Air pollution - Wikipedia

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Air pollution is the contamination of air due to the presence of substances in the atmosphere that are harmful to the health of humans and other living ... Airpollution FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Presenceofdangeroussubstancesintheatmosphere "Badairquality"and"Airquality"redirecthere.Fortheobsoletemedicaltheory,seeMiasmatheory.Forthemeasureofhowpollutedtheairis,seeAirqualityindex.Forthepropertiesofair,seeQualitiesofair. PartofaseriesonPollutionAirpollutionfromafactoryinNepal Air Acidrain Airqualityindex Atmosphericdispersionmodeling Chlorofluorocarbon Exhaustgas Haze Indoorair Internalcombustionengine Globaldimming Globaldistillation Ozonedepletion Particulates Persistentorganicpollutant Smog Aerosol Soot Volatileorganiccompound Biological Biologicalhazard Genetic Introducedspecies(Invasivespecies) Digital Information Electromagnetic Light Ecological Overillumination Radiospectrum Natural Ozone Radiumandradonintheenvironment Volcanicash Wildfire Noise Transportation Land Water Air Rail Sustainabletransport Urban Sonar Marinemammalsandsonar Industrial Military Abstract Noisecontrol Radiation Actinides Bioremediation Depleteduranium Nuclearfission Nuclearfallout Plutonium Poisoning Radioactivity Uranium Electromagneticradiationandhealth Radioactivewaste Soil Agricultural Herbicides Manurewaste Pesticides Landdegradation Bioremediation Defecation Electricalresistanceheating Soilguidelinevalues Phytoremediation Solidwaste Biodegradablewaste Brownwaste Electronicwaste Batteryrecycling Foodwaste Greenwaste Hazardouswaste Biomedicalwaste Chemicalwaste Constructionwaste Leadpoisoning Mercurypoisoning Toxicwaste Industrialwaste Leadsmelting Litter Mining Coalmining Goldmining Surfacemining Deepseamining Miningwaste Uraniummining Municipalsolidwaste Garbage Nanomaterials Plastic Microplastics Packagingwaste Post-consumerwaste Wastemanagement Landfill Thermaltreatment Space Satellite Thermal Urbanheatisland Visual Airtravel Advertisingclutter Overheadpowerlines Trafficsigns Vandalism War Chemicalwarfare Herbicidalwarfare(AgentOrange) Nuclearholocaust(Nuclearfallout-nuclearfamine-nuclearwinter) Scorchedearth Unexplodedordnance Warandenvironmentallaw Water Agriculturalwastewater Diseases Eutrophication Firewater Freshwater Groundwater Hypoxia Industrialwastewater Marine debris Monitoring Nonpointsource seeMiscsection Nutrient Oceanacidification Oilspill Pharmaceuticals Freshwatersalinization Septictanks Sewage Septictanks Pitlatrine Shipping Stagnation Sulfurwater Surfacerunoff Turbidity Urbanrunoff Waterquality Misc Pointsource Areasource Lists Diseases Lawbycountry Mostpollutedcities Treaties Categories Bycountry  Environmentportal  Ecologyportalvte PartofaseriesonWeather Temperateandpolarseasons Winter Spring Summer Autumn Tropicalseasons Dryseason Harmattan Wetseason Storms Cloud Cumulonimbuscloud Arcuscloud Downburst Microburst Heatburst Derecho Lightning Volcaniclightning Thunderstorm Air-massthunderstorm Thundersnow Drythunderstorm Mesocyclone Supercell Tornado Anticyclonictornado Landspout Waterspout Dustdevil Firewhirl Anticyclone Cyclone Polarlow Extratropicalcyclone Europeanwindstorm Nor'easter Subtropicalcyclone Tropicalcyclone Atlantichurricane Typhoon Stormsurge Duststorm Simoom Haboob Monsoon Amihan Gale Sirocco Firestorm Winterstorm Icestorm Blizzard Groundblizzard Snowsquall Precipitation Drizzle Freezing Graupel Hail Megacryometeor Icepellets Diamonddust Rain Freezing Cloudburst Snow Rainandsnowmixed Snowgrains Snowroller Slush Topics Airpollution Atmosphere Chemistry Convection Physics River Climate Cloud Physics Fog Fogseason Coldwave Heatwave Jetstream Meteorology Severeweather List Extreme Severeweatherterminology Canada Japan UnitedStates Weatherforecasting Weathermodification Glossaries Meteorology Climatechange Tornadoterms Tropicalcycloneterms  Weatherportalvte Airpollutionfromacokingoven 2016airqualityindicator–lightcolorshavelowerairqualityandthushigherairpollution. Deathsfromairpollutionper100,000inhabitants(IHME,2019) Airpollutionisthecontaminationofairduetothepresenceofsubstancesintheatmospherethatareharmfultothehealthofhumansandotherlivingbeings,orcausedamagetotheclimateortomaterials.[1]Therearemanydifferenttypesofairpollutants,suchasgases(includingammonia,carbonmonoxide,sulfurdioxide,nitrousoxides,methane,carbondioxideandchlorofluorocarbons),particulates(bothorganicandinorganic),andbiologicalmolecules.Airpollutioncancausediseases,allergies,andevendeathtohumans;itcanalsocauseharmtootherlivingorganismssuchasanimalsandfoodcrops,andmaydamagethenaturalenvironment(forexample,climatechange,ozonedepletionorhabitatdegradation)orbuiltenvironment(forexample,acidrain).[2]Airpollutioncanbecausedbybothhumanactivitiesandnaturalphenomena.[3] Airpollutionisasignificantriskfactorforanumberofpollution-relateddiseases,includingrespiratoryinfections,heartdisease,COPD,strokeandlungcancer.[4]GrowingevidencesuggeststhatairpollutionexposuremaybeassociatedwithreducedIQscores,impairedcognition,[5]increasedriskforpsychiatricdisorderssuchasdepression[6]anddetrimentalperinatalhealth.[7]Thehumanhealtheffectsofpoorairqualityarefarreaching,butprincipallyaffectthebody'srespiratorysystemandthecardiovascularsystem.Individualreactionstoairpollutantsdependonthetypeofpollutantapersonisexposedto,thedegreeofexposure,andtheindividual'shealthstatusandgenetics.[8] Outdoorairpollutionattributabletofossilfuelusealonecauses~3.61milliondeathsannually,makingitoneofthetopcontributorstohumandeath,[4][9]withanthropogenicozoneandPM2.5causing~2.1million.[10][11]Overall,airpollutioncausesthedeathsofaround7millionpeopleworldwideeachyear,oraglobalmeanlossoflifeexpectancy(LLE)of2.9years,[12]andistheworld'slargestsingleenvironmentalhealthrisk,whichhasnotshownsignificantprogresssinceatleast2015.[4][13][14][15]Indoorairpollutionandpoorurbanairqualityarelistedastwooftheworld'sworsttoxicpollutionproblemsinthe2008BlacksmithInstituteWorld'sWorstPollutedPlacesreport.[16]Thescopeoftheairpollutioncrisisislarge:90%oftheworld'spopulationbreathesdirtyairtosomedegree.Althoughthehealthconsequencesareextensive,thewaytheproblemishandledisconsideredlargelyhaphazard[17][18][19]orneglected.[15] Productivitylossesanddegradedqualityoflifecausedbyairpollutionareestimatedtocosttheworldeconomy$5trillionperyear[20][21][22]but,alongwithhealthandmortalityimpacts,areanexternalitytothecontemporaryeconomicsystemandmosthumanactivity,albeitsometimesbeingmoderatelyregulatedandmonitored.[23][24]Variouspollutioncontroltechnologiesandstrategiesareavailabletoreduceairpollution.[25][26]Severalinternationalandnationallegislationandregulationhavebeendevelopedtolimitthenegativeeffectsofairpollution.[27]Localrules,whenproperlyexecuted,haveresultedinsignificantadvancesinpublichealth.[28]Someoftheseeffortshavebeensuccessfulattheinternationallevel,suchastheMontrealProtocol,[29]whichreducedthereleaseofharmfulozonedepletingchemicals,andthe1985HelsinkiProtocol,[30]whichreducedsulphuremissions,[31]whileothers,suchasinternationalactiononclimatechange,[32][33][34]havebeenlesssuccessful. Contents 1Sourcesofairpollution 1.1Anthropogenic(human-made)sources 1.2Naturalsources 1.3Emissionfactors 2Pollutants 3Exposure 4Indoorairquality 5Healtheffects 5.1Mortality 5.1.1Byregion 5.1.2Guidelines 5.1.3Majorcauses 5.1.4Primarymechanisms 5.1.5Contemporaryannualdeaths 5.2Cardiovasculardisease 5.3Lungdisease 5.4Cancer(lungcancer) 5.5Kidneydisease 5.6Children 5.6.1Prenatalexposure 5.6.2Infants 5.7"Clean"areas 5.8Centralnervoussystem 6Agriculturaleffects 7Economiceffects 8Othereffects 9Historicaldisasters 10Reductionandregulation 10.1Pollutioncontrol 10.2Energytransition 10.3Alternativestopollution 10.4Controldevices 10.5Monitoring 10.6Airqualitymodeling 10.7Regulations 10.7.1Canada 10.7.2Germany 10.8Governingurbanairpollution 11Hotspots 12Cities 13Projections 14Seealso 15References 16Furtherreading 17Externallinks Sourcesofairpollution[edit] Anthropogenic(human-made)sources[edit] Aviationisamajorsourceofairpollution. ControlledburningofafieldoutsideofStatesboro,Georgia,inpreparationforspringplanting SmokingoffishoveranopenfireinGhana,2018 Thesearemostlyrelatedtotheburningoffuel. Stationarysourcesinclude: fossil-fuelpowerplantsandbiomasspowerplantsbothhavesmokestacks(seeforexampleenvironmentalimpactofthecoalindustry)[35] Oilandgassitesthathavemethaneleaks[36][37][38][39] burningoftraditionalbiomasssuchaswood,cropwasteanddung.(Indevelopingandpoorcountries,traditionalbiomassburningisthemajorsourceofairpollutants.[40][41]ItisalsothemainsourceofparticulatepollutioninmanydevelopedareasincludingtheUK&NewSouthWales.[42][43]ItspollutantsincludePAHs.[44]) manufacturingfacilities(factories)[45] a2014studyfoundthatinChinaequipment-,machinery-,anddevices-manufacturingandconstructionsectorscontributedmorethan50%ofairpollutantemissions.[46][better source needed]Thishighemissionisduetohighemissionintensityandhighemissionfactorsinitsindustrialstructure.