Air pollution - Wikipedia
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Air pollution is the contamination of air due to the presence of substances in the atmosphere that are harmful to the health of humans and other living ... Airpollution FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Presenceofdangeroussubstancesintheatmosphere "Badairquality"and"Airquality"redirecthere.Fortheobsoletemedicaltheory,seeMiasmatheory.Forthemeasureofhowpollutedtheairis,seeAirqualityindex.Forthepropertiesofair,seeQualitiesofair. 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Deathsfromairpollutionper100,000inhabitants(IHME,2019) Airpollutionisthecontaminationofairduetothepresenceofsubstancesintheatmospherethatareharmfultothehealthofhumansandotherlivingbeings,orcausedamagetotheclimateortomaterials.[1]Therearemanydifferenttypesofairpollutants,suchasgases(includingammonia,carbonmonoxide,sulfurdioxide,nitrousoxides,methane,carbondioxideandchlorofluorocarbons),particulates(bothorganicandinorganic),andbiologicalmolecules.Airpollutioncancausediseases,allergies,andevendeathtohumans;itcanalsocauseharmtootherlivingorganismssuchasanimalsandfoodcrops,andmaydamagethenaturalenvironment(forexample,climatechange,ozonedepletionorhabitatdegradation)orbuiltenvironment(forexample,acidrain).[2]Airpollutioncanbecausedbybothhumanactivitiesandnaturalphenomena.[3] Airpollutionisasignificantriskfactorforanumberofpollution-relateddiseases,includingrespiratoryinfections,heartdisease,COPD,strokeandlungcancer.[4]GrowingevidencesuggeststhatairpollutionexposuremaybeassociatedwithreducedIQscores,impairedcognition,[5]increasedriskforpsychiatricdisorderssuchasdepression[6]anddetrimentalperinatalhealth.[7]Thehumanhealtheffectsofpoorairqualityarefarreaching,butprincipallyaffectthebody'srespiratorysystemandthecardiovascularsystem.Individualreactionstoairpollutantsdependonthetypeofpollutantapersonisexposedto,thedegreeofexposure,andtheindividual'shealthstatusandgenetics.[8] Outdoorairpollutionattributabletofossilfuelusealonecauses~3.61milliondeathsannually,makingitoneofthetopcontributorstohumandeath,[4][9]withanthropogenicozoneandPM2.5causing~2.1million.[10][11]Overall,airpollutioncausesthedeathsofaround7millionpeopleworldwideeachyear,oraglobalmeanlossoflifeexpectancy(LLE)of2.9years,[12]andistheworld'slargestsingleenvironmentalhealthrisk,whichhasnotshownsignificantprogresssinceatleast2015.[4][13][14][15]Indoorairpollutionandpoorurbanairqualityarelistedastwooftheworld'sworsttoxicpollutionproblemsinthe2008BlacksmithInstituteWorld'sWorstPollutedPlacesreport.[16]Thescopeoftheairpollutioncrisisislarge:90%oftheworld'spopulationbreathesdirtyairtosomedegree.Althoughthehealthconsequencesareextensive,thewaytheproblemishandledisconsideredlargelyhaphazard[17][18][19]orneglected.[15] Productivitylossesanddegradedqualityoflifecausedbyairpollutionareestimatedtocosttheworldeconomy$5trillionperyear[20][21][22]but,alongwithhealthandmortalityimpacts,areanexternalitytothecontemporaryeconomicsystemandmosthumanactivity,albeitsometimesbeingmoderatelyregulatedandmonitored.[23][24]Variouspollutioncontroltechnologiesandstrategiesareavailabletoreduceairpollution.[25][26]Severalinternationalandnationallegislationandregulationhavebeendevelopedtolimitthenegativeeffectsofairpollution.[27]Localrules,whenproperlyexecuted,haveresultedinsignificantadvancesinpublichealth.[28]Someoftheseeffortshavebeensuccessfulattheinternationallevel,suchastheMontrealProtocol,[29]whichreducedthereleaseofharmfulozonedepletingchemicals,andthe1985HelsinkiProtocol,[30]whichreducedsulphuremissions,[31]whileothers,suchasinternationalactiononclimatechange,[32][33][34]havebeenlesssuccessful. Contents 1Sourcesofairpollution 1.1Anthropogenic(human-made)sources 1.2Naturalsources 1.3Emissionfactors 2Pollutants 3Exposure 4Indoorairquality 5Healtheffects 5.1Mortality 5.1.1Byregion 5.1.2Guidelines 5.1.3Majorcauses 5.1.4Primarymechanisms 5.1.5Contemporaryannualdeaths 5.2Cardiovasculardisease 5.3Lungdisease 5.4Cancer(lungcancer) 5.5Kidneydisease 5.6Children 5.6.1Prenatalexposure 5.6.2Infants 5.7"Clean"areas 5.8Centralnervoussystem 6Agriculturaleffects 7Economiceffects 8Othereffects 9Historicaldisasters 10Reductionandregulation 10.1Pollutioncontrol 10.2Energytransition 10.3Alternativestopollution 10.4Controldevices 10.5Monitoring 10.6Airqualitymodeling 10.7Regulations 10.7.1Canada 10.7.2Germany 10.8Governingurbanairpollution 11Hotspots 12Cities 13Projections 14Seealso 15References 16Furtherreading 17Externallinks Sourcesofairpollution[edit] Anthropogenic(human-made)sources[edit] Aviationisamajorsourceofairpollution. ControlledburningofafieldoutsideofStatesboro,Georgia,inpreparationforspringplanting SmokingoffishoveranopenfireinGhana,2018 Thesearemostlyrelatedtotheburningoffuel. Stationarysourcesinclude: fossil-fuelpowerplantsandbiomasspowerplantsbothhavesmokestacks(seeforexampleenvironmentalimpactofthecoalindustry)[35] Oilandgassitesthathavemethaneleaks[36][37][38][39] burningoftraditionalbiomasssuchaswood,cropwasteanddung.(Indevelopingandpoorcountries,traditionalbiomassburningisthemajorsourceofairpollutants.[40][41]ItisalsothemainsourceofparticulatepollutioninmanydevelopedareasincludingtheUK&NewSouthWales.[42][43]ItspollutantsincludePAHs.[44]) manufacturingfacilities(factories)[45] a2014studyfoundthatinChinaequipment-,machinery-,anddevices-manufacturingandconstructionsectorscontributedmorethan50%ofairpollutantemissions.[46][better source needed]Thishighemissionisduetohighemissionintensityandhighemissionfactorsinitsindustrialstructure.[47] wasteincineration(incineratorsaswellasopenanduncontrolledfiresofmismanagedwaste,makingupaboutafourthofmunicipalsolidterrestrialwaste)[48][49] furnacesandothertypesoffuel-burningheatingdevices[50] Mobilesourcesincludemotorvehicles,trains(particularlydiesellocomotivesandDMUs),marinevesselsandaircraft[51]aswellasrocketsandre-entryofcomponentsanddebris.[52]Theairpollutionexternalityofcarsenterstheairfromtheexhaustgasandcartires(includingmicroplastics[53]).Vehicleswerereportedtobe"producingaboutone-thirdofallU.S.airpollution"[54][better source needed]andareamajordriverofclimatechange.