Why Do We Take Risks? Perception of the Situation ... - Frontiers

Risk taking (RT) is a component of the decision-making process in situations that involve uncertainty and in which the probability of each ... Articles MarkHallahan CollegeoftheHolyCross,UnitedStates ZacharyJ.Parker StaffordshireUniversity,UnitedKingdom CynthiaThomson UniversityoftheFraserValley,Canada Theeditorandreviewers'affiliationsarethelatestprovidedontheirLoopresearchprofilesandmaynotreflecttheirsituationatthetimeofreview. Abstract Introduction MaterialsandMethods Results Discussion Conclusion DataAvailabilityStatement EthicsStatement AuthorContributions Funding ConflictofInterest SupplementaryMaterial References SuggestaResearchTopic> DownloadArticle DownloadPDF ReadCube EPUB XML(NLM) Supplementary Material Exportcitation EndNote ReferenceManager SimpleTEXTfile BibTex totalviews ViewArticleImpact SuggestaResearchTopic> SHAREON OpenSupplementalData ORIGINALRESEARCHarticle Front.Psychol.,08March2021 |https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.562381 WhyDoWeTakeRisks?PerceptionoftheSituationandRiskPronenessPredictDomain-SpecificRiskTaking Carlade-Juan-Ripoll1,2*,IreneAliceChicchiGiglioli1,2,JoseLlanes-Jurado1,2,JavierMarín-Morales1,2andMarianoAlcañiz1,2 1InstituteforResearchandInnovationinBioengineering,PolytechnicUniversityofValencia,Valencia,Spain 2UniversitatPolitècnicadeValència,Valencia,Spain Risktaking(RT)isacomponentofthedecision-makingprocessinsituationsthatinvolveuncertaintyandinwhichtheprobabilityofeachoutcome–rewardsand/ornegativeconsequences–isalreadyknown.Theinfluenceofcognitiveandemotionalprocessesindecisionmakingmayaffecthowriskysituationsareaddressed.First,inaccurateassessmentsofsituationsmayconstituteaperceptualbiasindecisionmaking,whichmightinfluenceRT.Second,thereseemstobeconsensusthatapronenessbiasexists,knownasriskproneness,whichcanbedefinedasthepropensitytobeattractedtopotentiallyriskyactivities.Inthepresentstudy,wetaketheapproachthatriskperceptionandriskpronenessaffectRTbehaviours.Thestudyhypothesisesthatlocusofcontrol,emotionregulation,andexecutivecontrolactasperceptualbiasesinRT,andthatpersonality,sensationseeking,andimpulsivitytraitsactaspronenessbiasesinRT.Theresultssuggestthatlocusofcontrol,emotionregulationandexecutivecontrolinfluencecertaindomainsofRT,whilepersonalityinfluencesinalldomainsexcepttherecreational,andsensationseekingandimpulsivityareinvolvedinalldomainsofRT.Theresultsofthestudyconstituteafoundationuponwhichtobuildinthisresearchareaandcancontributetotheincreasedunderstandingofhumanbehaviourinriskysituations. Introduction Risktaking(RT)isacomponentofthedecision-makingprocessinsituationsthatinvolveuncertaintyandinwhichtheprobabilityofalloutcomes–rewardsand/ornegativeconsequences(Brandetal.,2007)–isalreadyknown(Becharaetal.,2005;Krainetal.,2006).Risktakerstendtomakedecisionswithbothhighpotentialbenefitsandhighpotentialadverseoutcomes,ratherthanchoosingmorecautiousalternatives(Slovic,1987;Mellersetal.,1997).Thedecision-makingprocessisinfluencedbythreemainelements:decisionfeatures,situationalfactors,andindividualdifferences(Einhorn,1970;Huntetal.,1989).Decisionfeaturesarethecharacteristicsofthedecisionitself,suchastheorderingofthechoiceoptions(Appeltetal.,2011)andsituationframing(Levinetal.,2002).Situationalfactorsrefertothecontextofthedecision,forexample,timepressure(Droretal.,1999).Individualdifferencesarethethirdmainfactorinthedecision-makingprocess.Appeltetal.(2011)arguedthat,althoughtheinfluenceofindividualdifferencesindecisionmakinghasbeenwidelystudied,thereisnoconsensusastohowtointerprettheserelations. Someauthorshaveidentifiedtheperceptionofbenefits,theperceptionofrisks,andriskattitude–“howmuchriskthey[thesubjects]arewillingtoacceptinexchangeforaspecificreturn”(FignerandWeber,2011;p.212)–astheindividualfactorsthatmaydriveRT.Withinthisframework,theinfluenceofthecognitiveandemotionalprocessesindecisionmakingmayaffectthewayinwhichariskysituationisperceived;theyhavealsobeenidentifiedaskeyelementsofindividualdifferencesthatmayaffectRT.First,aninaccurateassessmentofasituationmayconstituteaperceptualbiasindecisionmaking,whichmightinfluenceRT.Insituationsinwhich“hot”affectiveprocessesareprominent(e.g.,condomuse;FignerandWeber,2011),emotionregulationskills–thecontrolofemotions(Gross,2002)–andinternallocusofcontrol–theperceptionthateventsareunderone’sowncontrol(Rotter,1966)–havebeenhighlightedasinfluentialfactorsinthe“coolingprocess”(CrispandBarber,1995;MiuandCrişan,2011).Inaddition,executivecontrolistheabilitytocontrolthoughtstoinhibitoradaptbehavioursaccordingtothesituation(Diamond,2013).Itinvolvestop-downmentalprocessesthatrequiretheindividualtomakeaneffort,meaningthattheprocessisnotautomatic.Individualswithlowexecutivecontrolhavebeenshowntomorepoorlyevaluatesituationsandsearchforlessinformationbeforemakingdecisions,whichcanleadtoriskybehaviours(Magaretal.,2008).Finally,thereseemstobeconsensusacrossdifferentdomainsthatriskpronenessinfluencesRT.Thistraithasbeendefinedasthepropensitytobeattractedtopotentiallyriskyactivities(RaffaelliandCrockett,2003),andcouldbeconsideredacross-situationaltraitinRTasithasbeenrelatedtotemperamentalaspects,suchassensationseekingandimpulsivity(ZuckermanandKuhlman,2000).Indeed,whilesomeindividualsarecharacterisedbystrongdirectionalriskproneness,othersaresituation-sensitive(WeberandMilliman,1997;Nicholsonetal.,2002;Weberetal.,2002).Inthelattercases,thedecision-makingprocessmaybehighlydependentondecisionfeaturesandsituationalfactors.Inlightoftheseresults,weconsideritnecessarytostudythesefindingsinanaggregatedway,andprovideclearconclusionsregardingtheinfluenceofperceptualandcognitivebiasesinRT.Inthefollowingsections,thepsychologicaldimensionsthatinfluenceRTbothinperceptualprocessesandriskpronenessarediscussedandtheaimofourstudyispresented. IndividualDifferencesinthePerceptionofBenefitsandRisks