[47] wasteincineration(incineratorsaswellasopenanduncontrolledfiresofmismanagedwaste,makingupaboutafourthofmunicipalsolidterrestrialwaste)[48][49] furnacesandothertypesoffuel-burningheatingdevices[50] Mobilesourcesincludemotorvehicles,trains(particularlydiesellocomotivesandDMUs),marinevesselsandaircraft[51]aswellasrocketsandre-entryofcomponentsanddebris.[52]Theairpollutionexternalityofcarsenterstheairfromtheexhaustgasandcartires(includingmicroplastics[53]).Vehicleswerereportedtobe"producingaboutone-thirdofallU.S.airpollution"[54][better source needed]andareamajordriverofclimatechange.[55][56] Agricultureandforestmanagementstrategiesusingcontrolledburns.Practiceslikeslash-and-burninforestsliketheAmazoncauselargeairpollutionwiththedeforestation.[57]Controlledorprescribedburningisapracticeusedinforestmanagement,agriculture,prairierestoration,andgreenhousegasreduction.[58]Foresterscanusecontrolledfireasatoolbecausefireisanaturalfeatureofbothforestandgrasslandecology.[59][60]Controlledburningencouragesthesproutingofsomedesirableforesttrees,resultinginaforestrenewal.[61] Therearealsosourcesfromprocessesotherthancombustion: Fumesfrompaint,hairspray,varnish,aerosolspraysandothersolvents.Thesecanbesubstantial;emissionsfromthesesourceswasestimatedtoaccountforalmosthalfofpollutionfromvolatileorganiccompoundsintheLosAngelesbasininthe2010s.[62] Wastedepositioninlandfillsproducesmethane.[63] Nuclearweapons,toxicgases,germwarfare,androcketryareexamplesofmilitaryresources.[64] Agriculturalemissionsandemissionsfrommeatproductionorlivestockcontributesubstantiallytoairpollution[65][66] Fertilizedfarmlandmaybeamajorsourceofnitrogenoxides.[67] Meanacidifyingemissions(airpollution)ofdifferentfoodsper100gofprotein[68] FoodTypes AcidifyingEmissions(gSO2eqper100gprotein) Beef 343.6 Cheese 165.5 Pork 142.7 Lambandmutton 139.0 Farmedcrustaceans 133.1 Poultry 102.4 Farmedfish 65.9 Eggs 53.7 Groundnuts 22.6 Peas 8.5 Tofu 6.7 Naturalsources[edit] DuststormapproachingStratford,Texasin1935 Dustfromnaturalsources,usuallylargeareasoflandwithlittlevegetationornovegetation Methane,emittedbythedigestionoffoodbyanimals,forexamplecattle RadongasfromradioactivedecaywithintheEarth'scrust.Radonisacolorless,odorless,naturallyoccurring,radioactivenoblegasthatisformedfromthedecayofradium.Itisconsideredtobeahealthhazard.Radongasfromnaturalsourcescanaccumulateinbuildings,especiallyinconfinedareassuchasthebasementanditisthesecondmostfrequentcauseoflungcancer,aftercigarettesmoking. Smokeandcarbonmonoxidefromwildfires.Duringperiodsofactivewildfires,smokefromuncontrolledbiomasscombustioncanmakeupalmost75%ofallairpollutionbyconcentration.[69] Vegetation,insomeregions,emitsenvironmentallysignificantamountsofvolatileorganiccompounds(VOCs)onwarmerdays.TheseVOCsreactwithprimaryanthropogenicpollutants –specifically,NOx,SO2,andanthropogenicorganiccarboncompounds –toproduceaseasonalhazeofsecondarypollutants.[70]Blackgum,poplar,oakandwillowaresomeexamplesofvegetationthatcanproduceabundantVOCs.TheVOCproductionfromthesespeciesresultinozonelevelsuptoeighttimeshigherthanthelow-impacttreespecies.[71] Volcanicactivity,whichproducessulfur,chlorine,andashparticulates[72] Emissionfactors[edit] Mainarticle:AP42CompilationofAirPollutantEmissionFactors Beijingairin2005afterrain(left)andasmoggyday(right) Airpollutantemissionfactorsarereportedrepresentativevaluesthataimtolinkthequantityofapollutantreleasedintotheambientairtoanactivityconnectedwiththatpollutant'srelease.[2][73][74][75]Theweightofthepollutantdividedbyaunitweight,volume,distance,ortimeoftheactivitygeneratingthepollutantishowthesefactorsarecommonlystated(e.g.,kilogrammesofparticulateemittedpertonneofcoalburned).Thesecriteriamakeestimatingemissionsfromdiversesourcesofpollutioneasier.Mostofthetime,thesecomponentsarejustaveragesofallavailabledataofacceptablequality,andtheyarethoughttobetypicaloflong-termaverages. Thereare12compoundsinthelistofpersistentorganicpollutants.Dioxinsandfuransaretwoofthemandintentionallycreatedbycombustionoforganics,likeopenburningofplastics.Thesecompoundsarealsoendocrinedisruptorsandcanmutatethehumangenes. E-wasteprocessinginAgbogbloshie,Ghanausingopen-burningofelectronicstoaccessvaluablemetalslikecopper.Openburningofplasticsiscommoninmanypartsoftheworldwithoutthecapacityforprocessing.Especiallywithoutproperprotections,heavymetalsandothercontaminatescanseepintothesoil,andcreatewaterpollutionandairpollution. TheUnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgencyhaspublishedacompilationofairpollutantemissionfactorsforawiderangeofindustrialsources.[76]TheUnitedKingdom,Australia,Canadaandmanyothercountrieshavepublishedsimilarcompilations,aswellastheEuropeanEnvironmentAgency.[77][78][79][80] Pollutants[edit] Mainarticles:PollutantandGreenhousegasemissions Schematicdrawing,causesandeffectsofairpollution:(1)greenhouseeffect,(2)particulatecontamination,(3)increasedUVradiation,(4)acidrain,(5)increasedground-levelozoneconcentration,(6)increasedlevelsofnitrogenoxides Anairpollutantisamaterialintheairthatcanhaveadverseeffectsonhumansandtheecosystem.[81]Thesubstancecanbesolidparticles,liquiddroplets,orgases.Apollutantcanbeofnaturaloriginorman-made. Pollutantsareclassifiedasprimaryorsecondary.Primarypollutantsareusuallyproducedbyprocessessuchasashfromavolcaniceruption.Otherexamplesincludecarbonmonoxidegasfrommotorvehicleexhaustsorsulfurdioxidereleasedfromfactories.Secondarypollutantsarenotemitteddirectly.Rather,theyformintheairwhenprimarypollutantsreactorinteract.Groundlevelozoneisaprominentexampleofasecondarypollutant.Somepollutantsmaybebothprimaryandsecondary:theyarebothemitteddirectlyandformedfromotherprimarypollutants. Pollutantsemittedintotheatmospherebyhumanactivityinclude: Carbondioxide(CO2):Becauseofitsroleasagreenhousegasithasbeendescribedas"theleadingpollutant"[82]and"theworstclimatepollutant".[83]Carbondioxideisanaturalcomponentoftheatmosphere,essentialforplantlifeandgivenoffbythehumanrespiratorysystem.[84]Thisquestionofterminologyhaspracticaleffects,forexampleasdeterminingwhethertheU.S.CleanAirActisdeemedtoregulateCO2emissions.[85]CO2currentlyformsabout410partspermillion(ppm)ofearth'satmosphere,comparedtoabout280 ppminpre-industrialtimes,[86]andbillionsofmetrictonsofCO2areemittedannuallybyburningoffossilfuels.[87]CO2increaseinearth'satmospherehasbeenaccelerating.[88] Sulfuroxides(SOx):particularlysulfurdioxide,achemicalcompoundwiththeformulaSO2.SO2isproducedbyvolcanoesandinvariousindustrialprocesses.Coalandpetroleumoftencontainsulfurcompounds,andtheircombustiongeneratessulfurdioxide.FurtheroxidationofSO2,usuallyinthepresenceofacatalystsuchasNO2,formsH2SO4,andthusacidrainisformed.Thisisoneofthecausesforconcernovertheenvironmentalimpactoftheuseofthesefuelsaspowersources. Nitrogenoxides(NOx):Nitrogenoxides,particularlynitrogendioxide,areexpelledfromhightemperaturecombustion,andarealsoproducedduringthunderstormsbyelectricdischarge.Theycanbeseenasabrownhazedomeaboveoraplumedownwindofcities.NitrogendioxideisachemicalcompoundwiththeformulaNO2.Itisoneofseveralnitrogenoxides.Oneofthemostprominentairpollutants,thisreddish-browntoxicgashasacharacteristicsharp,bitingodor. Carbonmonoxide(CO):COisacolorless,odorless,toxicgas.[89]Itisaproductofcombustionoffuelsuchasnaturalgas,coalorwood.Vehicularexhaustcontributestothemajorityofcarbonmonoxideletintotheatmosphere.Itcreatesasmogtypeformationintheairthathasbeenlinkedtomanylungdiseasesanddisruptionstothenaturalenvironmentandanimals. Volatileorganiccompounds(VOC):VOCsareawell-knownoutdoorairpollutant.Theyarecategorizedaseithermethane(CH4)ornon-methane(NMVOCs).Methaneisanextremelyefficientgreenhousegaswhichcontributestoenhancedglobalwarming.OtherhydrocarbonVOCsarealsosignificantgreenhousegasesbecauseoftheirroleincreatingozoneandprolongingthelifeofmethaneintheatmosphere.Thiseffectvariesdependingonlocalairquality.ThearomaticNMVOCsbenzene,tolueneandxylenearesuspectedcarcinogensandmayleadtoleukemiawithprolongedexposure.1,3-butadieneisanotherdangerouscompoundoftenassociatedwithindustrialuse. Particulatematter/particles,alsoknownasparticulatematter(PM),atmosphericparticulatematter(APM),orfineparticles,aremicroscopicsolidorliquidparticlessuspendedinagas.[90]Aerosol,ontheotherhand,isamixtureofparticlesandgas.Volcanoes,duststorms,forestandgrasslandfires,livingplants,andseasprayareallsourcesofparticles.Aerosolsareproducedbyhumanactivitiessuchasthecombustionoffossilfuelsinautomobiles,powerplants,andnumerousindustrialprocesses.[91]Averagedworldwide,anthropogenicaerosols –thosemadebyhumanactivities –currentlyaccountforapproximately10%ofouratmosphere.Increasedlevelsoffineparticlesintheairarelinkedtohealthhazardssuchasheartdisease,[92]alteredlungfunctionandlungcancer.Particulatesarerelatedtorespiratoryinfectionsandcanbeparticularlyharmfultothosewithconditionslikeasthma.[93] Persistentfreeradicalsconnectedtoairbornefineparticlesarelinkedtocardiopulmonarydisease.