[55][56] Agricultureandforestmanagementstrategiesusingcontrolledburns.Practiceslikeslash-and-burninforestsliketheAmazoncauselargeairpollutionwiththedeforestation.[57]Controlledorprescribedburningisapracticeusedinforestmanagement,agriculture,prairierestoration,andgreenhousegasreduction.[58]Foresterscanusecontrolledfireasatoolbecausefireisanaturalfeatureofbothforestandgrasslandecology.[59][60]Controlledburningencouragesthesproutingofsomedesirableforesttrees,resultinginaforestrenewal.[61] Therearealsosourcesfromprocessesotherthancombustion: Fumesfrompaint,hairspray,varnish,aerosolspraysandothersolvents.Thesecanbesubstantial;emissionsfromthesesourceswasestimatedtoaccountforalmosthalfofpollutionfromvolatileorganiccompoundsintheLosAngelesbasininthe2010s.[62] Wastedepositioninlandfillsproducesmethane.[63] Nuclearweapons,toxicgases,germwarfare,androcketryareexamplesofmilitaryresources.[64] Agriculturalemissionsandemissionsfrommeatproductionorlivestockcontributesubstantiallytoairpollution[65][66] Fertilizedfarmlandmaybeamajorsourceofnitrogenoxides.[67] Meanacidifyingemissions(airpollution)ofdifferentfoodsper100gofprotein[68] FoodTypes AcidifyingEmissions(gSO2eqper100gprotein) Beef 343.6 Cheese 165.5 Pork 142.7 Lambandmutton 139.0 Farmedcrustaceans 133.1 Poultry 102.4 Farmedfish 65.9 Eggs 53.7 Groundnuts 22.6 Peas 8.5 Tofu 6.7 Naturalsources[edit] DuststormapproachingStratford,Texasin1935 Dustfromnaturalsources,usuallylargeareasoflandwithlittlevegetationornovegetation Methane,emittedbythedigestionoffoodbyanimals,forexamplecattle RadongasfromradioactivedecaywithintheEarth'scrust.Radonisacolorless,odorless,naturallyoccurring,radioactivenoblegasthatisformedfromthedecayofradium.Itisconsideredtobeahealthhazard.Radongasfromnaturalsourcescanaccumulateinbuildings,especiallyinconfinedareassuchasthebasementanditisthesecondmostfrequentcauseoflungcancer,aftercigarettesmoking. Smokeandcarbonmonoxidefromwildfires.Duringperiodsofactivewildfires,smokefromuncontrolledbiomasscombustioncanmakeupalmost75%ofallairpollutionbyconcentration.[69] Vegetation,insomeregions,emitsenvironmentallysignificantamountsofvolatileorganiccompounds(VOCs)onwarmerdays.TheseVOCsreactwithprimaryanthropogenicpollutants –specifically,NOx,SO2,andanthropogenicorganiccarboncompounds –toproduceaseasonalhazeofsecondarypollutants.[70]Blackgum,poplar,oakandwillowaresomeexamplesofvegetationthatcanproduceabundantVOCs.TheVOCproductionfromthesespeciesresultinozonelevelsuptoeighttimeshigherthanthelow-impacttreespecies.[71] Volcanicactivity,whichproducessulfur,chlorine,andashparticulates[72] Emissionfactors[edit] Mainarticle:AP42CompilationofAirPollutantEmissionFactors Beijingairin2005afterrain(left)andasmoggyday(right) Airpollutantemissionfactorsarereportedrepresentativevaluesthataimtolinkthequantityofapollutantreleasedintotheambientairtoanactivityconnectedwiththatpollutant'srelease.[2][73][74][75]Theweightofthepollutantdividedbyaunitweight,volume,distance,ortimeoftheactivitygeneratingthepollutantishowthesefactorsarecommonlystated(e.g.,kilogrammesofparticulateemittedpertonneofcoalburned).Thesecriteriamakeestimatingemissionsfromdiversesourcesofpollutioneasier.Mostofthetime,thesecomponentsarejustaveragesofallavailabledataofacceptablequality,andtheyarethoughttobetypicaloflong-termaverages. Thereare12compoundsinthelistofpersistentorganicpollutants.Dioxinsandfuransaretwoofthemandintentionallycreatedbycombustionoforganics,likeopenburningofplastics.Thesecompoundsarealsoendocrinedisruptorsandcanmutatethehumangenes. E-wasteprocessinginAgbogbloshie,Ghanausingopen-burningofelectronicstoaccessvaluablemetalslikecopper.Openburningofplasticsiscommoninmanypartsoftheworldwithoutthecapacityforprocessing.Especiallywithoutproperprotections,heavymetalsandothercontaminatescanseepintothesoil,andcreatewaterpollutionandairpollution. TheUnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgencyhaspublishedacompilationofairpollutantemissionfactorsforawiderangeofindustrialsources.[76]TheUnitedKingdom,Australia,Canadaandmanyothercountrieshavepublishedsimilarcompilations,aswellastheEuropeanEnvironmentAgency.[77][78][79][80] Pollutants[edit] Mainarticles:PollutantandGreenhousegasemissions Schematicdrawing,causesandeffectsofairpollution:(1)greenhouseeffect,(2)particulatecontamination,(3)increasedUVradiation,(4)acidrain,(5)increasedground-levelozoneconcentration,(6)increasedlevelsofnitrogenoxides Anairpollutantisamaterialintheairthatcanhaveadverseeffectsonhumansandtheecosystem.[81]Thesubstancecanbesolidparticles,liquiddroplets,orgases.Apollutantcanbeofnaturaloriginorman-made. Pollutantsareclassifiedasprimaryorsecondary.Primarypollutantsareusuallyproducedbyprocessessuchasashfromavolcaniceruption.Otherexamplesincludecarbonmonoxidegasfrommotorvehicleexhaustsorsulfurdioxidereleasedfromfactories.Secondarypollutantsarenotemitteddirectly.Rather,theyformintheairwhenprimarypollutantsreactorinteract.Groundlevelozoneisaprominentexampleofasecondarypollutant.Somepollutantsmaybebothprimaryandsecondary:theyarebothemitteddirectlyandformedfromotherprimarypollutants. Pollutantsemittedintotheatmospherebyhumanactivityinclude: Carbondioxide(CO2):Becauseofitsroleasagreenhousegasithasbeendescribedas"theleadingpollutant"[82]and"theworstclimatepollutant".[83]Carbondioxideisanaturalcomponentoftheatmosphere,essentialforplantlifeandgivenoffbythehumanrespiratorysystem.[84]Thisquestionofterminologyhaspracticaleffects,forexampleasdeterminingwhethertheU.S.CleanAirActisdeemedtoregulateCO2emissions.[85]CO2currentlyformsabout410partspermillion(ppm)ofearth'satmosphere,comparedtoabout280 ppminpre-industrialtimes,[86]andbillionsofmetrictonsofCO2areemittedannuallybyburningoffossilfuels.[87]CO2increaseinearth'satmospherehasbeenaccelerating.