LocusofControl Rotter(1966)foundthatlocusofcontrolindicatesthedegreetowhichanindividualperceiveseventstobeunderhis/hercontrol(internalcontrol)orunderthecontrolofoutsideforces,suchasfateorotherpeople(externalcontrol).MarshandRichards(1986)identifiedfivefactorsfortheRotter’slocusofcontrolscale:generalluck,whichisrelatedtoattributingone’slifecoursetoluckorchance;politicalcontrol,whichreferstolowexpectationsofinfluencingpoliticalinstitutionsandworldaffairs;personalinitiative,whichattributestotheinfluenceofexternalelementsintheirworkandpersonalsituationratherthantotheeffortofoneself;interpersonalcontrol,whichreferstothelittlecontrolofone’sinfluenceoverotherpeople;andacademicsituation,whichisrelatedtotheattributiontotheinfluenceofexternalelementsintheiracademicresults.TherelationbetweenlocusofcontrolandRThasbeenwidelyexamined,althoughitseemsthatpreviousstudieshavereachedoppositeconclusions,basedonthenatureofthesituationsexamined.Individualswithaninternallocusofcontrolhavebeenshowntotakemorerisksinsomeareas,suchasthecivilrightsstruggle(GoreandRotter,1963),themilitary(Higbee,1972)andinentrepreneurship(Ahmed,1985).Conversely,otherstudieshavefoundthatindividualswithaninternallocusofcontroltakelessrisksinthedomainsofforestryandconstruction(SalminenandKlen,1994),sexualpractices(Terryetal.,1993)andpiloting(Youetal.,2013).CrispandBarber(1995)suggestedthatindividualswithaninternallocusofcontrolmoreaccuratelyassesssituations.Thus,locusofcontrolmayinfluencehowsituationsareperceived,butnotnecessarilyRT.Instead,itmightbeexpectedthatinternals,whoperceivegreaterrisk,wouldmakesaferdecisions.Incontrast,externalsmayperceivesituationsasiftheyareunderotherpeople’scontrol. EmotionRegulation Emotionregulationisthecontrolofemotions(Gross,2002).ItcaninfluencethreecomponentsofRT,whichinvolvedifferentdeliberative-versus-automaticstrategies:interruptingariskbehaviour,thinkingbeforeacting,andchoosingbetweentwoalternatives(Steinberg,2004).Emotionregulationcanbeappliedthroughtwostrategies,cognitivereappraisalandexpressivesuppression.Cognitivereappraisalisanantecedent-focusedstrategythatinvolveschangingthemeaningofasituationbyreformulatingthewayitisunderstoodtominimizeormodifyitsemotionalimpact(GrossandJohn,2003).Itallowsindividualstopsychologicallydistancethemselvesfromsituations(MischelandAyduk,2004).Incontrast,theresponse-focusedstrategyofexpressivesuppressionistheinhibitionoftheemotionalresponseassociatedwithaparticularemotion(GrossandJohn,2003).Generally,suppressionisunderstoodtobeamaladaptivestrategy,whichinvolvesanactiveeffortsustainedovertime,whilereappraisalisconsideredtobeanadaptivestrategythatmodifiestheemotionatanearlystage(Gross,2002;Eversetal.,2010).Therelationbetweenthehabitualuseofeitheremotion-regulationstrategyandRTdoesnotappeartobeentirelyestablished.Somestudieshavesuggestedthatindividualswhousecognitivereappraisaltendtotakegreaterrisks,asthisstrategymitigatestheinfluenceofnegativeemotions,whichleadsthemtobelesssensitivetoboththeprobabilityandthemagnitudeofpotentiallosses(Heilmanetal.,2010;Pannoetal.,2013).Ontheotherhand,someauthorshavesuggestedthatreappraisalisrelatedtopositiveaffectandlowerRT,indomainssuchassmoking,riskydrinking(Magaretal.,2008;Fucitoetal.,2010)andemotionaleating(Eversetal.,2010).TheseresultssuggestthattherelationbetweenemotionregulationstrategiesandRTreliesheavilyuponthedecision-makingcontext.Hence,wemayfindpositiverelationsbetweenreappraisalstrategyandRTinthecontextsinwhichthepositiveoutcomesareperceivedasmoresalientthanthenegativeconsequences,orinwhichRTisnotnecessarilyconsideredtobeamaladaptivebehaviour(DuellandSteinberg,2019;Pellegrino,2019),suchasinentrepreneurshiporsocialsituations.Incontrast,emotionalsuppressionstrategiesmaybepositivelyrelatedtoRTincontextsinwhichthenegativeoutcomesareperceivedasmoresalientthanthepositiveoutcomes,orinwhichRTisclearlyamaladaptivebehaviour,suchashealthandethicalRT(DuellandSteinberg,2019;Pellegrino,2019). ExecutiveControl