveinvolvementwithpeopleintheirnaturalenvironment,usuallyoveranextendedperiodoftime. Themethodoriginatedinfieldworkofsocialanthropologists,especiallythestudentsofFranzBoasintheUnitedStates,andintheurbanresearchoftheChicagoSchoolofsociology.[3]MaxGluckmannotedthatBronisławMalinowskisignificantlydevelopedtheideaoffieldwork,butitoriginatedwithAlfredCortHaddoninEnglandandFranzBoasintheUnitedStates.[4]: 242 RobertG.Burgessconcludedthat"itisMalinowskiwhoisusuallycreditedwithbeingtheoriginatorofintensiveanthropologicalfieldresearch".[5]: 4  Anthropologicalfieldworkusesanarrayofmethodsandapproachesthatinclude,butarenotlimitedto:participantobservation,structuredandunstructuredinterviews,archivalresearch,collectingdemographicinformationfromthecommunitytheanthropologistisstudying,anddataanalysis.Traditionalparticipantobservationisusuallyundertakenoveranextendedperiodoftime,rangingfromseveralmonthstomanyyears,andevengenerations.Anextendedresearchtimeperiodmeansthattheresearcherisabletoobtainmoredetailedandaccurateinformationabouttheindividuals,community,and/orpopulationunderstudy.Observabledetails(likedailytimeallotment)andmorehiddendetails(liketaboobehavior)aremoreeasilyobservedandinterpretedoveralongerperiodoftime.Astrengthofobservationandinteractionoverextendedperiodsoftimeisthatresearcherscandiscoverdiscrepanciesbetweenwhatparticipantssay—andoftenbelieve—shouldhappen(theformalsystem)andwhatactuallydoeshappen,orbetweendifferentaspectsoftheformalsystem;incontrast,aone-timesurveyofpeople'sanswerstoasetofquestionsmightbequiteconsistent,butislesslikelytoshowconflictsbetweendifferentaspectsofthesocialsystemorbetweenconsciousrepresentationsandbehavior. Ethnomusicology[edit] Fieldworkinethnomusicologyhaschangedgreatlyovertime.AlanP.Merriamcitestheevolutionoffieldworkasaconstantinterplaybetweenthemusicologicalandethnologicalrootsofthediscipline.[6]Beforethe1950s,beforeethnomusicologyresembledwhatitistoday,fieldworkandresearchwereconsideredseparatetasks.[7]Scholarsfocusedonanalyzingmusicoutsideofitscontextthroughascientificlens,drawingfromthefieldofmusicology.NotablescholarsincludeCarlStumfandEricvonHornbostel,whostartedasStumpf’sassistant.Theyareknownformakingcountlessrecordingsandestablishingalibraryofmusictobeanalyzedbyotherscholars.[8]Methodologiesbegantoshiftintheearly20thcentury.GeorgeHerzog,ananthropologistandethnomusicologist,publishedaseminalpapertitled"PlainsGhostDanceandGreatBasinMusic",reflectingtheincreasedimportanceoffieldworkthroughhisextendedresidencyintheGreatBasinandhisattentiontoculturalcontexts.Herzogalsoraisedthequestionofhowtheformalqualitiesofthemusichewasstudyingdemonstratedthesocialfunctionofthemusicitself.[9]Ethnomusicologytodayreliesheavilyontherelationshipbetweentheresearcherandtheirteachersandconsultants.Manyethnomusicologistshaveassumedtheroleofstudentinordertofullylearnaninstrumentanditsroleinsociety.