[88] Sulfuroxides(SOx):particularlysulfurdioxide,achemicalcompoundwiththeformulaSO2.SO2isproducedbyvolcanoesandinvariousindustrialprocesses.Coalandpetroleumoftencontainsulfurcompounds,andtheircombustiongeneratessulfurdioxide.FurtheroxidationofSO2,usuallyinthepresenceofacatalystsuchasNO2,formsH2SO4,andthusacidrainisformed.Thisisoneofthecausesforconcernovertheenvironmentalimpactoftheuseofthesefuelsaspowersources. Nitrogenoxides(NOx):Nitrogenoxides,particularlynitrogendioxide,areexpelledfromhightemperaturecombustion,andarealsoproducedduringthunderstormsbyelectricdischarge.Theycanbeseenasabrownhazedomeaboveoraplumedownwindofcities.NitrogendioxideisachemicalcompoundwiththeformulaNO2.Itisoneofseveralnitrogenoxides.Oneofthemostprominentairpollutants,thisreddish-browntoxicgashasacharacteristicsharp,bitingodor. Carbonmonoxide(CO):COisacolorless,odorless,toxicgas.[89]Itisaproductofcombustionoffuelsuchasnaturalgas,coalorwood.Vehicularexhaustcontributestothemajorityofcarbonmonoxideletintotheatmosphere.Itcreatesasmogtypeformationintheairthathasbeenlinkedtomanylungdiseasesanddisruptionstothenaturalenvironmentandanimals. Volatileorganiccompounds(VOC):VOCsareawell-knownoutdoorairpollutant.Theyarecategorizedaseithermethane(CH4)ornon-methane(NMVOCs).Methaneisanextremelyefficientgreenhousegaswhichcontributestoenhancedglobalwarming.OtherhydrocarbonVOCsarealsosignificantgreenhousegasesbecauseoftheirroleincreatingozoneandprolongingthelifeofmethaneintheatmosphere.Thiseffectvariesdependingonlocalairquality.ThearomaticNMVOCsbenzene,tolueneandxylenearesuspectedcarcinogensandmayleadtoleukemiawithprolongedexposure.1,3-butadieneisanotherdangerouscompoundoftenassociatedwithindustrialuse. Particulatematter/particles,alsoknownasparticulatematter(PM),atmosphericparticulatematter(APM),orfineparticles,aremicroscopicsolidorliquidparticlessuspendedinagas.[90]Aerosol,ontheotherhand,isamixtureofparticlesandgas.Volcanoes,duststorms,forestandgrasslandfires,livingplants,andseasprayareallsourcesofparticles.Aerosolsareproducedbyhumanactivitiessuchasthecombustionoffossilfuelsinautomobiles,powerplants,andnumerousindustrialprocesses.[91]Averagedworldwide,anthropogenicaerosols –thosemadebyhumanactivities –currentlyaccountforapproximately10%ofouratmosphere.Increasedlevelsoffineparticlesintheairarelinkedtohealthhazardssuchasheartdisease,[92]alteredlungfunctionandlungcancer.Particulatesarerelatedtorespiratoryinfectionsandcanbeparticularlyharmfultothosewithconditionslikeasthma.[93] Persistentfreeradicalsconnectedtoairbornefineparticlesarelinkedtocardiopulmonarydisease.[94][95] Toxicmetals,suchasleadandmercury,especiallytheircompounds. Chlorofluorocarbons(CFCs):Emittedfromgoodsthatarenowprohibitedfromuse;harmfultotheozonelayer.Thesearegasesemittedbyairconditioners,freezers,aerosolsprays,andothersimilardevices.CFCsreachthestratosphereafterbeingreleasedintotheatmosphere.[96]Theyinteractwithothergaseshere,causingharmtotheozonelayer.UVraysareabletoreachtheearth'ssurfaceasaresultofthis.Thiscanresultinskincancer,eyeproblems,andevenplantdamage.[97] Ammonia:Emittedmainlybyagriculturalwaste.AmmoniaisacompoundwiththeformulaNH3.Itisnormallyencounteredasagaswithacharacteristicpungentodor.Ammoniacontributessignificantlytothenutritionalneedsofterrestrialorganismsbyservingasaprecursortofoodstuffsandfertilizers.Ammonia,eitherdirectlyorindirectly,isalsoabuildingblockforthesynthesisofmanypharmaceuticals.Althoughinwideuse,ammoniaisbothcausticandhazardous.[98]Intheatmosphere,ammoniareactswithoxidesofnitrogenandsulfurtoformsecondaryparticles.[99] Odors:Suchasfromgarbage,sewage,andindustrialprocesses. Radioactivepollutants:Producedbynuclearexplosions,nuclearevents,warexplosives,andnaturalprocessessuchastheradioactivedecayofradon. Secondarypollutantsinclude: Photochemicalsmog:particlesareformedfromgaseousprimarycontaminantsandchemicals.[100]Smogisatypeofpollutionthatoccursintheatmosphere.Smogiscausedbyahugevolumeofcoalbeingburnedinacertainregion,resultinginamixtureofsmokeandsulphurdioxide.[101]Modernsmogisusuallycausedbyautomotiveandindustrialemissions,whichareactedonintheatmospherebyUVlightfromthesuntoproducesecondarypollutants,whichthencombinewiththeprimaryemissionstogeneratephotochemicalsmog. Groundlevelozone(O3):OzoneiscreatedwhenNOxandVOCsmix.Itisasignificantpartofthetroposphere.[102]It'salsoanimportantpartoftheozonelayer,whichcanbefoundindifferentsectionsofthestratosphere.Photochemicalandchemicalreactionsinvolvingitfuelmanyofthechemicalactivitiesthatoccurintheatmosphereduringthedayandnight.Itisapollutantandacomponentofsmogthatisproducedinlargequantitiesasaresultofhumanactivities(mostlythecombustionoffossilfuels).[103] Peroxyacetylnitrate(C2H3NO5):similarlyformedfromNOxandVOCs. Minorairpollutantsinclude: Alargenumberofminorhazardousairpollutants.SomeoftheseareregulatedinUSAundertheCleanAirActandinEuropeundertheAirFrameworkDirective. Avarietyofpersistentorganicpollutants,whichcanattachtoparticulates Persistentorganicpollutantsareorganiccompoundsthatareresistanttoenvironmentaldegradationduetochemical,biological,orphotolyticprocesses(POPs).Asaresult,they'vebeendiscoveredtosurviveintheenvironment,becapableoflong-rangetransmission,bioaccumulateinhumanandanimaltissue,biomagnifyinfoodchains,andposeamajorthreattohumanhealthandtheecosystem.[104] Todisplayallpages,subcategoriesandimagesclickonthe"►": Hazardousairpollutants(4C,68P) Beforeflue-gasdesulfurizationwasinstalled,theemissionsfromthispowerplantinNewMexicocontainedexcessiveamountsofsulfurdioxide. Thermaloxidisersareairpollutionabatementoptionsforhazardousairpollutants(HAPs),volatileorganiccompounds(VOCs),andodorousemissions. ThisvideoprovidesanoverviewofaNASAstudyonthehumanfingerprintonglobalairquality. Exposure[edit] Upto30%ofEuropeanslivingincitiesareexposedtoairpollutantlevelsexceedingEUairqualitystandards.Around98%ofEuropeanslivingincitiesareexposedtolevelsofairpollutantsdeemeddamagingtohealthbytheWorldHealthOrganization'smorestringentguidelines.