Executivecontrolhasanimportantroleindecisionmaking(EslingerandDamasio,1985;Manesetal.,2002;DelMissieretal.,2010)asitoperatesinperception,conflictresolution,andretentionprocesses(Pessoa,2009).TherelationbetweenexecutivecontrolandRThasbeenwidelyexaminedinadolescentsandyoungadults,asthesegroupstendtoshowlesscognitivecontrol,particularlywhenfacingsituationswithdesirableorimmediatelyaccessiblerewards(FalkandRickardsson,unpublished).Thesestudiessuggestedthatexecutivecontrol,asafundamentalmediatorintheinhibitionofpleasurablestimuli,andinthedevelopmentofadaptivebehaviourpatterns,mightcontributetoRTinsomedomainswhenitisweak,suchasdrugaddiction(KalivasandVolkow,2005),promptingriskierbehavioursindailylife(Pharoetal.,2011).Executivecontroliscomprisedofinhibition,workingmemoryandcognitiveflexibility(Diamond,2013).Cognitiveflexibilityistheabilitytoadjustperspectivestoadapttothechangingdemandsofasituation.Itisrelatedtotheothertwoexecutivefunctions,sinceitrequiresinhibitiontodeactivatethepreviousperspectiveandworkingmemorytoactivateanewperspective(Diamond,2013).DeficitsincognitiveflexibilityhavebeenshowntoinfluenceRT,leadingtoviolentandoffendingbehaviours(Vilà-Ballóetal.,2015)aswellaseatingdisorders(Perpiñáetal.,2017). IndividualDifferencesinRiskProneness Personality:TheBigFive-FactorModel PersonalityhasbeenfoundtohaveastronginfluenceonRTbehaviours(e.g.,ZuckermanandKuhlman,2000;DeVriesetal.,2009).Individualpersonalitytraitdifferencesinfluenceriskproneness,astheyinvolvemotivationalforcesthatpromoteriskydecisions,insulationagainstconcernsaboutnegativeconsequences,andtheyactascognitivebarriers(Nicholsonetal.,2002).Amongthenumerouspersonalitymodelsdevelopedinpsychologyresearch,theBigFive-factormodelofpersonality–composedofneuroticism,extraversion,openness,agreeablenessandconscientiousnessfactors(McCraeandCosta,1997)–seemstobethemostgenerallyrecognizedinthestudyoftherelationbetweenpersonalityandriskbehaviour.Neuroticismhasbeenrelatedtonegativeaffectandsensitivitytopunishment(ElliotandThrash,2010).Highlevelsofneuroticismmayleadtoriskaversioninmostdomains,asawayofavoidingguiltoranxietyregardingnegativeoutcomes.Incontrast,thereseemstobeaninverserelationbetweenneuroticismandRTinthehealthdomain(Nicholsonetal.,2005).Inthesecases,somestudiesidentifiedatendencytotakeriskstoalleviateanxietyandotheremotions(VollrathandTorgersen,2002).Nicholsonetal.(2005)suggestedthathealth-relatedRTismoststronglyinfluencedbyenvironmentalfactors,andleastunderthecontrolofindividualpsychologicaldisposition.Conversely,extraversion,asageneralizedneedforstimulation,ismanifestedinpositiveaffectandsensitivitytoreward(Eysenck,1973),promptingRTbehaviours(LauriolaandLevin,2001).Opennesstoexperiencerelatestocognitiveriskseeking,acceptanceofexperimentation,andtoleranceofuncertainty,change,andinnovation(McCraeandCosta,1997).Agreeableness,whichischaracterizedbytrust,straightforwardness,andcompliance,hasbeenrelatedtoriskaversion(GulloneandMoore,2000;Hoyleetal.,2000).Conscientiousness,whichisaneedforcomplianceunderconditionsofconformityandcontrol,hasbeenrelatedtoriskavoidance(Nicholsonetal.,2005;Schwebeletal.,2006). Personality:SensationSeeking Sensationseekinghasbeendefinedas“theseekingofvaried,novel,complexandintensesensationsandexperiences,andthewillingnesstotakephysical,social,legal,andfinancialrisksforthesakeofsuchexperience”(Zuckerman,1994;p.27).Individualswithvaryinglevelsofsensationseekingmayexhibitdifferencesinarousalandattention,whichleadstodifferentialinformationprocessing(Zuckerman,1979;ZuckermanandComo,1983).SeveralstudieshaveshownapositiverelationbetweensensationseekingandRTindifferentdomains,suchassubstanceabuse,riskysexualbehaviour,recklessdriving,andvandalism(e.g.,Donohewetal.,2000;Wagner,2001).Zuckerman(1994)identifiedfourdimensionsofthesensation-seekingtrait:thrillandadventureseeking,experienceseeking,disinhibition,andboredomsusceptibility.Thethrillandadventureseekingdimensionreflectsadesiretoengageinphysicalactivitiesandispositivelyrelatedtoriskybehavioursindrivingandsports(Zuckerman,1994;Wishartetal.,2017).Theexperience-seekingsubtraithasbeenshowntobeapredictoroftheopennesspersonalitytrait,duetoitsrelationtoarousalseekingthroughthemindandsenses(Zuckerman,1984;Roberti,2004).Highexperience-seekingindividualspresentlowersensitivitytoaversivestimulation(Netteretal.,1996),andtendtodisplayriskysubstanceusebehaviours(Pedersenetal.,1989).DisinhibitionisasignificantpredictorofRTinseveraldomains,includingrule-breakingbehavioursandviolationsofsocietalnorms(Donohewetal.,2000;Roberti,2004;DeVriesetal.,2009).Boredomsusceptibility,whichisintoleranceforroutineandrepetitiveactivities(Zuckerman,2006),tendstobereflectedinRTbehavioursindomainssuchassports(GuszkowskaandBołdak,2010). Personality:Impulsivity Impulsivityisdefinedasthe“predispositiontowardrapid,unplannedreactionstointernalorexternalstimuliwithoutregardtothenegativeconsequencesofthesereactionstotheimpulsiveindividualortoothers”(Moelleretal.,2001;p.1784).WhitesideandLynam(2001)arguedthatimpulsivityiscomprisedofasetoffiveimpulse-relatedtraits:negativeurgency,lackofpremeditation,lackofperseverance,sensationseeking,andpositiveurgency.AccordingtoWhitesideandLynam(2001)andWhitesideetal.(2005),negativeandpositiveurgencytraitsrelatetothetendencytoexhibitimpulsivebehaviourswhenfacingnegative/positivesituations.Lackofpremeditationrelatestothoughtlessbehavioursandtothetendencytofavouralternativeswithshort-termrewardsoveroptionsthatmightleadtomorevaluablebutdelayedrewards.Lackofperseverancereflectsanabsenceoffocusonatediousordifficultactivity.Sensationseekingisanattractiontowardexciting,new,andpotentiallydangerousexperiences. ImpulsivityhasemergedasoneofthestrongestpredictorsofRTindifferentdomains.Morenoetal.