[94][95] Toxicmetals,suchasleadandmercury,especiallytheircompounds. Chlorofluorocarbons(CFCs):Emittedfromgoodsthatarenowprohibitedfromuse;harmfultotheozonelayer.Thesearegasesemittedbyairconditioners,freezers,aerosolsprays,andothersimilardevices.CFCsreachthestratosphereafterbeingreleasedintotheatmosphere.[96]Theyinteractwithothergaseshere,causingharmtotheozonelayer.UVraysareabletoreachtheearth'ssurfaceasaresultofthis.Thiscanresultinskincancer,eyeproblems,andevenplantdamage.[97] Ammonia:Emittedmainlybyagriculturalwaste.AmmoniaisacompoundwiththeformulaNH3.Itisnormallyencounteredasagaswithacharacteristicpungentodor.Ammoniacontributessignificantlytothenutritionalneedsofterrestrialorganismsbyservingasaprecursortofoodstuffsandfertilizers.Ammonia,eitherdirectlyorindirectly,isalsoabuildingblockforthesynthesisofmanypharmaceuticals.Althoughinwideuse,ammoniaisbothcausticandhazardous.[98]Intheatmosphere,ammoniareactswithoxidesofnitrogenandsulfurtoformsecondaryparticles.[99] Odors:Suchasfromgarbage,sewage,andindustrialprocesses. Radioactivepollutants:Producedbynuclearexplosions,nuclearevents,warexplosives,andnaturalprocessessuchastheradioactivedecayofradon. Secondarypollutantsinclude: Photochemicalsmog:particlesareformedfromgaseousprimarycontaminantsandchemicals.[100]Smogisatypeofpollutionthatoccursintheatmosphere.Smogiscausedbyahugevolumeofcoalbeingburnedinacertainregion,resultinginamixtureofsmokeandsulphurdioxide.[101]Modernsmogisusuallycausedbyautomotiveandindustrialemissions,whichareactedonintheatmospherebyUVlightfromthesuntoproducesecondarypollutants,whichthencombinewiththeprimaryemissionstogeneratephotochemicalsmog. Groundlevelozone(O3):OzoneiscreatedwhenNOxandVOCsmix.Itisasignificantpartofthetroposphere.[102]It'salsoanimportantpartoftheozonelayer,whichcanbefoundindifferentsectionsofthestratosphere.Photochemicalandchemicalreactionsinvolvingitfuelmanyofthechemicalactivitiesthatoccurintheatmosphereduringthedayandnight.Itisapollutantandacomponentofsmogthatisproducedinlargequantitiesasaresultofhumanactivities(mostlythecombustionoffossilfuels).[103] Peroxyacetylnitrate(C2H3NO5):similarlyformedfromNOxandVOCs. Minorairpollutantsinclude: Alargenumberofminorhazardousairpollutants.SomeoftheseareregulatedinUSAundertheCleanAirActandinEuropeundertheAirFrameworkDirective. Avarietyofpersistentorganicpollutants,whichcanattachtoparticulates Persistentorganicpollutantsareorganiccompoundsthatareresistanttoenvironmentaldegradationduetochemical,biological,orphotolyticprocesses(POPs).Asaresult,they'vebeendiscoveredtosurviveintheenvironment,becapableoflong-rangetransmission,bioaccumulateinhumanandanimaltissue,biomagnifyinfoodchains,andposeamajorthreattohumanhealthandtheecosystem.[104] Todisplayallpages,subcategoriesandimagesclickonthe"►": Hazardousairpollutants‎(4C,68P) Beforeflue-gasdesulfurizationwasinstalled,theemissionsfromthispowerplantinNewMexicocontainedexcessiveamountsofsulfurdioxide. Thermaloxidisersareairpollutionabatementoptionsforhazardousairpollutants(HAPs),volatileorganiccompounds(VOCs),andodorousemissions. ThisvideoprovidesanoverviewofaNASAstudyonthehumanfingerprintonglobalairquality. Exposure[edit] Upto30%ofEuropeanslivingincitiesareexposedtoairpollutantlevelsexceedingEUairqualitystandards.Around98%ofEuropeanslivingincitiesareexposedtolevelsofairpollutantsdeemeddamagingtohealthbytheWorldHealthOrganization'smorestringentguidelines.[105] Theriskofairpollutionisdeterminedbythepollutant'shazardandtheamountofexposuretothatpollutant.Airpollutionexposurecanbemeasuredforaperson,agroup(suchasaneighborhoodoracountry'schildren),oranentirepopulation.Forexample,onewouldwanttodetermineageographicarea'sexposuretoadangerousairpollution,takingintoaccountthevariousmicroenvironmentsandagegroups.Thiscanbecalculated[8]asaninhalationexposure.Thiswouldaccountfordailyexposureinvarioussettings(e.g.differentindoormicro-environmentsandoutdoorlocations).Theexposureneedstoincludedifferentagesandotherdemographicgroups,especiallyinfants,children,pregnantwomen,andothersensitivesubpopulations.Foreachspecifictimethatthesubgroupisinthesettingandengagedinparticularactivities,theexposuretoanairpollutantmustintegratetheconcentrationsoftheairpollutantwithregardtothetimespentineachsettingandtherespectiveinhalationratesforeachsubgroup(playing,cooking,reading,working,spendingtimeintraffic,etc.).Alittlechild'sinhalingrate,forexample,willbelowerthanthatofanadult.Ayoungsterengaginginstrenuousexercisewillhaveafasterrateofbreathingthanachildengagedinsedentaryactivity.Thedailyexposuremustthereforeincludetheamountoftimespentineachmicro-environmentalsettingaswellasthekindofactivitiesperformedthere.Theairpollutantconcentrationineachmicroactivity/microenvironmentalsettingissummedtoindicatetheexposure.[8]Forsomepollutantssuchasblackcarbon,trafficrelatedexposuresmaydominatetotalexposuredespiteshortexposuretimessincehighconcentrationscoincidewithproximitytomajorroadsorparticipationin(motorized)traffic.[106]Alargeportionoftotaldailyexposureoccursasshortpeaksofhighconcentrations,butitremainsunclearhowtodefinepeaksanddeterminetheirfrequencyandhealthimpact.[107] In2021,theWHOhalveditsrecommendedguidelinelimitfortinyparticlesfromburningfossilfuels.Thenewlimitfornitrogendioxide(NO2)is75%lower.[108]Growingevidencethatairpollution—evenwhenexperiencedatverylowlevels—hurtshumanhealth,ledtheWHOtoreviseitsguideline(from10 µg/m³to5 µg/m³)forwhatitconsidersasafelevelofexposureofparticulatepollution,bringingmostoftheworld—97.3percentoftheglobalpopulation—intotheunsafezone.[109] Indoorairquality[edit] Mainarticles:IndoorairqualityandIndoorairpollutionindevelopingcountries Shareofdeathsfromindoorairpollution Airqualitymonitoring,NewDelhi,India Alackofventilationindoorsconcentratesairpollutionwherepeopleoftenspendthemajorityoftheirtime.Radon(Rn)gas,acarcinogen,isexudedfromtheEarthincertainlocationsandtrappedinsidehouses.Buildingmaterialsincludingcarpetingandplywoodemitformaldehyde(H2CO)gas.Paintandsolventsgiveoffvolatileorganiccompounds(VOCs)astheydry.Leadpaintcandegenerateintodustandbeinhaled.Intentionalairpollutionisintroducedwiththeuseofairfresheners,incense,andotherscenteditems.Controlledwoodfiresincookstovesandfireplacescanaddsignificantamountsofharmfulsmokeparticulatesintotheair,insideandout.[110][111]Indoorpollutionfatalitiesmaybecausedbyusingpesticidesandotherchemicalspraysindoorswithoutproperventilation. Carbonmonoxidepoisoningandfatalitiesareoftencausedbyfaultyventsandchimneys,orbytheburningofcharcoalindoorsorinaconfinedspace,suchasatent.[112]Chroniccarbonmonoxidepoisoningcanresultevenfrompoorly-adjustedpilotlights.Trapsarebuiltintoalldomesticplumbingtokeepsewergasandhydrogensulfide,outofinteriors.Clothingemitstetrachloroethylene,orotherdrycleaningfluids,fordaysafterdrycleaning. Thoughitsusehasnowbeenbannedinmanycountries,theextensiveuseofasbestosinindustrialanddomesticenvironmentsinthepasthasleftapotentiallyverydangerousmaterialinmanylocalities.Asbestosisisachronicinflammatorymedicalconditionaffectingthetissueofthelungs.Itoccursafterlong-term,heavyexposuretoasbestosfromasbestos-containingmaterialsinstructures.Thosewithasbestosishaveseveredyspnea(shortnessofbreath)andareatanincreasedriskregardingseveraldifferenttypesoflungcancer.Asclearexplanationsarenotalwaysstressedinnon-technicalliterature,careshouldbetakentodistinguishbetweenseveralformsofrelevantdiseases.AccordingtotheWorldHealthOrganization(WHO),[113]thesemaybedefinedasasbestosis,lungcancer,andperitonealmesothelioma(generallyaveryrareformofcancer,whenmorewidespreaditisalmostalwaysassociatedwithprolongedexposuretoasbestos). Biologicalsourcesofairpollutionarealsofoundindoors,asgasesandairborneparticulates.Petsproducedander,peopleproducedustfromminuteskinflakesanddecomposedhair,dustmitesinbedding,carpetingandfurnitureproduceenzymesandmicrometre-sizedfecaldroppings,inhabitantsemitmethane,moldformsonwallsandgeneratesmycotoxinsandspores,airconditioningsystemscanincubateLegionnaires'diseaseandmold,andhouseplants,soilandsurroundinggardenscanproducepollen,dust,andmold.Indoors,thelackofaircirculationallowstheseairbornepollutantstoaccumulatemorethantheywouldotherwiseoccurinnature. Healtheffects[edit] EvenatlevelslowerthanthoseconsideredsafebyUnitedStatesregulators,exposuretothreecomponentsofairpollution,fineparticulatematter,nitrogendioxideandozone,correlateswithcardiacandrespiratoryillness.[114]In2020,pollution(includingairpollution)wasacontributingfactortooneineightdeathsinEurope,andwasasignificantriskfactorforpollution-relateddiseasesincludingheartdisease,strokeandlungcancer.[115]Thehealtheffectscausedbyairpollutionmayincludedifficultyinbreathing,wheezing,coughing,asthma[116]andworseningofexistingrespiratoryandcardiacconditions.Theseeffectscanresultinincreasedmedicationuse,increaseddoctororemergencydepartmentvisits,morehospitaladmissionsandprematuredeath.Thehumanhealtheffectsofpoorairqualityarefarreaching,butprincipallyaffectthebody'srespiratorysystemandthecardiovascularsystem.Individualreactionstoairpollutantsdependonthetypeofpollutantapersonisexposedto,thedegreeofexposure,andtheindividual'shealthstatusandgenetics.