[10]Researchinthedisciplinehasgrowntoconsidermusicasaculturalproduct,andthuscannotbeunderstoodwithoutconsiderationofcontext. Archaeology[edit] Fieldresearchliesattheheartofarchaeologicalresearch.Itmayincludetheundertakingofbroadareasurveys(includingaerialsurveys);ofmorelocalisedsitesurveys(includingphotographic,drawn,andgeophysicalsurveys,andexercisessuchasfieldwalking);andofexcavation. Biology[edit] Inbiology,fieldresearchtypicallyinvolvesstudyingoffree-livingwildanimalsinwhichthesubjectsareobservedintheirnaturalhabitat,withoutchanging,harming,ormateriallyalteringthesettingorbehavioroftheanimalsunderstudy.Fieldresearchisanindispensablepartofbiologicalscience. Animalmigrationtracking(includingbirdringing/banding)isafrequently-usedfieldtechnique,allowingfieldscientiststotrackmigrationpatternsandroutes,andanimallongevityinthewild.Knowledgeaboutanimalmigrationsisessentialtoaccuratelydeterminingthesizeandlocationofprotectedareas. Fieldresearchalsocaninvolvestudyofotherkingdomsoflife,suchasplantae,fungi,andmicrobes,aswellasecologicalinteractionsamongspecies. Abiologyclassstudyingfloraataprairie,CollegeofDuPage,USA Earthandatmosphericsciences[edit] Ingeologyfieldworkisconsideredanessentialpartoftraining[11]andremainsanimportantcomponentofmanyresearchprojects.InotherdisciplinesoftheEarthandatmosphericsciences,fieldresearchreferstofieldexperiments(suchastheVORTEXprojects)utilizinginsituinstruments.Permanentobservationnetworksarealsomaintainedforotherusesbutarenotnecessarilyconsideredfieldresearch,norarepermanentremotesensinginstallations. Economics[edit] Theobjectiveoffieldresearchineconomicsistogetbeneaththesurface,tocontrastobservedbehaviourwiththeprevailingunderstandingofaprocess,andtorelatelanguageanddescriptiontobehavior(e.g.DeirdreMcCloskey,1985). The2009NobelPrizeWinnersinEconomics,ElinorOstromandOliverWilliamson,haveadvocatedmixedmethodsandcomplexapproachesineconomicsandhintedimplicitlytotherelevanceoffieldresearchapproachesineconomics.[12]InarecentinterviewOliverWilliamsonandElinorOstromdiscusstheimportanceofexamininginstitutionalcontextswhenperformingeconomicanalyses.[13]BothOstromandWilliamsonagreethat"top-down"panaceasor"cookiecutter"approachestopolicyproblemsdon'twork.Theybelievethatpolicymakersneedtogivelocalpeopleachancetoshapethesystemsusedtoallocateresourcesandresolvedisputes.Sometimes,Ostrompointsout,localsolutionscanbethemostefficientandeffectiveoptions.Thisisapointofviewthatfitsverywellwithanthropologicalresearch,whichhasforsometimeshownusthelogicoflocalsystemsofknowledge—andthedamagethatcanbedonewhen"solutions"toproblemsareimposedfromoutsideorabovewithoutadequateconsultation.ElinorOstrom,forexample,combinesfieldcasestudiesandexperimentallabworkinherresearch.Usingthiscombination,shecontestedlongstandingassumptionsaboutthepossibilitythatgroupsofpeoplecouldcooperatetosolvecommonpoolproblems(asopposedtobeingregulatedbythestateorgovernedbythemarket.[14] EdwardJ.Nellarguedin1998thattherearetwotypesoffieldresearchineconomics.Onekindcangiveusacarefullydrawnpictureofinstitutionsandpractices,generalinthatitappliestoallactivitiesofacertainkindofparticularsocietyorsocialsetting,butstillspecializedtothatsocietyorsetting.Althoughinstitutionsandpracticesareintangibles,suchapicturewillbeobjective,amatteroffact,independentofthestateofmindoftheparticularagentsreportedon.Approachingtheeconomyfromadifferentangle,anotherkindoffieldworkcangiveusapictureofthestateofmindofeconomicagents(theirtruemotivations,theirbeliefs,stateknowledge,expectations,theirpreferencesandvalues).