[105] Theriskofairpollutionisdeterminedbythepollutant'shazardandtheamountofexposuretothatpollutant.Airpollutionexposurecanbemeasuredforaperson,agroup(suchasaneighborhoodoracountry'schildren),oranentirepopulation.Forexample,onewouldwanttodetermineageographicarea'sexposuretoadangerousairpollution,takingintoaccountthevariousmicroenvironmentsandagegroups.Thiscanbecalculated[8]asaninhalationexposure.Thiswouldaccountfordailyexposureinvarioussettings(e.g.differentindoormicro-environmentsandoutdoorlocations).Theexposureneedstoincludedifferentagesandotherdemographicgroups,especiallyinfants,children,pregnantwomen,andothersensitivesubpopulations.Foreachspecifictimethatthesubgroupisinthesettingandengagedinparticularactivities,theexposuretoanairpollutantmustintegratetheconcentrationsoftheairpollutantwithregardtothetimespentineachsettingandtherespectiveinhalationratesforeachsubgroup(playing,cooking,reading,working,spendingtimeintraffic,etc.).Alittlechild'sinhalingrate,forexample,willbelowerthanthatofanadult.Ayoungsterengaginginstrenuousexercisewillhaveafasterrateofbreathingthanachildengagedinsedentaryactivity.Thedailyexposuremustthereforeincludetheamountoftimespentineachmicro-environmentalsettingaswellasthekindofactivitiesperformedthere.Theairpollutantconcentrationineachmicroactivity/microenvironmentalsettingissummedtoindicatetheexposure.[8]Forsomepollutantssuchasblackcarbon,trafficrelatedexposuresmaydominatetotalexposuredespiteshortexposuretimessincehighconcentrationscoincidewithproximitytomajorroadsorparticipationin(motorized)traffic.[106]Alargeportionoftotaldailyexposureoccursasshortpeaksofhighconcentrations,butitremainsunclearhowtodefinepeaksanddeterminetheirfrequencyandhealthimpact.[107] In2021,theWHOhalveditsrecommendedguidelinelimitfortinyparticlesfromburningfossilfuels.Thenewlimitfornitrogendioxide(NO2)is75%lower.[108]Growingevidencethatairpollution—evenwhenexperiencedatverylowlevels—hurtshumanhealth,ledtheWHOtoreviseitsguideline(from10 µg/m³to5 µg/m³)forwhatitconsidersasafelevelofexposureofparticulatepollution,bringingmostoftheworld—97.3percentoftheglobalpopulation—intotheunsafezone.[109] Indoorairquality[edit] Mainarticles:IndoorairqualityandIndoorairpollutionindevelopingcountries Shareofdeathsfromindoorairpollution Airqualitymonitoring,NewDelhi,India Alackofventilationindoorsconcentratesairpollutionwherepeopleoftenspendthemajorityoftheirtime.Radon(Rn)gas,acarcinogen,isexudedfromtheEarthincertainlocationsandtrappedinsidehouses.Buildingmaterialsincludingcarpetingandplywoodemitformaldehyde(H2CO)gas.Paintandsolventsgiveoffvolatileorganiccompounds(VOCs)astheydry.Leadpaintcandegenerateintodustandbeinhaled.Intentionalairpollutionisintroducedwiththeuseofairfresheners,incense,andotherscenteditems.Controlledwoodfiresincookstovesandfireplacescanaddsignificantamountsofharmfulsmokeparticulatesintotheair,insideandout.[110][111]Indoorpollutionfatalitiesmaybecausedbyusingpesticidesandotherchemicalspraysindoorswithoutproperventilation. Carbonmonoxidepoisoningandfatalitiesareoftencausedbyfaultyventsandchimneys,orbytheburningofcharcoalindoorsorinaconfinedspace,suchasatent.[112]Chroniccarbonmonoxidepoisoningcanresultevenfrompoorly-adjustedpilotlights.Trapsarebuiltintoalldomesticplumbingtokeepsewergasandhydrogensulfide,outofinteriors.Clothingemitstetrachloroethylene,orotherdrycleaningfluids,fordaysafterdrycleaning. Thoughitsusehasnowbeenbannedinmanycountries,theextensiveuseofasbestosinindustrialanddomesticenvironmentsinthepasthasleftapotentiallyverydangerousmaterialinmanylocalities.Asbestosisisachronicinflammatorymedicalconditionaffectingthetissueofthelungs.Itoccursafterlong-term,heavyexposuretoasbestosfromasbestos-containingmaterialsinstructures.Thosewithasbestosishaveseveredyspnea(shortnessofbreath)andareatanincreasedriskregardingseveraldifferenttypesoflungcancer.Asclearexplanationsarenotalwaysstressedinnon-technicalliterature,careshouldbetakentodistinguishbetweenseveralformsofrelevantdiseases.AccordingtotheWorldHealthOrganization(WHO),[113]thesemaybedefinedasasbestosis,lungcancer,andperitonealmesothelioma(generallyaveryrareformofcancer,whenmorewidespreaditisalmostalwaysassociatedwithprolongedexposuretoasbestos). Biologicalsourcesofairpollutionarealsofoundindoors,asgasesandairborneparticulates.Petsproducedander,peopleproducedustfromminuteskinflakesanddecomposedhair,dustmitesinbedding,carpetingandfurnitureproduceenzymesandmicrometre-sizedfecaldroppings,inhabitantsemitmethane,moldformsonwallsandgeneratesmycotoxinsandspores,airconditioningsystemscanincubateLegionnaires'diseaseandmold,andhouseplants,soilandsurroundinggardenscanproducepollen,dust,andmold.Indoors,thelackofaircirculationallowstheseairbornepollutantstoaccumulatemorethantheywouldotherwiseoccurinnature. Healtheffects[edit] EvenatlevelslowerthanthoseconsideredsafebyUnitedStatesregulators,exposuretothreecomponentsofairpollution,fineparticulatematter,nitrogendioxideandozone,correlateswithcardiacandrespiratoryillness.[114]In2020,pollution(includingairpollution)wasacontributingfactortooneineightdeathsinEurope,andwasasignificantriskfactorforpollution-relateddiseasesincludingheartdisease,strokeandlungcancer.[115]Thehealtheffectscausedbyairpollutionmayincludedifficultyinbreathing,wheezing,coughing,asthma[116]andworseningofexistingrespiratoryandcardiacconditions.Theseeffectscanresultinincreasedmedicationuse,increaseddoctororemergencydepartmentvisits,morehospitaladmissionsandprematuredeath.Thehumanhealtheffectsofpoorairqualityarefarreaching,butprincipallyaffectthebody'srespiratorysystemandthecardiovascularsystem.Individualreactionstoairpollutantsdependonthetypeofpollutantapersonisexposedto,thedegreeofexposure,andtheindividual'shealthstatusandgenetics.[8]Themostcommonsourcesofairpollutionincludeparticulates,ozone,nitrogendioxide,andsulfurdioxide.Childrenagedlessthanfiveyearswholiveindevelopingcountriesarethemostvulnerablepopulationintermsoftotaldeathsattributabletoindoorandoutdoorairpollution.[117] Mortality[edit] Shareofdeathsfromoutdoorairpollution,OWID TheWorldHealthOrganizationestimatedin2014thateveryyearairpollutioncausestheprematuredeathofsome7millionpeopleworldwide.[4]StudiespublishedinMarch2019indicatedthatthenumbermaybearound8.8million.[118]A2022reviewconcludedthatairpollutionwasresponsiblefor6.67(5.90–7.49)millionprematuredeathsin2019.Itconcludedthatsince2015littlerealprogressagainst(superordinate)pollution,whichremainedat~9millionearlierdeaths,canbeidentified.[119][15] Causesofdeathsincludestrokes,heartdisease,COPD,lungcancer,andlunginfections.[4] Urbanoutdoorairpollutionisestimatedtocause1.3milliondeathsworldwideperyear.[120]Childrenareparticularlyatriskduetotheimmaturityoftheirrespiratoryorgansystems.