[8]Themostcommonsourcesofairpollutionincludeparticulates,ozone,nitrogendioxide,andsulfurdioxide.Childrenagedlessthanfiveyearswholiveindevelopingcountriesarethemostvulnerablepopulationintermsoftotaldeathsattributabletoindoorandoutdoorairpollution.[117] Mortality[edit] Shareofdeathsfromoutdoorairpollution,OWID TheWorldHealthOrganizationestimatedin2014thateveryyearairpollutioncausestheprematuredeathofsome7millionpeopleworldwide.[4]StudiespublishedinMarch2019indicatedthatthenumbermaybearound8.8million.[118]A2022reviewconcludedthatairpollutionwasresponsiblefor6.67(5.90–7.49)millionprematuredeathsin2019.Itconcludedthatsince2015littlerealprogressagainst(superordinate)pollution,whichremainedat~9millionearlierdeaths,canbeidentified.[119][15] Causesofdeathsincludestrokes,heartdisease,COPD,lungcancer,andlunginfections.[4] Urbanoutdoorairpollutionisestimatedtocause1.3milliondeathsworldwideperyear.[120]Childrenareparticularlyatriskduetotheimmaturityoftheirrespiratoryorgansystems.[121]In2015,outdoorairpollution,mostlybyPM2.5,wasestimatedtoleadto3.3(95%CI1.61–4.81)millionprematuredeathsperyearworldwide,predominantlyinAsia.[66]In2021,theWHOreportedthatoutdoorairpollutionwasestimatedtocause4.2millionprematuredeathsworldwidein2016.[122]A2020studyindicatesthattheglobalmeanlossoflifeexpectancy(LLE;similartoYPLL)fromairpollutionin2015was2.9years,substantiallymorethan,forexample,0.3 yearsfromallformsofdirectviolence,albeitasignificantfractionoftheLLEisunavoidable.[12]Moreover,communitieswiththemostexceptionalaginghavelowambientairpollution,suggestingalinkbetweenairpollutionlevelsandlongevity.[123] Astudypublishedin2022inGeoHealthconcludedthateliminatingenergy-relatedfossilfuelemissionsintheUnitedStateswouldprevent46,900–59,400prematuredeathseachyearandprovide$537–$678billioninbenefitsfromavoidedPM2.5-relatedillnessanddeath.[124] Byregion[edit] IndiaandChinahavethehighestdeathrateduetoairpollution.[125][126]IndiaalsohasmoredeathsfromasthmathananyothernationaccordingtotheWorldHealthOrganization.InDecember2013airpollutionwasestimatedtokill500,000peopleinChinaeachyear.[127]Thereisapositivecorrelationbetweenpneumonia-relateddeathsandairpollutionfrommotorvehicleemissions.[128] AnnualprematureEuropeandeathscausedbyairpollutionareestimatedat430,000[129]to800,000.[118]Animportantcauseofthesedeathsisnitrogendioxideandothernitrogenoxides(NOx)emittedbyroadvehicles.[129]Ina2015consultationdocumenttheUKgovernmentdisclosedthatnitrogendioxideisresponsiblefor23,500prematureUKdeathsperannum.[130]AcrosstheEuropeanUnion,airpollutionisestimatedtoreducelifeexpectancybyalmostninemonths.[131] Guidelines[edit] Mainarticle:Airqualityguideline TheUSEPAhasestimatedthatlimitingground-levelozoneconcentrationto65partsperbillion(ppb),wouldavert1,700to5,100prematuredeathsnationwidein2020comparedwiththe75 ppbstandard.Theagencyprojectedthemoreprotectivestandardwouldalsopreventanadditional26,000casesofaggravatedasthma,andmorethanamillioncasesofmissedworkorschool.[132][133]Followingthisassessment,theEPAactedtoprotectpublichealthbyloweringtheNationalAmbientAirQualityStandards(NAAQS)forground-levelozoneto70 ppb.[134]AneweconomicstudyofthehealthimpactsandassociatedcostsofairpollutionintheLosAngelesBasinandSanJoaquinValleyofSouthernCaliforniashowsthatmorethan3,800peopledieprematurely(approximately14yearsearlierthannormal)eachyearbecauseairpollutionlevelsviolatefederalstandards.Thenumberofannualprematuredeathsisconsiderablyhigherthanthefatalitiesrelatedtoautocollisionsinthesamearea,whichaveragefewerthan2,000peryear.[135][136][137]A2021studyfoundthatoutdoorairpollutionisassociatedwithsubstantiallyincreasedmortality"evenatlowpollutionlevelsbelowthecurrentEuropeanandNorthAmericanstandardsandWHOguidelinevalues"shortlybeforetheWHOadjusteditsguidelines.[138][139] Majorcauses[edit] Furtherinformation:§ Sources Comparisonoffootprint-basedandtransboundarypollution-basedrelationshipsamongG20nationsforthenumberofPM2.5-relatedprematuredeaths.[140] Thelargestcauseisairpollutiongeneratedbyfossilfuelcombustion[141]–mostlytheproductionanduseofcars,electricityproduction,andheating.[142]AstudybyGreenpeaceestimatesthereare4.5millionannualprematuredeathsworldwidebecauseofpollutantsreleasedbyhigh-emissionpowerstationsandvehicleexhausts.[143] Dieselexhaust(DE)isamajorcontributortocombustion-derivedparticulatematterairpollution.Inseveralhumanexperimentalstudies,usingawell-validatedexposurechambersetup,DEhasbeenlinkedtoacutevasculardysfunctionandincreasedthrombusformation.[144][145] AstudyconcludedthatPM2.5airpollutioninducedbythecontemporaryfreetradeandconsumptionbythe19G20nationscausestwomillionprematuredeathsannually,suggestingthattheaveragelifetimeconsumptionofabout~28peopleinthesecountriescausesatleastoneprematuredeath(averageage~67)whiledevelopingcountries"cannotbeexpected"toimplementorbeabletoimplementcountermeasureswithoutexternalsupportorinternationallycoordinatedefforts.[146][140] Primarymechanisms[edit] TheWHOestimatesthatin2016,~58%ofoutdoorairpollution-relatedprematuredeathswereduetoischaemicheartdiseaseandstroke.[122]Themechanismslinkingairpollutiontoincreasedcardiovascularmortalityareuncertain,butprobablyincludepulmonaryandsystemicinflammation.[147] Contemporaryannualdeaths[edit] AstudybyscientistsofU.K.andU.S.universitiesthatusesahighspatialresolutionmodelandanupdatedconcentration-responsefunctionconcludedin2021that10.4millionglobalexcessdeathsin2012and8.7millionin2018–orafifth[dubious–discuss]–wereduetoairpollutiongeneratedbyfossilfuelcombustion,significantlyhigherthanearlierestimatesandwithspatiallysubdividedmortalityimpacts.[148][141] AccordingtotheWHOairpollutionaccountsfor1in8deathsworldwide.[149] Cardiovasculardisease[edit] A2007reviewofevidencefoundthat,ambientairpollutionexposureisariskfactorcorrelatingwithincreasedtotalmortalityfromcardiovascularevents(range:12%to14%per10 µg/m3increase).[150][clarificationneeded] Airpollutionisalsoemergingasariskfactorforstroke,particularlyindevelopingcountrieswherepollutantlevelsarehighest.[151]A2007studyfoundthatinwomen,airpollutionisnotassociatedwithhemorrhagicbutwithischemicstroke.[152]Airpollutionwasalsofoundtobeassociatedwithincreasedincidenceandmortalityfromcoronarystrokeinacohortstudyin2011.[153]Associationsarebelievedtobecausalandeffectsmaybemediatedbyvasoconstriction,low-gradeinflammationandatherosclerosis.[154]Othermechanismssuchasautonomicnervoussystemimbalancehavealsobeensuggested.[155][156] Lungdisease[edit] Researchhasdemonstratedincreasedriskofdevelopingasthma[157]andchronicobstructivepulmonarydisease(COPD)[158]fromincreasedexposuretotraffic-relatedairpollution.Additionally,airpollutionhasbeenassociatedwithincreasedhospitalizationandmortalityfromasthmaandCOPD.[159][160]COPDincludesdiseasessuchaschronicbronchitisandemphysema.[161]Theriskoflungdiseasefromairpollutionisgreatestforthefollowinggroupsofpeople:infantsandyoungchildren,whosenormalbreathingisfasterthanthatofolderchildrenandadults;theelderly;thosewhoworkoutsideorspendalotoftimeoutside;andthosewhohaveheartorlungdisease.[162] Astudyconductedin1960–1961inthewakeoftheGreatSmogof1952compared293Londonresidentswith477residentsofGloucester,Peterborough,andNorwich,threetownswithlowreporteddeathratesfromchronicbronchitis.Allsubjectsweremalepostaltruckdriversaged40to59.Comparedtothesubjectsfromtheoutlyingtowns,theLondonsubjectsexhibitedmoresevererespiratorysymptoms(includingcough,phlegm,anddyspnea),reducedlungfunction(FEV1andpeakflowrate),andincreasedsputumproductionandpurulence.Thedifferencesweremorepronouncedforsubjectsaged50to59.Thestudycontrolledforageandsmokinghabits,soconcludedthatairpollutionwasthemostlikelycauseoftheobserveddifferences.[163] Morestudieshaveshownthatairpollutionexposurefromtrafficreduceslungfunctiondevelopmentinchildren[164]andlungfunctionmaybecompromisedbyairpollutionevenatlowconcentrations.[165] Itisbelievedthatmuchlikecysticfibrosis,bylivinginamoreurbanenvironmentserioushealthhazardsbecomemoreapparent.Studieshaveshownthatinurbanareaspeopleexperiencemucushypersecretion,lowerlevelsoflungfunction,andmoreself-diagnosisofchronicbronchitisandemphysema.[166] Cancer(lungcancer)[edit] UnprotectedexposuretoPM2.5airpollutioncanbeequivalenttosmokingmultiplecigarettesperday,[167]potentiallyincreasingtheriskofcancer,whichismainlytheresultofenvironmentalfactors.[168] Around300,000lungcancerdeathswereattributedgloballyin2019toexposuretofineparticulatematter,PM2.5,containedinairpollution.[169] Areviewofevidenceregardingwhetherambientairpollutionexposureisariskfactorforcancerin2007foundsoliddatatoconcludethatlong-termexposuretoPM2.5(fineparticulates)increasestheoverallriskofnon-accidentalmortalityby6%pera10microg/m3increase.ExposuretoPM2.5wasalsoassociatedwithanincreasedriskofmortalityfromlungcancer(range:15%to21%per10microg/m3increase)andtotalcardiovascularmortality(range:12%to14%pera10microg/m3increase).Thereviewfurthernotedthatlivingclosetobusytrafficappearstobeassociatedwithelevatedrisksofthesethreeoutcomes –increaseinlungcancerdeaths,cardiovasculardeaths,andoverallnon-accidentaldeaths.ThereviewersalsofoundsuggestiveevidencethatexposuretoPM2.5ispositivelyassociatedwithmortalityfromcoronaryheartdiseasesandexposuretoSO2increasesmortalityfromlungcancer,butthedatawasinsufficienttoprovidesolidconclusions.