[15] Businessuseoffieldresearchisanappliedformofanthropologyandisaslikelytobeadvisedbysociologistsorstatisticiansinthecaseofsurveys.Consumermarketingfieldresearchistheprimarymarketingtechniqueusedbybusinessestoresearchtheirtargetmarket. Publichealth[edit] Inpublichealth,theuseofthetermfieldresearchreferstoepidemiologyorthestudyofepidemicsthroughthegatheringofdataabouttheepidemic(suchasthepathogenandvector(s)aswellassocialorsexualcontacts,dependinguponthesituation). Management[edit] Mintzbergplayedacrucialroleinthepopularizationoffieldresearchinmanagement.ThetremendousamountofworkthatMintzbergputintothefindingsearnedhimthetitleofleaderofanewschoolofmanagement,thedescriptiveschool,asopposedtotheprescriptiveandnormativeschoolsthatprecededhiswork.TheschoolsofthoughtderivefromTaylor,HenriFayol,LyndallUrwick,HerbertA.Simon,andothersendeavoredtoprescribeandexpoundnormstoshowwhatmanagersmustorshoulddo.WiththearrivalofMintzberg,thequestionwasnolongerwhatmustorshouldbedone,butwhatamanageractuallydoesduringtheday.Morerecently,inhis2004bookManagersNotMBAs,Mintzbergexaminedwhathebelievestobewrongwithmanagementeducationtoday. Aktouf(2006,p. 198)summed-upMintzbergobservationsaboutwhattakesplaceinthefield:‘’First,themanager’sjobisnotordered,continuous,andsequential,norisituniformorhomogeneous.Onthecontrary,itisfragmented,irregular,choppy,extremelychangeableandvariable.Thisworkisalsomarkedbybrevity:nosoonerhasamanagerfinishedoneactivitythanheorsheiscalleduptojumptoanother,andthispatterncontinuesnonstop.Second,themanager’sdailyworkisanotaseriesofself-initiated,willfulactionstransformedintodecisions,afterexaminingthecircumstances.Rather,itisanunbrokenseriesofreactionstoallsortsofrequestthatcomefromallaroundthemanager,fromboththeinternalandexternalenvironments.Third,themanagerdealswiththesameissuesseveraltimes,forshortperiodsoftime;heorsheisfarfromthetraditionalimageoftheindividualwhodealswithoneproblematatime,inacalmandorderlyfashion.Fourth,themanageractsasafocalpoint,aninterface,oranintersectionbetweenseveralseriesofactorsintheorganization:externalandinternalenvironments,collaborators,partners,superiors,subordinates,colleagues,andsoforth.Heorshemustconstantlyensure,achieve,orfacilitateinteractionsbetweenallthesecategoriesofactorstoallowthefirmtofunctionsmoothly.’’ Sociology[edit] PierreBourdieuplayedacrucialroleinthepopularizationoffieldworkinsociology.DuringtheAlgerianWarin1958–1962,BourdieuundertookethnographicresearchintotheclashthroughastudyoftheKabylepeople(asubgroupoftheBerbers),whichprovidedthegroundworkforhisanthropologicalreputation.Hisfirstbook,SociologiedeL'Algerie(TheAlgerians),wasanimmediatesuccessinFranceandwaspublishedinAmericain1962.Afollow-up,Algeria1960:TheDisenchantmentoftheWorld:TheSenseofHonour:TheKabyleHouseortheWorldReversed:Essays,publishedinEnglishin1979byCambridgeUniversityPress,establishedhimasamajorfigureinthefieldofethnologyandapioneeradvocatescholarformoreintensivefieldworkinsocialsciences.Thebookwasbasedonhisdecadeofworkasaparticipant-observerwithAlgeriansociety.Oneoftheoutstandingqualitiesofhisworkhasbeenhisinnovativecombinationofdifferentmethodsandresearchstrategiesaswellashisanalyticalskillsininterpretingtheobtaineddata. Throughouthiscareer,Bourdieusoughttoconnecthistheoreticalideaswithempiricalresearch,groundedineverydaylife.Hisworkcanbeseenassociologyofculture.Bourdieulabeledita"theoryofpractice".Hiscontributionstosociologywerebothempiricalandtheoretical.Hisconceptualapparatusisbasedonthreekeyterms,namely,habitus,capitalandfield.Furthermore,Bourdieufiercelyopposedrationalchoicetheoryasgroundedinamisunderstandingofhowsocialagentsoperate.Bourdieuarguedthatsocialagentsdonotcontinuouslycalculateaccordingtoexplicitrationalandeconomiccriteria.AccordingtoBourdieu,socialagentsoperateaccordingtoanimplicitpracticallogic—apracticalsense—andbodilydispositions.Socialagentsactaccordingtotheir"feelforthegame"(the"feel"being,roughly,habitus,andthe"game"beingthefield). Bourdieu'santhropologicalworkwasfocusedontheanalysisofthemechanismsofreproductionofsocialhierarchies.Bourdieucriticizedtheprimacygiventotheeconomicfactors,andstressedthatthecapacityofsocialactorstoactivelyimposeandengagetheirculturalproductionsandsymbolicsystemsplaysanessentialroleinthereproductionofsocialstructuresofdomination.Bourdieu'sempiricalworkplayedacrucialroleinthepopularizationofcorrespondenceanalysisandparticularlymultiplecorrespondenceanalysis.Bourdieuheldthatthesegeometrictechniquesofdataanalysisare,likehissociology,inherentlyrelational.IntheprefacetohisbookTheCraftofSociology,Bourdieuarguedthat:"IuseCorrespondenceAnalysisverymuch,becauseIthinkthatitisessentiallyarelationalprocedurewhosephilosophyfullyexpresseswhatinmyviewconstitutessocialreality.Itisaprocedurethat'thinks'inrelations,asItrytodoitwiththeconceptoffield." OneoftheclassicethnographiesinSociologyisthebookAin'tNoMakin'It:Aspirations&AttainmentinaLow-IncomeNeighborhoodbyJayMacLeod.[citationneeded]Thestudyaddressesthereproductionofsocialinequalityamonglow-income,maleteenagers.TheresearcherspenttimestudyingtwogroupsofteenagersinahousingprojectinaNortheasterncityoftheUnitedStates.Thestudyconcludesthatthreedifferentlevelsofanalysisplaytheirpartinthereproductionofsocialinequality:theindividual,thecultural,andthestructural.[16] Famousfield-workers[edit] Inanthropology[edit] GeorgForster-ethnographer(1772–1775)toCaptainJamesCook NapoleonChagnon-ethnographeroftheYanomamöpeopleoftheAmazon RenatoRosaldo VictorTurner MargaretMead ColinTurnbull CliffordGeertz BronislawMalinowski AlfredReginaldRadcliffe-Brown W.H.R.Rivers AlfredCortHaddon ClaudeLévi-Strauss Insociology[edit] WilliamFooteWhyte ErvingGoffman PierreBourdieu HarrietMartineau Inmanagement[edit] HenryMintzberg Ineconomics[edit] TrumanBewley AlanBlinder TrygveHaavelmo JohnJohnston LawrenceKlein WassilyLeontief EdwardJ.Nell RobertM.Townsend Inmusic[edit] AlanLomax JohnPeel(withhisPeelSessions) VincentMoon(withhisTake-AwayShows) Seealso[edit] Empiricalresearch Exploration Observationalstudy Participantobservation PublicHealthAdvisor Wildlifeobservation Marketresearch Usability Industrialdesign Requirementsanalysis References[edit] ^Burgess,RobertG.,IntheField:AnIntroductiontoFieldResearch(HemelHempstead,U.K.:GeorgeAllen&Unwin,1984)at1. ^Burgress,Robert,ibid.at12-13. ^Avariantofparticipantobservationisobservingparticipation,describedbyKaminski,whoexploredprisonsubcultureasapoliticalprisonerincommunistPolandin1985. ^Gluckman,Max(2013-11-05).OrderandRebellioninTribalAfrica.Routledge.ISBN 978-1-136-52849-1. ^Burgess,RobertG.