(2012)foundthatrecreationalcannabisconsumptionwasassociatedwithhighlevelsofimpulsivityandsensationseeking,andwithinhibitorycontroldeficits.Donohewetal.(2000)showedthatimpulsivityandsensationseekingwerestronglyrelatedtosomesexualRTindicators:intentiontohavesex,numberoflifetimesexualpartners,beingpregnantorhavingcausedapregnancy,havingunwantedsexwhendrunk,havingunwantedsexunderpressure,andusingalcoholorhavingapartnerwhousedalcoholbeforesex.Furthermore,thisrelationhasbeendemonstratedinothercontexts,suchasgambling(Blancoetal.,2009)andalcoholuse(Coskunpinaretal.,2013). TheCurrentStudy TheaimofthepresentstudyistoexaminetherelationbetweenRTbiasesandriskbehaviours,inordertoidentifythecomponentsofthecross-situationalfactorsthatinfluenceRTandthevariablesthatoperateonlyinspecificdomains.Thisstudyaimstofillanexistinggapintheliterature,sincethereisnostudy,toourknowledge,thatanalysestheinfluenceofpsychologicalbiasesonRTfromboth,domain-dependentandcross-domainRTperspectives.Thestudyhypothesesarethefollowing(seeFigure1): FIGURE1 Figure1.Studyhypotheses.Redlinesrepresentpositiverelationandorangelinesrepresentnegativerelation. Hypothesis1.PerceptualbiasesinRT:locusofcontrol(h1a),emotionregulation(h1b),andexecutivecontrol(h1c)arevariablesintheperceptionofbenefitsandrisksinthedecision-makingprocessthateachinfluenceRTinthosespecificdomains,requiringanaccurateassessmentofrisksandbenefits.Ononehand,aninternallocusofcontrolandtheuseofthecognitivereappraisalstrategycouldleadtosafebehavioursintheethicalandhealthdomains.Additionally,financialdecisionstendtoinvolvecomplexsituations,whichrequireeffortfulprocessing–executivefunctions(Diamond,2013)–toperceiveandinterpreteachoption.Inthisdomain,highexecutivecontrolwouldalsoberelatedtoriskavoidance.Ontheotherhand,recreationalandsocialRTinvolvemoresalientpotentialpositiveoutcomes,aninternallocusofcontrol,andtheuseofthecognitivereappraisalstrategywhichcouldleadtoriskybehaviours. Hypothesis2.PronenessbiasesinRT:personality(h2a),sensationseeking(h2b),andimpulsivity(h2c)willinfluenceRTconsistentlyinalldomains,constitutingatrendtowardriskpronenessorriskavoidance,regardlessofthetypeofrisk.Regardingpersonality,neuroticismisexpectedtoshowapositiverelationwithRTinalldomains,exceptinthecaseofhealth,inwhichitisexpectedtoshowanegativerelation.ExtraversionandopennessareexpectedtoappearasfacilitatorsofRT,whileagreeablenessandconscientiousnessmayberelatedtosafebehaviours.SensationseekingandimpulsivityareexpectedtoshowapositiverelationwithRTinalldomains. MaterialsandMethods Participants Atotalof98subjectsbalancedintermsofgender(50menand48women)andage(35%under30,35%among30–45,30%above45;meanage=37.08,SD=10.91)wererecruitedbyasamplingcompanytoparticipateintheexperiment.Thesamplecompanycontactedeachparticipantandmadeanappointmentforthemtocometothelaboratory.Beforebeginningtheexperiment,theparticipantsgavetheirinformedconsentfortheirinvolvement.Theresponseswereanonymisedandrandomisedtoensuretheprivacyoftheinformation.ThestudyobtainedpriorethicalapprovaloftheEthicalCommitteeofthePolytechnicUniversityofValencia. Measures Therisk-relatedconstructswereassessedbymeansofabatteryofself-reportedmeasuresandneuropsychologicaltests,whichincludedthefollowing: Locusofcontrol:Spanishversionofthe23-itemRotter’sI-Escale(Rotter,1966;Tous,1984;Ferrandoetal.,2011).Thisincludessubscalesforgeneralluck,politicalcontrol,personalinitiative,interpersonalcontrol,academicsituation,andatotalexternallocusofcontrolscore.Theinternalconsistencyofthescaleinthepresentstudywas0.613. Emotionregulation:Spanishversionofthe10-itemEmotionRegulationQuestionnaire(ERQ),whichmeasuressuppressionandreappraisalstrategies(GrossandJohn,2003;Cabelloetal.,2013).TheCronbach’salphacoefficientspreviouslyreportedforaSpanishsamplewere0.75forsuppressionand0.79forreappraisal(Cabelloetal.,2013).Theinternalconsistencyofthescalesinthepresentstudywas0.77forsuppressionand0.73forreappraisal. Executivecontrol:Twoneuropsychologicaltaskswereperformed:WisconsinCardSortingTest(WCST;GrantandBerg,1993),ameasureofcognitiveflexibility;andtheTrailMakingTask(TMT),apaper-and-pencil-basedmeasureofattentionandsetswitching(Reitan,1958).Tomeasurecognitiveflexibility,wecalculatedtheperseverativeerrorsintheWCST.Toassessattentionandsetswitching,wemeasuredtheresolutiontimesofpartsAandB,respectively. Personality:SpanishversionoftheNEOfive-factorinventory(NEO-FFI).Thiscomprises60itemsandincludesthefollowingfactors:neuroticism,extraversion,openness,conscientiousness,andagreeableness(CostaandMcCrae,1989;Corderoetal.,1999).Thereliabilitycoefficients’Cronbach’salphavaluesrangedfrom0.75to0.83inaSpanishsample(Corderoetal.,1999).Theinternalconsistencyofthescalesinthepresentstudywas:neuroticismα=0.77,extraversionα=0.85,opennessα=0.79,agreeablenessα=0.75,andconscientiousnessα=0.84. Sensationseeking:Spanishversionofthe40-itemSensationSeekingScale-V(SSS-V)(Zuckermanetal.,1964;PérezandTorrubia,1986).Thisincludessubscalesforthrillandadventureseeking,experienceseeking,disinhibitionandboredomsusceptibility,andatotalsensationseekingscore.Thereliabilitycoefficients’Cronbach’salphasrangedbetween0.67and0.81inaSpanishsample(PérezandTorrubia,1986).Theinternalconsistencyofthescaleinthepresentstudywas:thrillandadventureseekingα=0.81,experienceseekingα=0.54,disinhibitionα=0.63;boredomsusceptibilityα=0.53,totalsensationseekingα=0.78. Impulsivity:ShortSpanishversionoftheUPPS-Pimpulsivebehaviourscale(WhitesideandLynam,2001;Cándidoetal.,2012).Composedof20items,thismeasuresfiveimpulsivitytraits:negativeurgency,lackofpremeditation,lackofperseverance,sensationseeking,andpositiveurgency.TheCronbach’salphacoefficientsrangedfrom0.66to0.81inaSpanishsample(Cándidoetal.,2012).Theinternalconsistencyofthescalesinthepresentstudywas:negativeurgencyα=0.72,lackofpremeditationα=0.77,lackofperseveranceα=0.78,sensationseekingα=0.79,andpositiveurgencyα=0.60. Risktaking:SpanishversionoftheDomain-SpecificRisk-Taking(DOSPERT-30)scale(BlaisandWeber,2006;Lozanoetal.,2017).Thisisameasureofthetendencytoengageinreal-liferisk-takingbehavioursindifferentdomains,andincludestheethical,financial,health,recreation,andsocialsubscales.Sampleitemsinclude“Revealingafriend’ssecrettosomeoneelse”(Ethical),“Bettingaday’sincomeatahigh-stakepokergame”(Financial),“Ridingamotorcyclewithoutahelmet”(Health/Safety),“Movingtoacityfarawayfromyourextendedfamily”(Social),and“Goingwhitewaterraftingathighwaterinthespring”(Recreational).HigherscoresindicategreaterRTinthedomainofthesubscale.TheCronbach’salphacoefficientsrangedfrom.64to.85inaSpanishsample(Lozanoetal.,2017).Theinternalconsistencyofthescalesinthepresentstudywas:Ethicalα=0.65,Financialα=0.81,Healthα=0.68,Recreationα=0.82,andSocialα=0.67. Procedure Theparticipantsundertooktheself-reportquestionnairesandcompletedtheneuropsychologicaltasksonapersonalcomputer.Theprocess,whichtookplaceinanexperimentalroomandwassupervisedbyaresearchassistant,lastedapproximately45minutes. DataAnalysis First,amultivariateoutlierdetectiontestwasperformedusingallthefeatures’Mahalanobisdistancebetweensubjects,andthereafteraChi-squaretestwasperformedontheMahalanobisdistancedistribution.Thesubjectsbelongingtothefarendsofthedistribution,whichwasfixedforap-value<0.01,weredefinedasoutliers;fouroutlierswerefound.Pearsoncorrelationsbetweeneachpairofnumericalvariableswerecomputedtoevaluatelineardependency.Apriorpowercorrelationanalysiswasperformed,resultingin,forapopulationof94subjects,aPearsoncoefficientof0.285achievingapowerabove80%.Therefore,weonlyconsideredassignificantthecorrelationsthathadap-valuelowerthan0.05andaPearsoncoefficienthigherthan0.285inabsolutevalue.Finally,multilinearregressionswerecomputedtoobservewhichinputvariablesrelatedtolocusofcontrol,emotionregulation,executivecontrol,personality,sensationseeking,andimpulsivity,explainedtheRToutputvariables.Toexplorethestatisticalimportanceofeachvariableinthemultilinearregressionmodel,afeatureselectionalgorithmwasimplemented.Inparticular,abackwardfeatureelimination(Guyonetal.,2008)wasimplementedbasedonthestatisticalanalysisofthecoefficientofeachfeature.Thisprocedureofiterativefeatureselectionwouldnotmissanyhiddenrelationbetweeninputvariables;atthesametime,itreducesthenumberoffeaturesusedandincreasestheinterpretabilityofthemodel.Allinputvariableswerenormalisedandaninitialmultilinearregression,includingallinputs,wascomputed.Thefeaturewiththehighestp-valuewasremovedfromtheinitialinputs,whichresultedinanewsetofinputsforthefollowingregression.Thecomputationofthep-valueoftheinputswasbasedonthenullhypothesisthatallthelinearcoefficientsoftheregressionwerezero.DuetothefactthatamultilinearregressionmodelconsidereddifferenthypothesessimultaneouslyaBonferronicorrectionwasappliedtotheinitialconfidenceintervalchosen.Thealgorithmcontinuediterativelyuntilthemodelincludedasetofinputswitheveryp-valueunder0.05.Therefore,thecoefficientsofthefeaturesusedinthemultilinearregressionarestatisticallydifferentfromzero,soallfeaturescontributeinthemodel.Oncethebackwardeliminationfoundamodelinwhichallthevariablesaresignificant,itwaspreselected.Inaddition,threedifferentcheckswereperformedfortheregression:themeanoftheresidualshadtobeequalorclosetozero,aswellasthelinearcorrelationbetweentheinputvariable,andtheresidualsandthedistributionoftheresidualshadtofollowanormaldistribution.Ifthemultilinearregressionmodelovercamethesechecks,itwasconsideredasthefinalmodel;ifitdidnot,thebackwardeliminationcontinued.Weobtainedthep-value,theerror,andtheadjustedcoefficientofdeterminationoftheregressionmodel.AmodelwasobtainedforeachRTsubscale. Results DescriptiveAnalysis Thefinaldatasetincluded94subjectsbetween20and51years(49males,45females;meanage=35.77,SD=10.65).Table1showsthestatisticalvaluesofthesubscales.Thistableincludesacolumnindicatingifthedistributionofthesubscalesisnormalornotaccordingtoat-testfixingthep-valuesensitivityto0.05.Notnormaldistributionswouldachievelowervaluesthanthisthreshold.Accordingtothenormalityofeachsubscale,themeanandthestandarddeviationfornormaldistributionsisshownor,inthecaseofnotnormalsubscales,themedianandtheIQRisreported. TABLE1 Table1.Descriptiveanalysisofallvariables,organizedbysubscales. RelationBetweenRTandtheRisk-RelatedConstructs Figure2showsthePearsonCorrelationcoefficientbetweentheRTscaleandthevariablesconsideredasrisk-relatedconstructs. FIGURE2 Figure2.CorrelationmatrixobtainedbyPearsoncoefficientsbetweeneverypairofvariablesandtherangeofstatisticalsignificancebycorrelation.