[170]Anotherinvestigationshowedthathigheractivitylevelincreasesdepositionfractionofaerosolparticlesinhumanlungandrecommendedavoidingheavyactivitieslikerunninginoutdoorspaceatpollutedareas.[171] In2011,alargeDanishepidemiologicalstudyfoundanincreasedriskoflungcancerforpeoplewholivedinareaswithhighnitrogenoxideconcentrations.Inthisstudy,theassociationwashigherfornon-smokersthansmokers.[172]AnadditionalDanishstudy,alsoin2011,likewisenotedevidenceofpossibleassociationsbetweenairpollutionandotherformsofcancer,includingcervicalcancerandbraincancer.[173] Astudypresentedin2022outlinedthebiologicalbasisforhowairpollutioncausescancer.[169] Kidneydisease[edit] In2021,astudyof163,197Taiwaneseresidentsovertheperiodof2001–2016estimatedthatevery5μg/m3decreaseintheambientconcentrationofPM2.5wasassociatedwitha25%reducedriskofchronickidneydiseasedevelopment.[174]Accordingtoachordstudyinvolving10,997atherosclerosispatients,higherPM2.5exposureisassociatewithincreasedalbuminuria.[175] Children[edit] IntheUnitedStates,despitethepassageoftheCleanAirActin1970,in2002atleast146millionAmericanswerelivinginnon-attainmentareas–regionsinwhichtheconcentrationofcertainairpollutantsexceededfederalstandards.[176]Thesedangerouspollutantsareknownasthecriteriapollutants,andincludeozone,particulatematter,sulfurdioxide,nitrogendioxide,carbonmonoxide,andlead.Protectivemeasurestoensurechildren'shealtharebeingtakenincitiessuchasNewDelhi,India,wherebusesnowusecompressednaturalgastohelpeliminatethe"pea-soup"smog.[177]ArecentstudyinEuropehasfoundthatexposuretoultrafineparticlescanincreasebloodpressureinchildren.[178] AccordingtoaWHOreportin2018,pollutedairleadstothepoisoningofmillionsofchildrenundertheageof15,resultinginthedeathofsomesixhundredthousandchildrenannually.[179] Prenatalexposure[edit] Prenatalexposuretopollutedairhasbeenlinkedtoavarietyofneurodevelopmentaldisordersinchildren.Forexample,exposuretopolycyclicaromatichydrocarbons(PAH)wasassociatedwithreducedIQscoresandsymptomsofanxietyanddepression.[180]Theycanalsoleadtodetrimentalperinatalhealthoutcomesthatareoftenfatalindevelopingcountries.[7]A2014studyfoundthatPAHsmightplayaroleinthedevelopmentofchildhoodattentiondeficithyperactivitydisorder(ADHD).[181]Researchershavealsobeguntofindevidenceforairpollutionasariskfactorforautismspectrumdisorder(ASD).InLosAngeles,childrenwhowerelivinginareaswithhighlevelsoftraffic-relatedairpollutionweremorelikelytobediagnosedwithautismbetween3–5yearsofage.[182]Theconnectionbetweenairpollutionandneurodevelopmentaldisordersinchildrenisthoughttoberelatedtoepigeneticdysregulationoftheprimordialgermcells,embryo,andfetusduringacriticalperiod.SomePAHsareconsideredendocrinedisruptorsandarelipidsoluble.Whentheybuildupinadiposetissue,theycanbetransferredacrosstheplacenta.[183]Inadditiontoall,airpollutionhasbeenassociatedwiththeprevalenceofpretermbirths.[184] Infants[edit] Ambientlevelsofairpollutionhavebeenassociatedwithpretermbirthandlowbirthweight.A2014WHOworldwidesurveyonmaternalandperinatalhealthfoundastatisticallysignificantassociationbetweenlowbirthweights(LBW)andincreasedlevelsofexposuretoPM2.5.WomeninregionswithgreaterthanaveragePM2.5levelshadstatisticallysignificanthigheroddsofpregnancyresultinginalow-birthweightinfantevenwhenadjustedforcountry-relatedvariables.[185]Theeffectisthoughttobefromstimulatinginflammationandincreasingoxidativestress. AstudybytheUniversityofYorkfoundthatin2010exposuretoPM2.5wasstronglyassociatedwith18%ofpretermbirthsglobally,whichwasapproximately2.7millionprematurebirths.ThecountrieswiththehighestairpollutionassociatedpretermbirthswereinSouthandEastAsia,theMiddleEast,NorthAfrica,andWestsub-SaharanAfrica.[186] ThesourceofPM2.5differsgreatlybyregion.InSouthandEastAsia,pregnantwomenarefrequentlyexposedtoindoorairpollutionbecauseofwoodandotherbiomassfuelsbeingusedforcooking,whichareresponsibleformorethan80%ofregionalpollution.IntheMiddleEast,NorthAfricaandWestsub-SaharanAfrica,finePMcomesfromnaturalsources,suchasduststorms.[186]TheUnitedStateshadanestimated50,000pretermbirthsassociatedwithexposuretoPM2.5in2010.[186] AstudyperformedbyWang,etal.betweentheyearsof1988and1991hasfoundacorrelationbetweensulfurdioxide(SO2)andtotalsuspendedparticulates(TSP)andpretermbirthsandlowbirthweightsinBeijing.Agroupof74,671pregnantwomen,infourseparateregionsofBeijing,weremonitoredfromearlypregnancytodeliveryalongwithdailyairpollutionlevelsofsulfurDioxideandTSP(alongwithotherparticulates).Theestimatedreductioninbirthweightwas7.3gforevery100 µg/m3increaseinSO2and6.9gforeach100 µg/m3increaseinTSP.Theseassociationswerestatisticallysignificantinbothsummerandwinter,although,summerwasgreater.Theproportionoflowbirthweightattributabletoairpollution,was13%.Thisisthelargestattributableriskeverreportedfortheknownriskfactorsoflowbirthweight.[187]Coalstoves,whicharein97%ofhomes,areamajorsourceofairpollutioninthisarea. Braueretal.studiedtherelationshipbetweenairpollutionandproximitytoahighwaywithpregnancyoutcomesinaVancouvercohortofpregnantwomanusingaddressestoestimateexposureduringpregnancy.ExposuretoNO,NO2,CO,PM10andPM2.5wereassociatedwithinfantsbornsmallforgestationalage(SGA).Womenlivinglessthan50metersawayfromanexpresswayorhighwaywere26%morelikelytogivebirthtoaSGAinfant.[188] "Clean"areas[edit] ShareofthepopulationexposedtoairpollutionlevelsaboveWHOguidelines,OWID Eveninareaswithrelativelylowlevelsofairpollution,publichealtheffectscanbesignificantandcostly,sincealargenumberofpeoplebreatheinsuchpollutants.Astudypublishedin2017foundthateveninareasoftheU.S.whereozoneandPM2.5meetfederalstandards,Medicarerecipientswhoareexposedtomoreairpollutionhavehighermortalityrates.[189]A2005scientificstudyfortheBritishColumbiaLungAssociationshowedthatasmallimprovementinairquality(1%reductionofambientPM2.5andozoneconcentrations)wouldproduce$29millioninannualsavingsintheMetroVancouverregionin2010.[190]Thisfindingisbasedonhealthvaluationoflethal(death)andsub-lethal(illness)affects. In2020,scientistsfoundthattheboundarylayerairovertheSouthernOceanaroundAntarcticais'unpolluted'byhumans.[191] Centralnervoussystem[edit] Seealso:Neuroplasticeffectsofpollution Dataisaccumulatingthatairpollutionexposurealsoaffectsthecentralnervoussystem.[192] Airpollutionincreasestheriskofdementiainpeopleover50yearsold.[193]Childhoodindoorairpollutionmaynegativelyaffectcognitivefunctionandneurodevelopment.[194][195]Prenatalexposuremayalsoaffectneurodevelopment.[196][197]Studiesshowthatairpollutionisassociatedwithavarietyofdevelopmentaldisabilities,oxidativestress,andneuro-inflammationandthatitmaycontributetoAlzheimer'sdiseaseandParkinson'sdisease.[195] ResearchersattheUniversityofRochesterMedicalCenterfoundthatearlyexposuretoairpollutioncausesthesamechangesinthebrainasautismandschizophrenia.ThisstudywaspublishedinthejournalEnvironmentalHealthPerspectives,inJune2014.Italsoshowedthatairpollutionalsoaffectedshort-termmemory,learningability,andimpulsivity.LeadresearcherProfessorDeborahCory-Slechtasaidthat:"Whenwelookedcloselyattheventricles,wecouldseethatthewhitematterthatnormallysurroundsthemhadn'tfullydeveloped.Itappearsthatinflammationhaddamagedthosebraincellsandpreventedthatregionofthebrainfromdeveloping,andtheventriclessimplyexpandedtofillthespace.Ourfindingsaddtothegrowingbodyofevidencethatairpollutionmayplayaroleinautism,aswellasinotherneurodevelopmentaldisorders."Inastudyofmice,airpollutionalsohasalargernegativeimpactonmalesthanonfemales.[198][199][200] In2015,experimentalstudiesreportedthedetectionofsignificantepisodic(situational)cognitiveimpairmentfromimpuritiesinindoorairbreathedbytestsubjectswhowerenotinformedaboutchangesintheairquality.ResearchersattheHarvardUniversityandSUNYUpstateMedicalUniversityandSyracuseUniversitymeasuredthecognitiveperformanceof24participantsinthreedifferentcontrolledlaboratoryatmospheresthatsimulatedthosefoundin"conventional"and"green"buildings,aswellasgreenbuildingswithenhancedventilation.PerformancewasevaluatedobjectivelyusingthewidelyusedStrategicManagementSimulationsoftwaresimulationtool,whichisawell-validatedassessmenttestforexecutivedecision-makinginanunconstrainedsituationallowinginitiativeandimprovisation.Significantdeficitswereobservedintheperformancescoresachievedinincreasingconcentrationsofeithervolatileorganiccompounds(VOCs)orcarbondioxide,whilekeepingotherfactorsconstant.Thehighestimpuritylevelsreachedarenotuncommoninsomeclassroomorofficeenvironments.[201][202]HigherPM2.5andCO2concentrationswereshowntobeassociatedwithslowerresponsetimesandreducedaccuracyintests.[203] Agriculturaleffects[edit] InIndiain2014,itwasreportedthatairpollutionbyblackcarbonandgroundlevelozonehadreducedcropyieldsinthemostaffectedareasbyalmosthalfin2011whencomparedto1980levels.[204] Economiceffects[edit] Airpollutioncoststheworldeconomy$5trillionperyearasaresultofproductivitylossesanddegradedqualityoflife,accordingtoajointstudybytheWorldBankandtheInstituteforHealthMetricsandEvaluation(IHME)attheUniversityofWashington.