(2003-09-02).FieldResearch:ASourcebookandFieldManual.Routledge.ISBN 978-1-134-89751-3. ^Merriam,Alan.1960."Ethnomusicology:ADiscussionandDefinitionoftheField."Ethnomusicology4(3):107-114. ^Nettl,Bruno.2005."ComeBackandSeeMeNextTuesday."InTheStudyofEthnomusicology:Thirty-OneIssuesandConcepts,139.UrbanaandChicago:UniversityofIllinoisPress. ^Christensen,Dieter.1991."EricM.vonHornbostel,CarlStumpf,andtheInstitutionalizationofComparativeMusicology."InComparativeMusicologyandAnthropologyofMusic,ed.B.NettlandP.Bohlman,205.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress. ^Herzog,George.1935."PlainsGhostDanceandGreatBasinMusic."AmericanAnthropologist37(3):403-419. ^Nettl,Bruno.2005."ComeBackandSeeMeNextTuesday."InTheStudyofEthnomusicology:Thirty-OneIssuesandConcepts,141.UrbanaandChicago:UniversityofIllinoisPress. ^Price,Nancy(June2005)."Fieldwork:ItMayBeMoreImportantThanYouThink"(PDF).AmericanInstituteofProfessionalGeologists.Retrieved2017-10-08. ^seehttp://newlegalrealism.wordpress.com/tag/fieldwork/.PostedonOctober31,2011. ^Thereisaniceexchangetowardtheendabouthowmucheconomistswillmissiftheyignoretheknowledgeofferedbyscholarsinotherfields.http://www.nobelprize.org/mediaplayer/index.php?id=1223&view=1. ^SeeherNobelPrizepresentationat:http://www.nobelprize.org/mediaplayer/index.php?id=1223&view=1. ^ForfurtherdetailsseeNell(1998,PartII). ^MacLeod,Jay.(1995).Ain'tNoMakin'It:Aspirations&AttainmentinaLow-IncomeNeighborhood.Boulder,CO:WestviewPress. Furtherreading[edit] Abu‐Lughod,Lila(1988)."Fieldworkofadutifuldaughter".InAltorki,Soraya;FawziEl-Solh,Camillia(eds.).ArabWomenintheField:studyingyourownsociety.Syracuse,NY:SyracuseUniversityPress.ISBN 0815624492. Cohen,Nissim;Arieli,Tamar(2011)."Fieldresearchinconflictenvironments:methodologicalchallengesandsnowballsampling".JournalofPeaceResearch.48(4):423–436.doi:10.1177/0022343311405698.S2CID 145328311. Groh,Arnold(2018).ResearchMethodsinIndigenousContexts.NewYork,NY:Springer.ISBN 9783319727745. Helper,Susan(2000)."Economicsandfieldresearch:youcanobservealotjustbywatching".AmericanEconomicReview.90(2):228–32.doi:10.1257/aer.90.2.228.JSTOR 117226. Jarvie,I.C.(1967)."Ontheoriesoffieldworkandthescientificcharacterofsocialanthropology".PhilosophyofScience.34(3):223–242.doi:10.1086/288154.S2CID 145096759. Robben,AntoniusC.G.M.andJeffreyA.Sluka,eds.(2012).EthnographicFieldwork:AnAnthropologicalReader.OxfordWiley-Blackwell.ISBN 978-0-470-65715-7. Rosaldo,Renato(1986)."Fromthedoorofhistent:thefieldworkerandtheinquisitor".InClifford,James;Marcus,GeorgeE.(eds.).WritingCulture:thepoeticsandpoliticsofethnography.Berkeley,CA:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.ISBN 9780520056527. Nelson,Katie.2019.“DoingFieldwork:MethodsinCulturalAnthropology”inPerspectives:AnOpenInvitationtoCulturalAnthropology2ndedition, EditedbyNinaBrown,ThomasMcIlwraith,andLauraTubelledeGonzález.Arlington:AmericanAnthropologicalAssociation.pp. 45–69.ISBN 9781931303668 Udry,Christopher(2003)."Fieldwork,economictheoryandresearchoninstitutionsindevelopingcountries".AmericanEconomicReview.93(2):107–111.doi:10.1257/000282803321946895. 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