∗p<0.05,∗∗p<0.01,and∗∗∗p<0.001.Pearsoncoefficientof0.285achievesapowerabove80%. Afterthestatisticaltest,multilinearregressionswerecalculatedtoidentifythemostinfluentialvariablesoftheRTsubscales.Table2liststhecoefficientofeachvariable,includingtheweightandtypeoflineardependence(positiveornegative). TABLE2 Table2.Statisticaltableshowingthemultilinearregressionsforalloutputvariables. Thefirstmodel,composedofsetswitching,agreeableness,anddisinhibition,predicted32%ofthevariance(p<0.001,modelerror4.63)ofethicalRT.Accordingtotheseresults,ethicalRTispredictedbybothperceptualandpronenessbiases.TheresultsshowedthatdisinhibitionpromotesethicalRT,whilesetswitchingandagreeablenessleadtoethicalriskavoidance. Thesecondmodel,alsocomposedofsetswitching,agreeableness,anddisinhibition,predicted31%ofthevariance(p<0.001,modelerror6.07)offinancialRT.FinancialRTispredictedbybothperceptualandpronenessbiases.TheresultsshowedthatdisinhibitionpromotesfinancialRT,whilesetswitchingandagreeablenessleadtofinancialriskavoidance. Thethirdmodel,composedofdisinhibition,lackofperseverance,andpositiveurgency,predicted45%ofthevariance(p<0.001,modelerror4.77)ofhealthRT.HealthRTispredictedonlybypronenessbiases.Theresultsshowedthatdisinhibition,lackofperseverance,andpositiveurgencypromotehealthRT. Thefourthmodel,composedofthrillandadventureseekingandsensationseeking,predicted72%ofthevariance(p<0.001,modelerror4.75)ofrecreationalRT.RecreationalRTispredictedonlybypronenessbias.Theresultsshowedthatthrillandadventureseekingandsensationseeking(impulsivitysubtrait)promoterecreationalRT. Thefifthmodel,composedofopennessanddisinhibition,predicted19%ofthevariance(p<0.001,modelerror4.92)ofsocialRT.SocialRTispredictedonlybypronenessbiases.TheresultsshowedthatopennessanddisinhibitionpromotesocialRT. Discussion Risktakingisacomponentofthedecision-makingprocessinsituationsinvolvinguncertaintyandinwhichtheprobabilityofeachoutcome–rewardsand/ornegativeconsequences(Brandetal.,2007)–ispreviouslyknown(Becharaetal.,2005;Krainetal.,2006).Risktakerstendtomakedecisionswithbothhighpotentialbenefitsandhighpotentialadverseoutcomes,whichcandependonperceptualandpronenessbiases.TheresultsofthisstudyprovideaclearerviewofthefactorsthataffectRT,consideringthatsomeofthemhaveacross-domaininfluence,whiletheinfluenceofothersvariesdependingontheareaortypeofdecision.Thisstudyaimedtofillthisgapintheliteratureandexpandthislineofresearchinordertobetterunderstanddecision-makingprocessesinthefaceofrisk.Thisstudyhypothesisedthatlocusofcontrol,emotionregulation,andexecutivecontrolfactorsactasperceptualbiasesinRT,andthatpersonality,sensationseeking,andimpulsivitytraitsactaspronenessbiasesinRT.TheresultsarediscussedbelowregardingtherelationbetweenRTinthevariousdomainsandthevariablesconsidered,aswellasstudylimitations. RelationBetweenRTintheDifferentDomainsandtheVariablesConsidered PerceptualBiases First,wefoundmoderatepositive,significantcorrelationsbetweenemotionalsuppressionandfinancialRT.Second,wefoundweak/moderatepositive,significantcorrelationsbetweensetswitchingandsocialRT. Regardingregressionresults,attentionalcontrolandsetswitchingappearedassignificantpredictorsofethicalandfinancialRT.Kim-Spoonetal.(2015)foundthatattentionalcontrolisaregulatorofnegativeaffect,whichreducestheeffectsofangerandincreasestheeffectsoffear.Theseresultssuggestthat,whensubjectsfacesituationsinwhichtheyfeelnegativeaffect,highattentionalcontrolmayleadtosafebehaviours,forfearofthepotentialnegativeoutcomes.Situationssuchas“Notreturningawalletyoufoundthatcontains$200–anitemforethicalRT–or“Bettingaday’sincomeontheoutcomeofasportingevent”–anitemforfinancialRT–mightgeneratethefearofdamagingsomeone,beingdiscovered,orevenlosingalargeamountofmoney. Hypothesis1positedthatindividualswithanexternallocusofcontrol(h1a)andlowemotional(h1b)andexecutiveabilities(h1c),wouldshowriskybehavioursinthosespecificdomainswhichrequireanaccurateassessmentofrisksandbenefits.First,wedidnotfindsignificantrelationsbetweenlocusofcontrolandRT,rejectinghypothesis1a. Second,theresultsshowedthatarelationexistsbetweenemotionalsuppressionandfinancialRT,andnotwiththecognitivereappraisalstrategy,whichpartiallysupportshypothesis1b.Theemotionalsuppressionstrategyisresponse-focused,modifyingthebehaviouralaspectoftheemotionalresponse,butnottheexperienceofnegativeemotions(GrossandJohn,2003).Individualstendingtoemotionalsuppressionputthingsintoperspectivelessfrequently(Pellegrino,2019)andrequireacognitiveefforttomanagenegativeemotions(GrossandJohn,2003).Theuseoftheemotionalsuppressionstrategymightaffectfinancialdecisionmaking,sinceitrequireseffortfulprocessingtomakedecisions.TheresultsforexecutivecontrolsuggestedthatattentionalcontrolandsetswitchingleadtosocialRTandriskavoidanceintheethicalandfinancialdomains,partiallysupportinghypothesis1c.RTcanbeclassifiedasnegative–illegalordangerous–orpositive–sociallyacceptableandconstructive(DuellandSteinberg,2019).Thelattercanbeconsideredriskyduetothevariabilityanduncertaintyofitspotentialconsequences(FigueredoandJacobs,2010).Therefore,executivecontrolseemstoconstituteaperceptualbiasthatdrivespositiveRT,andtoriskavoidanceindomainsinwhichtakingrisksinvolvespotentialnegativeoutcomes.IntheframeworkofsocialRT,Lahatetal.