[20][21][22]Theseproductivitylossesarecausedbydeathsduetodiseasescausedbyairpollution.Oneoutoftendeathsin2013wascausedbydiseasesassociatedwithairpollutionandtheproblemisgettingworse.Theproblemisevenmoreacuteinthedevelopingworld."Childrenunderage5inlower-incomecountriesaremorethan60timesaslikelytodiefromexposuretoairpollutionaschildreninhigh-incomecountries."[20][21]Thereportstatesthatadditionaleconomiclossescausedbyairpollution,includinghealthcosts[205]andtheadverseeffectonagriculturalandotherproductivitywerenotcalculatedinthereport,andthustheactualcoststotheworldeconomyarefarhigherthan$5trillion. Othereffects[edit] ArtificialairpollutionmaybedetectableonEarthfromdistantvantagepointssuchasotherplanetarysystemsviaatmosphericSETI–includingNO2pollutionlevelsandwithtelescopictechnologyclosetotoday.Itmayalsobepossibletodetectextraterrestrialcivilizationsthisway.[206][207][208] Historicaldisasters[edit] Theworld'sworstshort-termcivilianpollutioncrisiswasthe1984BhopalDisasterinIndia.[209]LeakedindustrialvapoursfromtheUnionCarbidefactory,belongingtoUnionCarbide,Inc.,U.S.A.(laterboughtbyDowChemicalCompany),killedatleast3787peopleandinjuredfrom150,000to600,000.TheUnitedKingdomsuffereditsworstairpollutioneventwhenthe4DecemberGreatSmogof1952formedoverLondon.Insixdaysmorethan4,000diedandmorerecentestimatesputthefigureatnearer12,000.[210]AnaccidentalleakofanthraxsporesfromabiologicalwarfarelaboratoryintheformerUSSRin1979nearSverdlovskisbelievedtohavecausedatleast64deaths.[211]TheworstsingleincidentofairpollutiontooccurintheUSoccurredinDonora,Pennsylvania,inlateOctober1948,when20peoplediedandover7,000wereinjured.[212] Reductionandregulation[edit] Pollutionpreventionseekstopreventpollutionsuchasairpollutionandcouldincludeadjustmentstoindustrialandbusinessactivitiessuchasdesigningsustainablemanufacturingprocesses(andtheproducts'designs)[213]andrelatedlegalregulationsaswellaseffortstowardsrenewableenergytransitions.[214][215] Effortstoreduceparticulatematterintheairmayresultinbetterhealth.[216] Pollutioncontrol[edit] BurningofitemspollutingJamestownenvironmentinAccra,Ghana Variouspollutioncontroltechnologiesandstrategiesareavailabletoreduceairpollution.[25][26]Atitsmostbasiclevel,land-useplanningislikelytoinvolvezoningandtransportinfrastructureplanning.Inmostdevelopedcountries,land-useplanningisanimportantpartofsocialpolicy,ensuringthatlandisusedefficientlyforthebenefitofthewidereconomyandpopulation,aswellastoprotecttheenvironment.[217] Titaniumdioxidehasbeenresearchedforitsabilitytoreduceairpollution.Ultravioletlightwillreleasefreeelectronsfrommaterial,therebycreatingfreeradicals,whichbreakupVOCsandNOxgases.Oneformissuperhydrophilic.[218] Pollution-eatingnanoparticlesplacednearabusyroadwereshowntoabsorbtoxicemissionfromaround20carseachday.[219] Energytransition[edit] Sincealargeshareofairpollutioniscausedbycombustionoffossilfuelssuchascoalandoil,thereductionofthesefuelscanreduceairpollutiondrastically.Mosteffectiveistheswitchtocleanpowersourcessuchaswindpower,solarpower,hydropowerwhichdonotcauseairpollution.[220]Effortstoreducepollutionfrommobilesourcesincludesexpandingregulationtonewsources(suchascruiseandtransportships,farmequipment,andsmallgas-poweredequipmentsuchasstringtrimmers,chainsaws,andsnowmobiles),increasedfuelefficiency(suchasthroughtheuseofhybridvehicles),conversiontocleanerfuels,andconversiontoelectricvehicles. Averyeffectivemeanstoreduceairpollutionisthetransitiontorenewableenergy.AccordingtoastudypublishedinEnergyandEnvironmentalSciencein2015theswitchto100%renewableenergyintheUnitedStateswouldeliminateabout62,000prematuremortalitiesperyearandabout42,000in2050,ifnobiomasswereused.Thiswouldsaveabout$600billioninhealthcostsayearduetoreducedairpollutionin2050,orabout3.6%ofthe2014U.S.grossdomesticproduct.[220]Airqualityimprovementisanear-termbenefitamongthemanysocietalbenefitsfromclimatechangemitigation. Alternativestopollution[edit] Supportforabanonhigh-emissionvehiclesincitycentresinEurope,ChinaandtheUSfromrespondentstotheEuropeanInvestmentBankClimateSurvey Support,useandinfrastructure-expansionofformsofpublictransportthatdonotcauseairpollutionmaybeacriticalkeyalternativetopollution Therearenowpracticalalternativestotheprincipalcausesofairpollution: Strategicsubstitutionofairpollutionsourcesintransportwithlower-emissionor,duringthelifecycle,emission-freeformsofpublictransport[221][222]andbicycleuseandinfrastructure(aswellaswithremotework,reductionsofwork,relocations,andlocalizations) Phase-outoffossilfuelvehiclesisacriticalcomponentofashifttosustainabletransport;however,similarinfrastructureanddesigndecisionslikeelectricvehiclesmaybeassociatedwithsimilarpollutionforproductionaswellasminingandresourceexploitationforlargenumbersofneededbatteriesaswellastheenergyfortheirrecharging[223][224] Areasdownwind(over20miles)ofmajorairportshavemorethandoubletotalparticulateemissionsinairthanotherareas,evenwhenfactoringinareaswithfrequentshipcalls,andheavyfreewayandcitytrafficlikeLosAngeles.[225]Aviationbiofuelmixedinwithjetfuelata50/50ratiocanreducejetderivedcruisealtitudeparticulateemissionsby50–70%,accordingtoaNASAled2017study(however,thisshouldimplygroundlevelbenefitstourbanairpollutionaswell).[226] Shippropulsionandidlingcanbeswitchedtomuchcleanerfuelslikenaturalgas.(Ideallyarenewablesourcebutnotpracticalyet) Combustionoffossilfuelsforspaceheatingcanbereplacedbyusinggroundsourceheatpumpsandseasonalthermalenergystorage.[227] Electricitygeneratedfromthecombustionoffossilfuelscanbereplacedbynuclearandrenewableenergy.Heatingandhomestoves,whichcontributesignificantlytoregionalairpollution,canbereplacedwithamuchcleanerfossilfuel,suchasnaturalgas,or,preferably,renewables,inpoorcountries.[228][229] Motorvehiclesdrivenbyfossilfuels,akeyfactorinurbanairpollution,canbereplacedbyelectricvehicles.Thoughlithiumsupplyandcostisalimitation,therearealternatives.Herdingmorepeopleintocleanpublictransitsuchaselectrictrainscanalsohelp.Nevertheless,eveninemission-freeelectricvehicles,rubbertiresproducesignificantamountsofairpollutionthemselves,rankingas13thworstpollutantinLosAngeles.[230] Reducingtravelinvehiclescancurbpollution.AfterStockholmreducedvehicletrafficinthecentralcitywithacongestiontax,nitrogendioxideandPM10pollutiondeclined,asdidacutepediatricasthmaattacks.[231] Biodigesterscanbeutilizedinpoornationswhereslashandburnisprevalent,turningauselesscommodityintoasourceofincome.Theplantscanbegatheredandsoldtoacentralauthoritythatwillbreakthemdowninalargemodernbiodigester,producingmuchneededenergytouse.[232] Inducedhumidityandventilationbothcangreatlydampenairpollutioninenclosedspaces,whichwasfoundtoberelativelyhighinsidesubwaylinesduetobrakingandfrictionandrelativelylessironicallyinsidetransitbusesthanlowersittingpassengerautomobilesorsubways.[233] Furtherinformation:§ Sources Controldevices[edit] Tarpsandnettingareoftenusedtoreducetheamountofdustreleasedfromconstructionsites. Airpollutionfromacar Thefollowingitemsarecommonlyusedaspollutioncontroldevicesinindustryandtransportation.Theycaneitherdestroycontaminantsorremovethemfromanexhauststreambeforeitisemittedintotheatmosphere. Particulatecontrol Mechanicalcollectors(dustcyclones,multicyclones) Electrostaticprecipitators:Anelectrostaticprecipitator(ESP),orelectrostaticaircleaner,isaparticulatecollectiondevicethatremovesparticlesfromaflowinggas(suchasair),usingtheforceofaninducedelectrostaticcharge.Electrostaticprecipitatorsarehighlyefficientfiltrationdevicesthatminimallyimpedetheflowofgasesthroughthedevice,andcaneasilyremovefineparticulatessuchasdustandsmokefromtheairstream. Baghouses:Designedtohandleheavydustloads,adustcollectorconsistsofablower,dustfilter,afilter-cleaningsystem,andadustreceptacleordustremovalsystem(distinguishedfromaircleanerswhichutilizedisposablefilterstoremovethedust). Particulatescrubbers:Awetscrubberisaformofpollutioncontroltechnology.Thetermdescribesavarietyofdevicesthatusepollutantsfromafurnacefluegasorfromothergasstreams.Inawetscrubber,thepollutedgasstreamisbroughtintocontactwiththescrubbingliquid,bysprayingitwiththeliquid,byforcingitthroughapoolofliquid,orbysomeothercontactmethod,soastoremovethepollutants. Scrubbers Bafflesprayscrubber Cyclonicsprayscrubber Ejectorventuriscrubber Mechanicallyaidedscrubber Spraytower Wetscrubber NOxcontrol LO-NOxburners Selectivecatalyticreduction(SCR) Selectivenon-catalyticreduction(SNCR) NOxscrubbers Exhaustgasrecirculation Catalyticconverter(alsoforVOCcontrol) VOCabatement Adsorptionsystems,usingactivatedcarbon,suchasFluidizedBedConcentrator Flares Thermaloxidizers Catalyticconverters Biofilters Absorption(scrubbing) Cryogeniccondensers Vaporrecoverysystems Acidgas/SO2control Wetscrubbers Dryscrubbers Flue-gasdesulfurization Mercurycontrol Sorbentinjectiontechnology Electro-catalyticoxidation(ECO) K-Fuel Dioxinandfurancontrol Miscellaneousassociatedequipment Sourcecapturingsystems Continuousemissionsmonitoringsystems(CEMS) Monitoring[edit] Seealso:Smartcity Furtherinformation:AirpollutionmeasurementandEnvironmentalmonitoringSpatiotemporalmonitoringofairqualitymaybenecessaryforimprovingairquality,andtherebythehealthandsafetyofthepublic,andassessingimpactsofinterventions.[234]SuchmonitoringisdonetodifferentextentswithdifferentregulatoryrequirementswithdiscrepantregionalcoveragebyavarietyoforganizationsandgovernanceentitiessuchasusingavarietyoftechnologiesforuseofthedataandsensingsuchmobileIoTsensors,[235]satellites,[236][237][238]andmonitoringstations.[239][240]Somewebsitesattempttomapairpollutionlevelsusingavailabledata.[241][242][243] Airqualitymodeling[edit] Mainarticle:Airqualitymodeling NumericalmodelseitheronaglobalscaleusingtoolssuchasGCMs(Generalcirculationmodelscoupledwithapollutionmodule)orCTMs(Chemicaltransportmodel)canbeusedtosimulatethelevelsofdifferentpollutantsintheatmosphere.Thesetoolscanhaveseveraltypes(Atmosphericmodel)anddifferentuses.Thesemodelscanbeusedinforecastmodewhichcanhelppolicymakerstodecideonappropriateactionswhenanairpollutionepisodeisdetected.Theycanalsobeusedforclimatemodelingincludingevolutionofairqualityinthefuture,forexampletheIPCC(IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange)providesclimatesimulationsincludingairqualityassessmentsintheirreports(latestreportaccessiblethroughtheirsite). Regulations[edit] Mainarticle:Airqualitylaw SmoginCairo Ingeneral,therearetwotypesofairqualitystandards.Thefirstclassofstandards(suchastheU.S.NationalAmbientAirQualityStandardsandE.U.AirQualityDirective[244])setmaximumatmosphericconcentrationsforspecificpollutants.Environmentalagenciesenactregulationswhichareintendedtoresultinattainmentofthesetargetlevels.Thesecondclass(suchastheNorthAmericanairqualityindex)taketheformofascalewithvariousthresholds,whichisusedtocommunicatetothepublictherelativeriskofoutdooractivity.Thescalemayormaynotdistinguishbetweendifferentpollutants. Canada[edit] InCanada,airpollutionandassociatedhealthrisksaremeasuredwiththeAirQualityHealthIndex(AQHI).[245]Itisahealthprotectiontoolusedtomakedecisionstoreduceshort-termexposuretoairpollutionbyadjustingactivitylevelsduringincreasedlevelsofairpollution. TheAQHIisafederalprogramjointlycoordinatedbyHealthCanadaandEnvironmentCanada.However,theAQHIprogramwouldnotbepossiblewithoutthecommitmentandsupportoftheprovinces,municipalitiesandNGOs.Fromairqualitymonitoringtohealthriskcommunicationandcommunityengagement,localpartnersareresponsibleforthevastmajorityofworkrelatedtoAQHIimplementation.TheAQHIprovidesanumberfrom1to10+toindicatethelevelofhealthriskassociatedwithlocalairquality.Occasionally,whentheamountofairpollutionisabnormallyhigh,thenumbermayexceed10.TheAQHIprovidesalocalairqualitycurrentvalueaswellasalocalairqualitymaximumsforecastfortoday,tonightandtomorrowandprovidesassociatedhealthadvice. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 + Risk: Low(1–3) Moderate(4–6) High(7–10) Veryhigh(above10) Asitisnowknownthatevenlowlevelsofairpollutioncantriggerdiscomfortforthesensitivepopulation,theindexhasbeendevelopedasacontinuum:Thehigherthenumber,thegreaterthehealthriskandneedtotakeprecautions.Theindexdescribesthelevelofhealthriskassociatedwiththisnumberas'low','moderate','high'or'veryhigh',andsuggestsstepsthatcanbetakentoreduceexposure.[246] Healthrisk AirQualityHealthIndex Healthmessages[247] Atriskpopulation Generalpopulation Low 1–3 Enjoyyourusualoutdooractivities. Idealairqualityforoutdooractivities Moderate 4–6 Considerreducingorreschedulingstrenuousactivitiesoutdoorsifyouareexperiencingsymptoms. Noneedtomodifyyourusualoutdooractivitiesunlessyouexperiencesymptomssuchascoughingandthroatirritation. High 7–10 Reduceorreschedulestrenuousactivitiesoutdoors.Childrenandtheelderlyshouldalsotakeiteasy. Considerreducingorreschedulingstrenuousactivitiesoutdoorsifyouexperiencesymptomssuchascoughingandthroatirritation. Veryhigh Above10 Avoidstrenuousactivitiesoutdoors.Childrenandtheelderlyshouldalsoavoidoutdoorphysicalexertionandshouldstayindoors. Reduceorreschedulestrenuousactivitiesoutdoors,especiallyifyouexperiencesymptomssuchascoughingandthroatirritation. Themeasurementisbasedontheobservedrelationshipofnitrogendioxide(NO2),ground-levelozone(O3)andparticulates(PM2.5)withmortality,fromananalysisofseveralCanadiancities.Significantly,allthreeofthesepollutantscanposehealthrisks,evenatlowlevelsofexposure,especiallyamongthosewithpre-existinghealthproblems. WhendevelopingtheAQHI,HealthCanada'soriginalanalysisofhealtheffectsincludedfivemajorairpollutants:particulates,ozone,andnitrogendioxide(NO2),aswellassulfurdioxide(SO2),andcarbonmonoxide(CO).ThelattertwopollutantsprovidedlittleinformationinpredictinghealtheffectsandwereremovedfromtheAQHIformulation. TheAQHIdoesnotmeasuretheeffectsofodour,pollen,dust,heatorhumidity. Germany[edit] TALuftistheGermanairqualityregulation.[248] Governingurbanairpollution[edit] Furtherinformation:Phase-outoffossilfuelvehicles§ Citiesandterritories InEurope,CouncilDirective96/62/EConambientairqualityassessmentandmanagementprovidesacommonstrategyagainstwhichmemberstatescan"setobjectivesforambientairqualityinordertoavoid,preventorreduceharmfuleffectsonhumanhealthandtheenvironment ...andimproveairqualitywhereitisunsatisfactory".[249] On25July2008inthecaseDieterJanecekvFreistaatBayern,theEuropeanCourtofJusticeruledthatunderthisdirective[249]citizenshavetherighttorequirenationalauthoritiestoimplementashorttermactionplanthataimstomaintainorachievecompliancetoairqualitylimitvalues.[250][251] ThisimportantcaselawappearstoconfirmtheroleoftheECascentralisedregulatortoEuropeannation-statesasregardsairpollutioncontrol.ItplacesasupranationallegalobligationontheUKtoprotectitscitizensfromdangerouslevelsofairpollution,furthermoresupersedingnationalinterestswiththoseofthecitizen. In2010,theEuropeanCommission(EC)threatenedtheUKwithlegalactionagainstthesuccessivebreachingofPM10limitvalues.[252]TheUKgovernmenthasidentifiedthatiffinesareimposed,theycouldcostthenationupwardsof£300millionperyear.[253] InMarch2011,theGreaterLondonBuilt-upArearemainedtheonlyUKregioninbreachoftheEC'slimitvalues,andwasgiventhreemonthstoimplementanemergencyactionplanaimedatmeetingtheEUAirQualityDirective.[254]TheCityofLondonhasdangerouslevelsofPM10concentrations,estimatedtocause3000deathsperyearwithinthecity.[255]AswellasthethreatofEUfines,in2010itwasthreatenedwithlegalactionforscrappingthewesterncongestionchargezone,whichisclaimedtohaveledtoanincreaseinairpollutionlevels.[256] Inresponsetothesecharges,BorisJohnson,MayorofLondon,hascriticisedthecurrentneedforEuropeancitiestocommunicatewithEuropethroughtheirnationstate'scentralgovernment,arguingthatinfuture"AgreatcitylikeLondon"shouldbepermittedtobypassitsgovernmentanddealdirectlywiththeEuropeanCommissionregardingitsairqualityactionplan.[254] Thiscanbeinterpretedasrecognitionthatcitiescantranscendthetraditionalnationalgovernmentorganisationalhierarchyanddevelopsolutionstoairpollutionusingglobalgovernancenetworks,forexamplethroughtransnationalrelations.Transnationalrelationsincludebutarenotexclusivetonationalgovernmentsandintergovernmentalorganisations,[257]allowingsub-nationalactorsincludingcitiesandregionstopartakeinairpollutioncontrolasindependentactors. Globalcitypartnershipscanbebuiltintonetworks,forexampletheC40CitiesClimateLeadershipGroup,ofwhichLondonisamember.TheC40isapublic'non-state'networkoftheworld'sleadingcitiesthataimstocurbtheirgreenhouseemissions.[258]TheC40hasbeenidentifiedas'governancefromthemiddle'andisanalternativetointergovernmentalpolicy.[259]Ithasthepotentialtoimproveurbanairqualityasparticipatingcities"exchangeinformation,learnfrombestpracticesandconsequentlymitigatecarbondioxideemissionsindependentlyfromnationalgovernmentdecisions".[258]AcriticismoftheC40networkisthatitsexclusivenaturelimitsinfluencetoparticipatingcitiesandrisksdrawingresourcesawayfromlesspowerfulcityandregionalactors. Hotspots[edit] Mainarticle:Toxichotspot Airpollutionhotspotsareareaswhereairpollutionemissionsexposeindividualstoincreasednegativehealtheffects.[260]Theyareparticularlycommoninhighlypopulated,urbanareas,wheretheremaybeacombinationofstationarysources(e.g.industrialfacilities)andmobilesources(e.g.carsandtrucks)ofpollution.Emissionsfromthesesourcescancauserespiratorydisease,childhoodasthma,[116]cancer,andotherhealthproblems.Fineparticulatemattersuchasdieselsoot,whichcontributestomorethan3.2millionprematuredeathsaroundtheworldeachyear,isasignificantproblem.Itisverysmallandcanlodgeitselfwithinthelungsandenterthebloodstream.Dieselsootisconcentratedindenselypopulatedareas,andoneinsixpeopleintheU.S.livenearadieselpollutionhotspot.[261] ExternalvideoAirVisualEarth–realtimemapofglobalwindandairpollution[262] Whileairpollutionhotspotsaffectavarietyofpopulations,somegroupsaremorelikelytobelocatedinhotspots.Previousstudieshaveshowndisparitiesinexposuretopollutionbyraceand/orincome.Hazardouslanduses(toxicstorageanddisposalfacilities,manufacturingfacilities,majorroadways)tendtobelocatedwherepropertyvaluesandincomelevelsarelow.Lowsocioeconomicstatuscanbeaproxyforotherkindsofsocialvulnerability,includingrace,alackofabilitytoinfluenceregulationandalackofabilitytomovetoneighborhoodswithlessenvironmentalpollution.Thesecommunitiesbearadisproportionateburdenofenvironmentalpollutionandaremorelikelytofacehealthriskssuchascancerorasthma.[263] Studiesshowthatpatternsinraceandincomedisparitiesnotonlyindicateahigherexposuretopollutionbutalsohigherriskofadversehealthoutcomes.[264]Communitiescharacterizedbylowsocioeconomicstatusandracialminoritiescanbemorevulnerabletocumulativeadversehealthimpactsresultingfromelevatedexposuretopollutantsthanmoreprivilegedcommunities.[264]BlacksandLatinosgenerallyfacemorepollutionthanwhitesandAsians,andlow-incomecommunitiesbearahigherburdenofriskthanaffluentones.[263]RacialdiscrepanciesareparticularlydistinctinsuburbanareasoftheSouthernUnitedStatesandmetropolitanareasoftheMidwesternandWesternUnitedStates.[265]Residentsinpublichousing,whoaregenerallylow-incomeandcannotmovetohealthierneighborhoods,arehighlyaffectedbynearbyrefineriesandchemicalplants.[266] Cities[edit] Seealso:Listofmostpollutedcitiesintheworldbyparticulatematterconcentration Nitrogendioxideconcentrationsasmeasuredfromsatellite2002–2004 Airpollutionisusuallyconcentratedindenselypopulatedmetropolitanareas,especiallyindevelopingcountrieswherecitiesareexperiencingrapidgrowthandenvironmentalregulationsarerelativelylaxornonexistent.Urbanizationleadstoarapidriseinprematuremortalityduetoanthropogenicairpollutioninfast-growingtropicalcities.[267]However,evenpopulatedareasindevelopedcountriesattainunhealthylevelsofpollution,withLosAngelesandRomebeingtwoexamples.[268]Between2002and2011theincidenceoflungcancerinBeijingneardoubled.WhilesmokingremainstheleadingcauseoflungcancerinChina,thenumberofsmokersisfallingwhilelungcancerratesarerising.[269] [270] World'sMostPollutedCities2020 2020Average 2019Average Hotan,China 110.2 110.1 Ghaziabad,India 106.6 110.2 Bulandshahr,India 98.4 89.4 BisrakhJalalpur,India 96.0 - Bhiwadi,India 95.5 83.4 TehranwasdeclaredthemostpollutedcityintheworldonMay24,2022.[271] Projections[edit] Accordingtoaprojection,by2030halfoftheworld'spollutionemissionscouldbegeneratedbyAfrica.[272]Potentialcontributorstosuchanoutcomeincludeincreasedburningactivities(suchastheburningofopenwaste),traffic,agri-foodandchemicalindustries,sanddustfromtheSahara,andoverallpopulationgrowth. AccordingtoOECD,by2050outdoorairpollution(particulatematterandground-levelozone)isprojectedtobecomethetopcauseofenvironmentallyrelateddeathsworldwide.[273] Seealso[edit] Globalwarmingportal Airpollutantconcentrations Airpollutionmeasurement Airstagnation ASEANAgreementonTransboundaryHazePollution Asianbrowncloud Atmosphericchemistry Beehiveburner BenMAP BestAvailableControlTechnology Criticalload Emissionstandard Emissions&GenerationResourceIntegratedDatabase Environmentalagreement Environmentalracism Flue-gasemissionsfromfossil-fuelcombustion GlobalAtmosphereWatch Globaldimming GreatSmogofLondon Haze HealthEffectsInstitute(HEI) Indicatorvalue Intakefraction InternationalAgencyforResearchonCancer InternationalDayofCleanAirforBlueSkies KyotoProtocol Lightwaterreactorsustainability Listofsmogsbydeathtoll LowestAchievableEmissionsRate NASACleanAirStudy Non-exhaustemissions Organicmoleculartracers Particulatemattersampler Polluterpaysprinciple RegulationofgreenhousegasesundertheCleanAirAct 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^Pettit,David(14December2014)."GlobalTollofAirPollution:Over3MillionDeathsEachYear".SwitchboardNRDC.Archivedfromtheoriginalon8May2014. ^WatchairpollutionflowacrosstheplanetinrealtimeScienceMagazineNews,28November2016. ^abDrury,Richard;Belliveau,Michael;Kuhn,JScott;Shipra,Bansal(Spring1999)."PollutionTradingandEnvironmentalJustice:LosAngeles'FailedExperimentinAirPollutionPolicy".DukeEnvironmentalLaw&PolicyForum.9(231). ^abMorello-Frosch,Rachel;Zuk,Miriam;Jerrett,Michael;Shamasunder,Bhavna;Kyle,AmyD.(2011)."UnderstandingtheCumulativeImpactsofInequalitiesinEnvironmentalHealth:ImplicationsforPolicy".HealthAffairs.30(5):879–87.doi:10.1377/hlthaff.2011.0153.PMID 21555471. ^Mohai,P;Lantz,PM;Morenoff,J;House,JS;Mero,RP(2009)."RacialandSocioeocnomicDisparitiesinResidentialProximity".AmericanJournalofPublicHealth.99(3):S649–56.doi:10.2105/ajph.2007.131383.PMC 2774179.PMID 19890171. ^Lerner,Steve(2010)."SacrificeZones:TheFrontLinesofToxicChemicalExposureintheUnitedStates".PortArthur,Texas:PublicHousingResidentsBreatheContaminatedAirfromNearbyRefineriesandChemicalPlants.MITPress. ^Vohra,Karn;Marais,EloiseA.;Bloss,WilliamJ.;Schwartz,Joel;Mickley,LorettaJ.;VanDamme,Martin;Clarisse,Lieven;Coheur,Pierre-F.(8April2022)."Rapidriseinprematuremortalityduetoanthropogenicairpollutioninfast-growingtropicalcitiesfrom2005to2018".ScienceAdvances.8(14):eabm4435.Bibcode:2022SciA....8M4435V.doi:10.1126/sciadv.abm4435.ISSN 2375-2548.PMC 8993110.PMID 35394832. ^Michelozzi,P.;Forastiere,F.;Fusco,D.;Perucci,C.A.;Ostro,B.;Ancona,C.;Pallotti,G.(1998)."AirPollutionandDailyMortalityinRome,Italy".OccupationalandEnvironmentalMedicine.55(9):605–10.doi:10.1136/oem.55.9.605.JSTOR 27730990.PMC 1757645.PMID 9861182. ^TheDailyTelegraph8January2014'Airpollutionkillingupto500,000Chineseeachyear,admitsformerhealthminister'. 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Furtherreading[edit] LibraryresourcesaboutAirpollution Resourcesinyourlibrary Resourcesinotherlibraries Brimblecombe,Peter.TheBigSmoke:AHistoryofAirPollutioninLondonSinceMedievalTimes(Methuen,1987) Brimblecombe,Peter."Historyofairpollution."inComposition,ChemistryandClimateoftheAtmosphere(VanNostrandReinhold(1995):1–18 Brimblecombe,Peter;Makra,László(2005)."Selectionsfromthehistoryofenvironmentalpollution,withspecialattentiontoairpollution.Part2*:Frommedievaltimestothe19thcentury".InternationalJournalofEnvironmentandPollution.23(4):351–67.doi:10.1504/ijep.2005.007599. Cherni,JudithA.EconomicGrowthversustheEnvironment:ThePoliticsofWealth,HealthandAirPollution(2002)online Corton,ChristineL.LondonFog:TheBiography(2015) Currie,Donya."WHO:AirPollutionaContinuingHealthThreatinWorld'sCities,"TheNation'sHealth(February2012)42#1online Dewey,ScottHamilton.Don'tBreathetheAir:AirPollutionandUSEnvironmentalPolitics,1945–1970(TexasA&MUniversityPress,2000) Gonzalez,GeorgeA.Thepoliticsofairpollution:Urbangrowth,ecologicalmodernization,andsymbolicinclusion(SUNYPress,2012) Grinder,RobertDale(1978)."FromInsurgencytoEfficiency:TheSmokeAbatementCampaigninPittsburghbeforeWorldWarI.".WesternPennsylvaniaHistoricalMagazine.61(3):187–202. Grinder,RobertDale."TheBattleforCleanAir:TheSmokeProbleminPost-CivilWarAmerica"inMartinV.Melosi,ed.,Pollution&ReforminAmericanCities,1870–1930(1980),pp. 83–103. Mingle,Jonathan,"OurLethalAir"[reviewofGaryFuller,TheInvisibleKiller...;BethGardiner,Choked...;TimSmedley,ClearingtheAir...;U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency,IntegratedScienceAssessmentforParticulateMatter(ExternalReviewDraft,2018);andCharteredCleanAirScientificAdvisoryCommittee,LettertoEPAAdministratorontheEPA'sIntegratedScienceAssessmentforParticulateMatter,11April2019],TheNewYorkReviewofBooks,vol.LXVI,no.14(26September2019),pp. 64–66,68."Today,91percentofpeopleworldwideliveinareaswhereairpollutionlevelsexceedtheWorldHealthOrganization'srecommendedlimits. ...[T]hereisnosafelevelofexposuretofineparticulatematter. ...Mostofthesefineparticlesareaby-productof ...burning ...coal,gasoline,diesel,wood,trash ...Theseparticlescangetpastthedefensesofourupperairwaystopenetratedeepintoourlungsandreachthealveoli ...Fromthere,theycrossintothebloodstreamandspreadthroughoutthebody.Theycantravelthroughthenose,uptheolfactorynerve,andlodge ...inthebrain.Theycanformdepositsontheliningofarteries,constrictingbloodvesselsandraisingthelikelihoodof ...strokesandheartattacks.[T]heyexacerbaterespiratoryillnesseslikeasthmaandchronicobstructivepulmonarydisease ...There's ...evidencelinkingairpollutionexposuretoanincreasedriskofAlzheimer'sandotherformsofdementia."(p. 64.) Mosley,Stephen.Thechimneyoftheworld:ahistoryofsmokepollutioninVictorianandEdwardianManchester.Routledge,2013. Schreurs,MirandaA.EnvironmentalPoliticsinJapan,Germany,andtheUnitedStates(CambridgeUniversityPress,2002)online Thorsheim,Peter.InventingPollution:Coal,Smoke,andCultureinBritainsince1800(2009) Externallinks[edit] WikimediaCommonshasmediarelatedtoAirpollution. WikivoyagehastravelinformationforAirpollution. AirPollution:EverythingYouNeedtoKnowGuidebytheNaturalResourcesDefenseCouncil(NRDC) Globalreal-timeairqualityindexmap AirQualityIndex(AQI)Basics AQICalculatorAQItoConcentrationandConcentrationtoAQIforfivepollutants InternationalConferenceonUrbanAirQualityArchived16December2008attheWaybackMachine. UNEPUrbanenvironmentalplanning EuropeanCommission>Environment>Air>AirQuality Database:outdoorairpollutionincitiesfromtheWorldHealthOrganization WorldHealthOrganizationFactSheetonAirqualityandhealth CentreforResearchonEnergyandCleanAir TheMortalityEffectsofLong-TermExposuretoParticulateAirPollutionintheUnitedKingdom,UKCommitteeontheMedicalEffectsofAirPollution,2010. 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