[121]In2015,outdoorairpollution,mostlybyPM2.5,wasestimatedtoleadto3.3(95%CI1.61–4.81)millionprematuredeathsperyearworldwide,predominantlyinAsia.[66]In2021,theWHOreportedthatoutdoorairpollutionwasestimatedtocause4.2millionprematuredeathsworldwidein2016.[122]A2020studyindicatesthattheglobalmeanlossoflifeexpectancy(LLE;similartoYPLL)fromairpollutionin2015was2.9years,substantiallymorethan,forexample,0.3 yearsfromallformsofdirectviolence,albeitasignificantfractionoftheLLEisunavoidable.[12]Moreover,communitieswiththemostexceptionalaginghavelowambientairpollution,suggestingalinkbetweenairpollutionlevelsandlongevity.[123] Astudypublishedin2022inGeoHealthconcludedthateliminatingenergy-relatedfossilfuelemissionsintheUnitedStateswouldprevent46,900–59,400prematuredeathseachyearandprovide$537–$678billioninbenefitsfromavoidedPM2.5-relatedillnessanddeath.[124] Byregion[edit] IndiaandChinahavethehighestdeathrateduetoairpollution.[125][126]IndiaalsohasmoredeathsfromasthmathananyothernationaccordingtotheWorldHealthOrganization.InDecember2013airpollutionwasestimatedtokill500,000peopleinChinaeachyear.[127]Thereisapositivecorrelationbetweenpneumonia-relateddeathsandairpollutionfrommotorvehicleemissions.[128] AnnualprematureEuropeandeathscausedbyairpollutionareestimatedat430,000[129]to800,000.[118]Animportantcauseofthesedeathsisnitrogendioxideandothernitrogenoxides(NOx)emittedbyroadvehicles.[129]Ina2015consultationdocumenttheUKgovernmentdisclosedthatnitrogendioxideisresponsiblefor23,500prematureUKdeathsperannum.[130]AcrosstheEuropeanUnion,airpollutionisestimatedtoreducelifeexpectancybyalmostninemonths.[131] Guidelines[edit] Mainarticle:Airqualityguideline TheUSEPAhasestimatedthatlimitingground-levelozoneconcentrationto65partsperbillion(ppb),wouldavert1,700to5,100prematuredeathsnationwidein2020comparedwiththe75 ppbstandard.Theagencyprojectedthemoreprotectivestandardwouldalsopreventanadditional26,000casesofaggravatedasthma,andmorethanamillioncasesofmissedworkorschool.[132][133]Followingthisassessment,theEPAactedtoprotectpublichealthbyloweringtheNationalAmbientAirQualityStandards(NAAQS)forground-levelozoneto70 ppb.[134]AneweconomicstudyofthehealthimpactsandassociatedcostsofairpollutionintheLosAngelesBasinandSanJoaquinValleyofSouthernCaliforniashowsthatmorethan3,800peopledieprematurely(approximately14yearsearlierthannormal)eachyearbecauseairpollutionlevelsviolatefederalstandards.Thenumberofannualprematuredeathsisconsiderablyhigherthanthefatalitiesrelatedtoautocollisionsinthesamearea,whichaveragefewerthan2,000peryear.[135][136][137]A2021studyfoundthatoutdoorairpollutionisassociatedwithsubstantiallyincreasedmortality"evenatlowpollutionlevelsbelowthecurrentEuropeanandNorthAmericanstandardsandWHOguidelinevalues"shortlybeforetheWHOadjusteditsguidelines.[138][139] Majorcauses[edit] Furtherinformation:§ Sources Comparisonoffootprint-basedandtransboundarypollution-basedrelationshipsamongG20nationsforthenumberofPM2.5-relatedprematuredeaths.[140] Thelargestcauseisairpollutiongeneratedbyfossilfuelcombustion[141]–mostlytheproductionanduseofcars,electricityproduction,andheating.[142]AstudybyGreenpeaceestimatesthereare4.5millionannualprematuredeathsworldwidebecauseofpollutantsreleasedbyhigh-emissionpowerstationsandvehicleexhausts.[143] Dieselexhaust(DE)isamajorcontributortocombustion-derivedparticulatematterairpollution.Inseveralhumanexperimentalstudies,usingawell-validatedexposurechambersetup,DEhasbeenlinkedtoacutevasculardysfunctionandincreasedthrombusformation.[144][145] AstudyconcludedthatPM2.5airpollutioninducedbythecontemporaryfreetradeandconsumptionbythe19G20nationscausestwomillionprematuredeathsannually,suggestingthattheaveragelifetimeconsumptionofabout~28peopleinthesecountriescausesatleastoneprematuredeath(averageage~67)whiledevelopingcountries"cannotbeexpected"toimplementorbeabletoimplementcountermeasureswithoutexternalsupportorinternationallycoordinatedefforts.[146][140] Primarymechanisms[edit] TheWHOestimatesthatin2016,~58%ofoutdoorairpollution-relatedprematuredeathswereduetoischaemicheartdiseaseandstroke.[122]Themechanismslinkingairpollutiontoincreasedcardiovascularmortalityareuncertain,butprobablyincludepulmonaryandsystemicinflammation.[147] Contemporaryannualdeaths[edit] AstudybyscientistsofU.K.andU.S.universitiesthatusesahighspatialresolutionmodelandanupdatedconcentration-responsefunctionconcludedin2021that10.4millionglobalexcessdeathsin2012and8.7millionin2018–orafifth[dubious–discuss]–wereduetoairpollutiongeneratedbyfossilfuelcombustion,significantlyhigherthanearlierestimatesandwithspatiallysubdividedmortalityimpacts.[148][141] AccordingtotheWHOairpollutionaccountsfor1in8deathsworldwide.[149] Cardiovasculardisease[edit] A2007reviewofevidencefoundthat,ambientairpollutionexposureisariskfactorcorrelatingwithincreasedtotalmortalityfromcardiovascularevents(range:12%to14%per10 µg/m3increase).[150][clarificationneeded] Airpollutionisalsoemergingasariskfactorforstroke,particularlyindevelopingcountrieswherepollutantlevelsarehighest.[151]A2007studyfoundthatinwomen,airpollutionisnotassociatedwithhemorrhagicbutwithischemicstroke.[152]Airpollutionwasalsofoundtobeassociatedwithincreasedincidenceandmortalityfromcoronarystrokeinacohortstudyin2011.[153]Associationsarebelievedtobecausalandeffectsmaybemediatedbyvasoconstriction,low-gradeinflammationandatherosclerosis.[154]Othermechanismssuchasautonomicnervoussystemimbalancehavealsobeensuggested.[155][156] Lungdisease[edit] Researchhasdemonstratedincreasedriskofdevelopingasthma[157]andchronicobstructivepulmonarydisease(COPD)[158]fromincreasedexposuretotraffic-relatedairpollution.Additionally,airpollutionhasbeenassociatedwithincreasedhospitalizationandmortalityfromasthmaandCOPD.[159][160]COPDincludesdiseasessuchaschronicbronchitisandemphysema.[161]Theriskoflungdiseasefromairpollutionisgreatestforthefollowinggroupsofpeople:infantsandyoungchildren,whosenormalbreathingisfasterthanthatofolderchildrenandadults;theelderly;thosewhoworkoutsideorspendalotoftimeoutside;andthosewhohaveheartorlungdisease.