(2012)foundthatsetswitchingabilityinchildhoodallowsknowingandconsideringboththepositiveandnegativeconsequencesofasituation,moderatingtherelationshipbetweentemperamentalaspectsandantisocialriskbehaviours.Inthisdomain,wecouldunderstandthatexecutivecontrolallowsamoreaccurateanalysisofthesituation,perhapsavoidingsocialdesirabilitybiasesthatcanmodifytheresponsestosituationspresentedassocialRTontheDOSPERTscale,suchas“Admittingthatyourtastesaredifferentfromthoseofafriend”or“Speakingyourmindaboutanunpopularissueinameetingatwork.”Regardingtheethicalandfinancialdomains,executivecontrolappearsasasignificantpredictorofmoraljudgementsandofgamblingtasks,suchthatindividualswithgreaterexecutivecontrolshowgreaterconsistencyintheirresponses(Mooreetal.,2008;Blairetal.,2018).Theseresultsmaysuggestthatgreaterconsistencyintheresponses,mediatedbyexecutivecontrol,indicatesanadaptiveRTderivedfromanaccurateassessmentofeachsituation. PronenessBiases First,theresultsshowedmoderatepositive,significantcorrelationsbetweenopennessandsocialRT.Agreeablenessshowedmoderate/weaknegative,significantcorrelationswithRTintheethical,financial,andhealthdomains.Second,wefoundstrongpositive,significantcorrelationsbetweenthrillandadventureseekingandrecreationalRT.Furthermore,theresultsshowedmoderatepositive,significantcorrelationsbetweentheexperienceseekingsubtraitandhealthRT.Inaddition,disinhibitionshowedmoderate/strongpositive,significantcorrelationsinalldomains.Boredomsusceptibilityshowedaweak/moderatepositive,significantcorrelatedwithhealthRT.Third,thefiveimpulsivitysubtraitsshowedweak/moderatepositive,significantcorrelationswithhealthRT.Lackofpremeditationalsopresentedaweakpositive,significantcorrelationwithrecreationalRT,andsensationseekingpresentedastrongpositive,significantcorrelationwithrecreationalRT,andaweakpositive,significantcorrelationwithsocialRT.Finally,wefoundmoderatepositive,significantcorrelationsbetweenpositiveurgencyandethicalRT. Regardingregressionresults,theopennesspersonalitysubtraitappearedasasignificantpredictorofsocialRT.Theopennesssubtraitisrelevanttoanunderstandingofsocialattitudes,careerchanges,andmoralreasoning(McCraeandCosta,1997).ThepositiverelationshownbetweensocialRTandopennessisconsistentwithotherstudies(Josefetal.,2016)andthisdimensionofpersonalityhasbeenidentifiedasaprotectoragainstsocialanxiety(Kaplanetal.,2015).Agreeableness,whichisrelatedtoneedsforcomplianceandcontrol,wasasignificantpredictorofethicalandfinancialriskavoidance,whichisconsistentwiththeresultsobtainedbyotherauthors(Nicholsonetal.,2005;Soaneetal.,2010). Thethrillandadventureseekingsubtrait,whichrelatestothedesiretoengageinriskyphysicalactivities(Zuckerman,1994;Wishartetal.,2017),appearedasasignificantpredictorofrecreationalRT.Therecreationaldomaininvolvesriskyphysicalactivitiesanddangeroussituations,suchas“Bungeejumpingoffatallbridge.”Thisrelationisconsistentwithotherstudiesthatfoundpositiverelationsbetweenthethrillandadventureseekingsubtraitandriskydrivingandsportbehaviours(Zuckerman,1994;Wishartetal.,2017).Disinhibition,definedasarule-breakingtendency(Donohewetal.,2000),appearedasaRTpredictorintheethical,financial,health,andsocialdomains.DisinhibitioncouldactasaRTfacilitatorintheethicaldomain,incitingindividualstoignorepreviouslyestablishedethicalnorms.ThisresultisconsistentwithotherworksthatalsofoundthatthedisinhibitionsubtraitisasignificantpredictorofethicalRT,specificallyinacademicallydishonestbehaviours(Weberetal.,2002;Etteretal.,2006).TheinfluenceofdisinhibitiononfinancialRThasbeenshownindifferentcontexts,includinggambling,inwhichithasapositiveinfluenceonfrequencyofexpectedfuturegambling(Wolfgang,1988)and,recently,problempokergambling,inwhichitisassociatedwiththemalegenderanddepression(BonnaireandBarrault,2018).TherelationbetweendisinhibitionandhealthRTiswellestablished,andhasbeendemonstratedindifferentcircumstances,suchassubstanceabuse(Kopsteinetal.,2001),alcoholconsumption(HittnerandSwickert,2006),andriskysex(Bancroftetal.,2003).Lastly,theinfluenceofdisinhibitiononsocialRThasbeenconfirmedbynumerousstudies,includingthoseinwhichparticipantswithhighdisinhibitionscoresshowedhighlevelsofviolationsofsocietalnorms(DeVriesetal.,2009)orsocialRTandexpectedbenefits(Lozanoetal.,2017). Regardingimpulsivitysubtraits,lackofperseverance,whichreflectsanabsenceoffocusonaboringordifficultactivity,andpositiveurgency,whichariseswhenanindividualdisplaysimpulsivebehavioursinpositivesituations(WhitesideandLynam,2001;Whitesideetal.,2005),weresignificantpredictorsofhealthRT.Theseresultsarealsoconsistentwiththoseobtainedinotherworks,inwhichhealthRTwasrelatedtohighscoresintheseimpulsivitysubtraits(e.g.,Coskunpinaretal.,2013;Lozanoetal.,2017).Situationssuchas“Engaginginunprotectedsex”or“Sunbathingwithoutsunscreen,”whichareDOSPERT-30scaleitemsforhealthRT,involvesalientpositiverewards,whichcouldexplainthisresult.Lastly,sensationseeking(impulsivitysubtrait)appearedasasignificantpredictorofrecreationalRT.Thesensationseekingsubtraitisdefinedastheattractiontoexcitingnewandpotentiallydangerousexperiences(WhitesideandLynam,2001;Whitesideetal.,2005)andhasbeenrelatedtorecreationalRTbyotherauthorsinactivitiessuchashigh-risksports(Gomà-i-Freixanetetal.,2012;Woodmanetal.,2013). Inhypothesis2,personalitytraits(h2a),sensationseeking(h2b),andimpulsivity(h2c)wereexpectedtohaveaninfluenceonallRT,constitutingatrendtowardriskpronenessorriskavoidance,regardlessofthetypeofrisk.First,thehypothesisedrelationbetweenRTandopenness,agreeableness,andconscientiousnesswassupported,partiallyacceptinghypothesis2a.Personalityhadaninfluenceinalldomains,exceptrecreational.Theresultssuggestedthatpersonalitytraits,inisolation,donothaveaneffectinallRTdomains;however,personality,astheconjunctionofpersonalitytraits,affectsRTbehavioursinalmostallthedomainsstudied.Second,ourresultssuggestedthatsensationseekingisabiastowardriskpronenessinvariousdomains.Specifically,disinhibitionwasfoundtobeacross-domainsubtraitthatinfluencesRTregardlessofcontext,whichsupportshypothesis2b.Third,wefoundrelationsbetweenimpulsivitysubtraitsandallRTdomains.Theseresultsseemtosuggestthatimpulsivity,whichisinvolvedinalldomainsofRT,hasatraversalinfluenceonriskybehaviours,generatingageneraltrendtowardsrisk(RTorriskavoidance)regardlessofthedomain,supportinghypothesis2c. Limitations Weacknowledgethatthepresentstudyhassomemethodologicallimitations.First,toincreasethestatisticalpoweroftheanalyses,thesamplesizecouldbelarger.Second,theuseofasinglemeasureofRTmayleadtobiasedresults.Asdiscussedpreviously,thescalemightnotencompassallthesituationsinwhichRTcanbestudied.Infuturestudies,weintendtoemployadditionalRTmeasurestocomplementtheDOSPERT-30scale,suchastheBalloonAnalogueRiskTask(BART;Lejuezetal.,2002),ortheBecharaGamblingTask(Becharaetal.,1994),whichenablecloseexaminationofallthepotentiallyinfluentialvariablesthataffectsubjects’responses.Self-reportedindexesofengagementinriskybehavioursindailylifeoverspecificperiodsoftime(e.g.,marijuanaconsumptionduringthepreviousyear)havebeenusedinotherstudies(Lejuezetal.,2003),andcouldbeincluded.Third,self-reportedmeasuresmightinvolveintrinsicbiases(de-Juan-Ripolletal.,2018),sinceindividuals’cognitiveandpsychologicalstatesmaybedifferentwhenansweringthequestionnairesasopposedtowhentheyfacerealsituations(Kivikangasetal.,2011).Inaddition,specificself-reportitemsmightbeopentodifferentinterpretations(LanyonandGoodstein,1997),andsomequestionsrequirepeopletopossessovertknowledgeoftheirdispositions(Schmitt,1994),whichisnotalwayspossible.Inourfutureresearch,wewillexaminedifferentRTmetricstoidentifywaysofimprovingmeasurements,andinvestigatetheapplicationofvirtualrealitytechnologiesinRTassessment. Conclusion Examiningwhyhumanstakerisksinsomesituations,andavoidrisksinothers,isacomplexresearchfield.InthepresentstudyweproposedanapproachinwhichriskpronenessandriskperceptionaffectRTbehaviours.Ononehand,riskpronenessisconsideredasageneralattitudetoanytypeofrisk,sothatitsinfluenceistransversaltoalldomains.Ontheotherhand,riskperceptionisunderstoodasaperceptualbias,whichmayinfluenceRTdifferently,dependingonthedomain.Theresultsofthisstudyconstituteafoundationuponwhichtobuildinthisresearchareaandcontributetotheincreasedunderstandingofhumanbehaviourinriskysituations. DataAvailabilityStatement Theoriginalcontributionspresentedinthestudyareincludedinthearticle/SupplementaryMaterial,furtherinquiriescanbedirectedtothecorrespondingauthor/s. EthicsStatement ThestudiesinvolvinghumanparticipantswerereviewedandapprovedbyEthicalCommitteeofthePolytechnicUniversityofValencia(IDP4_18_06_19).Thepatients/participantsprovidedtheirwritteninformedconsenttoparticipateinthisstudy. AuthorContributions MAandCJ-Rconceivedtheideaofthemanuscript.CJ-Rcarriedouttheexperimentsandwrotethemanuscript.JL-JandJM-Manalysedthedata.ICcontributedtotheinterpretationoftheresultsandsupportedCJ-Rinwritingthemanuscript.MAsupervisedtheproject.Allauthorscontributedtothearticleandapprovedthesubmittedversion. Funding ThisworkwassupportedbytheEuropeanUnion’sHorizon2020fundedproject“Modellingandpredictinghumandecisionmakingusingmeasuresofsubconsciousbrainprocessesthroughmixedrealityinterfacesandbiometricsignals(RHUMBO)”(No813234),theSpanishMinistryofEconomy,IndustryandCompetitivenessfundedproject“Assessmentandtrainingondecisionmakinginriskenvironments(ATEMIN)”(RTC-2017-6523-6;MINECO/AEI/FEDER,UE),andbytheGeneralitatValencianafundedproject“Mixedrealityandbraindecision(REBRAND)”(PROMETEO/2019/105). ConflictofInterest Theauthorsdeclarethattheresearchwasconductedintheabsenceofanycommercialorfinancialrelationshipsthatcouldbeconstruedasapotentialconflictofinterest. 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Editedby: MarkHallahan,CollegeoftheHolyCross,UnitedStates Reviewedby: ZacharyJacobParker,StaffordshireUniversity,UnitedKingdom CynthiaThomson,UniversityoftheFraserValley,Canada Copyright©2021de-Juan-Ripoll,ChicchiGiglioli,Llanes-Jurado,Marín-MoralesandAlcañiz.Thisisanopen-accessarticledistributedunderthetermsoftheCreativeCommonsAttributionLicense(CCBY).Theuse,distributionorreproductioninotherforumsispermitted,providedtheoriginalauthor(s)andthecopyrightowner(s)arecreditedandthattheoriginalpublicationinthisjournaliscited,inaccordancewithacceptedacademicpractice.Nouse,distributionorreproductionispermittedwhichdoesnotcomplywiththeseterms. *Correspondence:Carlade-Juan-Ripoll,[email protected]