[162] Astudyconductedin1960–1961inthewakeoftheGreatSmogof1952compared293Londonresidentswith477residentsofGloucester,Peterborough,andNorwich,threetownswithlowreporteddeathratesfromchronicbronchitis.Allsubjectsweremalepostaltruckdriversaged40to59.Comparedtothesubjectsfromtheoutlyingtowns,theLondonsubjectsexhibitedmoresevererespiratorysymptoms(includingcough,phlegm,anddyspnea),reducedlungfunction(FEV1andpeakflowrate),andincreasedsputumproductionandpurulence.Thedifferencesweremorepronouncedforsubjectsaged50to59.Thestudycontrolledforageandsmokinghabits,soconcludedthatairpollutionwasthemostlikelycauseoftheobserveddifferences.[163] Morestudieshaveshownthatairpollutionexposurefromtrafficreduceslungfunctiondevelopmentinchildren[164]andlungfunctionmaybecompromisedbyairpollutionevenatlowconcentrations.[165] Itisbelievedthatmuchlikecysticfibrosis,bylivinginamoreurbanenvironmentserioushealthhazardsbecomemoreapparent.Studieshaveshownthatinurbanareaspeopleexperiencemucushypersecretion,lowerlevelsoflungfunction,andmoreself-diagnosisofchronicbronchitisandemphysema.[166] Cancer(lungcancer)[edit] UnprotectedexposuretoPM2.5airpollutioncanbeequivalenttosmokingmultiplecigarettesperday,[167]potentiallyincreasingtheriskofcancer,whichismainlytheresultofenvironmentalfactors.[168] Around300,000lungcancerdeathswereattributedgloballyin2019toexposuretofineparticulatematter,PM2.5,containedinairpollution.[169] Areviewofevidenceregardingwhetherambientairpollutionexposureisariskfactorforcancerin2007foundsoliddatatoconcludethatlong-termexposuretoPM2.5(fineparticulates)increasestheoverallriskofnon-accidentalmortalityby6%pera10microg/m3increase.ExposuretoPM2.5wasalsoassociatedwithanincreasedriskofmortalityfromlungcancer(range:15%to21%per10microg/m3increase)andtotalcardiovascularmortality(range:12%to14%pera10microg/m3increase).Thereviewfurthernotedthatlivingclosetobusytrafficappearstobeassociatedwithelevatedrisksofthesethreeoutcomes –increaseinlungcancerdeaths,cardiovasculardeaths,andoverallnon-accidentaldeaths.ThereviewersalsofoundsuggestiveevidencethatexposuretoPM2.5ispositivelyassociatedwithmortalityfromcoronaryheartdiseasesandexposuretoSO2increasesmortalityfromlungcancer,butthedatawasinsufficienttoprovidesolidconclusions.[170]Anotherinvestigationshowedthathigheractivitylevelincreasesdepositionfractionofaerosolparticlesinhumanlungandrecommendedavoidingheavyactivitieslikerunninginoutdoorspaceatpollutedareas.[171] In2011,alargeDanishepidemiologicalstudyfoundanincreasedriskoflungcancerforpeoplewholivedinareaswithhighnitrogenoxideconcentrations.Inthisstudy,theassociationwashigherfornon-smokersthansmokers.[172]AnadditionalDanishstudy,alsoin2011,likewisenotedevidenceofpossibleassociationsbetweenairpollutionandotherformsofcancer,includingcervicalcancerandbraincancer.[173] Astudypresentedin2022outlinedthebiologicalbasisforhowairpollutioncausescancer.[169] Kidneydisease[edit] In2021,astudyof163,197Taiwaneseresidentsovertheperiodof2001–2016estimatedthatevery5μg/m3decreaseintheambientconcentrationofPM2.5wasassociatedwitha25%reducedriskofchronickidneydiseasedevelopment.[174]Accordingtoachordstudyinvolving10,997atherosclerosispatients,higherPM2.5exposureisassociatewithincreasedalbuminuria.[175] Children[edit] IntheUnitedStates,despitethepassageoftheCleanAirActin1970,in2002atleast146millionAmericanswerelivinginnon-attainmentareas–regionsinwhichtheconcentrationofcertainairpollutantsexceededfederalstandards.[176]Thesedangerouspollutantsareknownasthecriteriapollutants,andincludeozone,particulatematter,sulfurdioxide,nitrogendioxide,carbonmonoxide,andlead.Protectivemeasurestoensurechildren'shealtharebeingtakenincitiessuchasNewDelhi,India,wherebusesnowusecompressednaturalgastohelpeliminatethe"pea-soup"smog.[177]ArecentstudyinEuropehasfoundthatexposuretoultrafineparticlescanincreasebloodpressureinchildren.[178] AccordingtoaWHOreportin2018,pollutedairleadstothepoisoningofmillionsofchildrenundertheageof15,resultinginthedeathofsomesixhundredthousandchildrenannually.[179] Prenatalexposure[edit] Prenatalexposuretopollutedairhasbeenlinkedtoavarietyofneurodevelopmentaldisordersinchildren.Forexample,exposuretopolycyclicaromatichydrocarbons(PAH)wasassociatedwithreducedIQscoresandsymptomsofanxietyanddepression.[180]Theycanalsoleadtodetrimentalperinatalhealthoutcomesthatareoftenfatalindevelopingcountries.[7]A2014studyfoundthatPAHsmightplayaroleinthedevelopmentofchildhoodattentiondeficithyperactivitydisorder(ADHD).[181]Researchershavealsobeguntofindevidenceforairpollutionasariskfactorforautismspectrumdisorder(ASD).InLosAngeles,childrenwhowerelivinginareaswithhighlevelsoftraffic-relatedairpollutionweremorelikelytobediagnosedwithautismbetween3–5yearsofage.[182]Theconnectionbetweenairpollutionandneurodevelopmentaldisordersinchildrenisthoughttoberelatedtoepigeneticdysregulationoftheprimordialgermcells,embryo,andfetusduringacriticalperiod.SomePAHsareconsideredendocrinedisruptorsandarelipidsoluble.Whentheybuildupinadiposetissue,theycanbetransferredacrosstheplacenta.[183]Inadditiontoall,airpollutionhasbeenassociatedwiththeprevalenceofpretermbirths.[184] Infants[edit] Ambientlevelsofairpollutionhavebeenassociatedwithpretermbirthandlowbirthweight.A2014WHOworldwidesurveyonmaternalandperinatalhealthfoundastatisticallysignificantassociationbetweenlowbirthweights(LBW)andincreasedlevelsofexposuretoPM2.5.WomeninregionswithgreaterthanaveragePM2.5levelshadstatisticallysignificanthigheroddsofpregnancyresultinginalow-birthweightinfantevenwhenadjustedforcountry-relatedvariables.[185]Theeffectisthoughttobefromstimulatinginflammationandincreasingoxidativestress. AstudybytheUniversityofYorkfoundthatin2010exposuretoPM2.5wasstronglyassociatedwith18%ofpretermbirthsglobally,whichwasapproximately2.7millionprematurebirths.ThecountrieswiththehighestairpollutionassociatedpretermbirthswereinSouthandEastAsia,theMiddleEast,NorthAfrica,andWestsub-SaharanAfrica.[186] ThesourceofPM2.5differsgreatlybyregion.InSouthandEastAsia,pregnantwomenarefrequentlyexposedtoindoorairpollutionbecauseofwoodandotherbiomassfuelsbeingusedforcooking,whichareresponsibleformorethan80%ofregionalpollution.IntheMiddleEast,NorthAfricaandWestsub-SaharanAfrica,finePMcomesfromnaturalsources,suchasduststorms.[186]TheUnitedStateshadanestimated50,000pretermbirthsassociatedwithexposuretoPM2.5in2010.[186] AstudyperformedbyWang,etal.betweentheyearsof1988and1991hasfoundacorrelationbetweensulfurdioxide(SO2)andtotalsuspendedparticulates(TSP)andpretermbirthsandlowbirthweightsinBeijing.Agroupof74,671pregnantwomen,infourseparateregionsofBeijing,weremonitoredfromearlypregnancytodeliveryalongwithdailyairpollutionlevelsofsulfurDioxideandTSP(alongwithotherparticulates).Theestimatedreductioninbirthweightwas7.3gforevery100 µg/m3increaseinSO2and6.9gforeach100 µg/m3increaseinTSP.Theseassociationswerestatisticallysignificantinbothsummerandwinter,although,summerwasgreater.Theproportionoflowbirthweightattributabletoairpollution,was13%.Thisisthelargestattributableriskeverreportedfortheknownriskfactorsoflowbirthweight.[187]Coalstoves,whicharein97%ofhomes,areamajorsourceofairpollutioninthisarea. Braueretal.studiedtherelationshipbetweenairpollutionandproximitytoahighwaywithpregnancyoutcomesinaVancouvercohortofpregnantwomanusingaddressestoestimateexposureduringpregnancy.ExposuretoNO,NO2,CO,PM10andPM2.5wereassociatedwithinfantsbornsmallforgestationalage(SGA).Womenlivinglessthan50metersawayfromanexpresswayorhighwaywere26%morelikelytogivebirthtoaSGAinfant.[188] "Clean"areas[edit] ShareofthepopulationexposedtoairpollutionlevelsaboveWHOguidelines,OWID Eveninareaswithrelativelylowlevelsofairpollution,publichealtheffectscanbesignificantandcostly,sincealargenumberofpeoplebreatheinsuchpollutants.Astudypublishedin2017foundthateveninareasoftheU.S.whereozoneandPM2.5meetfederalstandards,Medicarerecipientswhoareexposedtomoreairpollutionhavehighermortalityrates.[189]A2005scientificstudyfortheBritishColumbiaLungAssociationshowedthatasmallimprovementinairquality(1%reductionofambientPM2.5andozoneconcentrations)wouldproduce$29millioninannualsavingsintheMetroVancouverregionin2010.[190]Thisfindingisbasedonhealthvaluationoflethal(death)andsub-lethal(illness)affects. In2020,scientistsfoundthattheboundarylayerairovertheSouthernOceanaroundAntarcticais'unpolluted'byhumans.[191] Centralnervoussystem[edit] Seealso:Neuroplasticeffectsofpollution Dataisaccumulatingthatairpollutionexposurealsoaffectsthecentralnervoussystem.[192] Airpollutionincreasestheriskofdementiainpeopleover50yearsold.[193]Childhoodindoorairpollutionmaynegativelyaffectcognitivefunctionandneurodevelopment.[194][195]Prenatalexposuremayalsoaffectneurodevelopment.[196][197]Studiesshowthatairpollutionisassociatedwithavarietyofdevelopmentaldisabilities,oxidativestress,andneuro-inflammationandthatitmaycontributetoAlzheimer'sdiseaseandParkinson'sdisease.[195] ResearchersattheUniversityofRochesterMedicalCenterfoundthatearlyexposuretoairpollutioncausesthesamechangesinthebrainasautismandschizophrenia.ThisstudywaspublishedinthejournalEnvironmentalHealthPerspectives,inJune2014.Italsoshowedthatairpollutionalsoaffectedshort-termmemory,learningability,andimpulsivity.LeadresearcherProfessorDeborahCory-Slechtasaidthat:"Whenwelookedcloselyattheventricles,wecouldseethatthewhitematterthatnormallysurroundsthemhadn'tfullydeveloped.Itappearsthatinflammationhaddamagedthosebraincellsandpreventedthatregionofthebrainfromdeveloping,andtheventriclessimplyexpandedtofillthespace.Ourfindingsaddtothegrowingbodyofevidencethatairpollutionmayplayaroleinautism,aswellasinotherneurodevelopmentaldisorders."Inastudyofmice,airpollutionalsohasalargernegativeimpactonmalesthanonfemales.[198][199][200] In2015,experimentalstudiesreportedthedetectionofsignificantepisodic(situational)cognitiveimpairmentfromimpuritiesinindoorairbreathedbytestsubjectswhowerenotinformedaboutchangesintheairquality.ResearchersattheHarvardUniversityandSUNYUpstateMedicalUniversityandSyracuseUniversitymeasuredthecognitiveperformanceof24participantsinthreedifferentcontrolledlaboratoryatmospheresthatsimulatedthosefoundin"conventional"and"green"buildings,aswellasgreenbuildingswithenhancedventilation.PerformancewasevaluatedobjectivelyusingthewidelyusedStrategicManagementSimulationsoftwaresimulationtool,whichisawell-validatedassessmenttestforexecutivedecision-makinginanunconstrainedsituationallowinginitiativeandimprovisation.Significantdeficitswereobservedintheperformancescoresachievedinincreasingconcentrationsofeithervolatileorganiccompounds(VOCs)orcarbondioxide,whilekeepingotherfactorsconstant.Thehighestimpuritylevelsreachedarenotuncommoninsomeclassroomorofficeenvironments.[201][202]HigherPM2.5andCO2concentrationswereshowntobeassociatedwithslowerresponsetimesandreducedaccuracyintests.[203] Agriculturaleffects[edit] InIndiain2014,itwasreportedthatairpollutionbyblackcarbonandgroundlevelozonehadreducedcropyieldsinthemostaffectedareasbyalmosthalfin2011whencomparedto1980levels.[204] Economiceffects[edit] Airpollutioncoststheworldeconomy$5trillionperyearasaresultofproductivitylossesanddegradedqualityoflife,accordingtoajointstudybytheWorldBankandtheInstituteforHealthMetricsandEvaluation(IHME)attheUniversityofWashington.[20][21][22]Theseproductivitylossesarecausedbydeathsduetodiseasescausedbyairpollution.Oneoutoftendeathsin2013wascausedbydiseasesassociatedwithairpollutionandtheproblemisgettingworse.Theproblemisevenmoreacuteinthedevelopingworld."Childrenunderage5inlower-incomecountriesaremorethan60timesaslikelytodiefromexposuretoairpollutionaschildreninhigh-incomecountries."[20][21]Thereportstatesthatadditionaleconomiclossescausedbyairpollution,includinghealthcosts[205]andtheadverseeffectonagriculturalandotherproductivitywerenotcalculatedinthereport,andthustheactualcoststotheworldeconomyarefarhigherthan$5trillion. Othereffects[edit] ArtificialairpollutionmaybedetectableonEarthfromdistantvantagepointssuchasotherplanetarysystemsviaatmosphericSETI–includingNO2pollutionlevelsandwithtelescopictechnologyclosetotoday.Itmayalsobepossibletodetectextraterrestrialcivilizationsthisway.[206][207][208] Historicaldisasters[edit] Theworld'sworstshort-termcivilianpollutioncrisiswasthe1984BhopalDisasterinIndia.[209]LeakedindustrialvapoursfromtheUnionCarbidefactory,belongingtoUnionCarbide,Inc.,U.S.A.(laterboughtbyDowChemicalCompany),killedatleast3787peopleandinjuredfrom150,000to600,000.TheUnitedKingdomsuffereditsworstairpollutioneventwhenthe4DecemberGreatSmogof1952formedoverLondon.Insixdaysmorethan4,000diedandmorerecentestimatesputthefigureatnearer12,000.[210]AnaccidentalleakofanthraxsporesfromabiologicalwarfarelaboratoryintheformerUSSRin1979nearSverdlovskisbelievedtohavecausedatleast64deaths.[211]TheworstsingleincidentofairpollutiontooccurintheUSoccurredinDonora,Pennsylvania,inlateOctober1948,when20peoplediedandover7,000wereinjured.[212] Reductionandregulation[edit] Pollutionpreventionseekstopreventpollutionsuchasairpollutionandcouldincludeadjustmentstoindustrialandbusinessactivitiessuchasdesigningsustainablemanufacturingprocesses(andtheproducts'designs)[213]andrelatedlegalregulationsaswellaseffortstowardsrenewableenergytransitions.[214][215] Effortstoreduceparticulatematterintheairmayresultinbetterhealth.[216] Pollutioncontrol[edit] BurningofitemspollutingJamestownenvironmentinAccra,Ghana Variouspollutioncontroltechnologiesandstrategiesareavailabletoreduceairpollution.[25][26]Atitsmostbasiclevel,land-useplanningislikelytoinvolvezoningandtransportinfrastructureplanning.Inmostdevelopedcountries,land-useplanningisanimportantpartofsocialpolicy,ensuringthatlandisusedefficientlyforthebenefitofthewidereconomyandpopulation,aswellastoprotecttheenvironment.[217] Titaniumdioxidehasbeenresearchedforitsabilitytoreduceairpollution.Ultravioletlightwillreleasefreeelectronsfrommaterial,therebycreatingfreeradicals,whichbreakupVOCsandNOxgases.Oneformissuperhydrophilic.[218] Pollution-eatingnanoparticlesplacednearabusyroadwereshowntoabsorbtoxicemissionfromaround20carseachday.[219] Energytransition[edit] Sincealargeshareofairpollutioniscausedbycombustionoffossilfuelssuchascoalandoil,thereductionofthesefuelscanreduceairpollutiondrastically.Mosteffectiveistheswitchtocleanpowersourcessuchaswindpower,solarpower,hydropowerwhichdonotcauseairpollution.[220]Effortstoreducepollutionfrommobilesourcesincludesexpandingregulationtonewsources(suchascruiseandtransportships,farmequipment,andsmallgas-poweredequipmentsuchasstringtrimmers,chainsaws,andsnowmobiles),increasedfuelefficiency(suchasthroughtheuseofhybridvehicles),conversiontocleanerfuels,andconversiontoelectricvehicles. Averyeffectivemeanstoreduceairpollutionisthetransitiontorenewableenergy.AccordingtoastudypublishedinEnergyandEnvironmentalSciencein2015theswitchto100%renewableenergyintheUnitedStateswouldeliminateabout62,000prematuremortalitiesperyearandabout42,000in2050,ifnobiomasswereused.Thiswouldsaveabout$600billioninhealthcostsayearduetoreducedairpollutionin2050,orabout3.6%ofthe2014U.S.grossdomesticproduct.[220]Airqualityimprovementisanear-termbenefitamongthemanysocietalbenefitsfromclimatechangemitigation. Alternativestopollution[edit] Supportforabanonhigh-emissionvehiclesincitycentresinEurope,ChinaandtheUSfromrespondentstotheEuropeanInvestmentBankClimateSurvey Support,useandinfrastructure-expansionofformsofpublictransportthatdonotcauseairpollutionmaybeacriticalkeyalternativetopollution Therearenowpracticalalternativestotheprincipalcausesofairpollution: Strategicsubstitutionofairpollutionsourcesintransportwithlower-emissionor,duringthelifecycle,emission-freeformsofpublictransport[221][222]andbicycleuseandinfrastructure(aswellaswithremotework,reductionsofwork,relocations,andlocalizations) Phase-outoffossilfuelvehiclesisacriticalcomponentofashifttosustainabletransport;however,similarinfrastructureanddesigndecisionslikeelectricvehiclesmaybeassociatedwithsimilarpollutionforproductionaswellasminingandresourceexploitationforlargenumbersofneededbatteriesaswellastheenergyfortheirrecharging[223][224] Areasdownwind(over20miles)ofmajorairportshavemorethandoubletotalparticulateemissionsinairthanotherareas,evenwhenfactoringinareaswithfrequentshipcalls,andheavyfreewayandcitytrafficlikeLosAngeles.[225]Aviationbiofuelmixedinwithjetfuelata50/50ratiocanreducejetderivedcruisealtitudeparticulateemissionsby50–70%,accordingtoaNASAled2017study(however,thisshouldimplygroundlevelbenefitstourbanairpollutionaswell).[226] Shippropulsionandidlingcanbeswitchedtomuchcleanerfuelslikenaturalgas.(Ideallyarenewablesourcebutnotpracticalyet) Combustionoffossilfuelsforspaceheatingcanbereplacedbyusinggroundsourceheatpumpsandseasonalthermalenergystorage.[227] Electricitygeneratedfromthecombustionoffossilfuelscanbereplacedbynuclearandrenewableenergy.Heatingandhomestoves,whichcontributesignificantlytoregionalairpollution,canbereplacedwithamuchcleanerfossilfuel,suchasnaturalgas,or,preferably,renewables,inpoorcountries.[228][229] Motorvehiclesdrivenbyfossilfuels,akeyfactorinurbanairpollution,canbereplacedbyelectricvehicles.Thoughlithiumsupplyandcostisalimitation,therearealternatives.Herdingmorepeopleintocleanpublictransitsuchaselectrictrainscanalsohelp.Nevertheless,eveninemission-freeelectricvehicles,rubbertiresproducesignificantamountsofairpollutionthemselves,rankingas13thworstpollutantinLosAngeles.[230] Reducingtravelinvehiclescancurbpollution.AfterStockholmreducedvehicletrafficinthecentralcitywithacongestiontax,nitrogendioxideandPM10pollutiondeclined,asdidacutepediatricasthmaattacks.[231] Biodigesterscanbeutilizedinpoornationswhereslashandburnisprevalent,turningauselesscommodityintoasourceofincome.Theplantscanbegatheredandsoldtoacentralauthoritythatwillbreakthemdowninalargemodernbiodigester,producingmuchneededenergytouse.[232] Inducedhumidityandventilationbothcangreatlydampenairpollutioninenclosedspaces,whichwasfoundtoberelativelyhighinsidesubwaylinesduetobrakingandfrictionandrelativelylessironicallyinsidetransitbusesthanlowersittingpassengerautomobilesorsubways.[233] Furtherinformation:§ Sources Controldevices[edit] Tarpsandnettingareoftenusedtoreducetheamountofdustreleasedfromconstructionsites. Airpollutionfromacar Thefollowingitemsarecommonlyusedaspollutioncontroldevicesinindustryandtransportation.Theycaneitherdestroycontaminantsorremovethemfromanexhauststreambeforeitisemittedintotheatmosphere. Particulatecontrol Mechanicalcollectors(dustcyclones,multicyclones) Electrostaticprecipitators:Anelectrostaticprecipitator(ESP),orelectrostaticaircleaner,isaparticulatecollectiondevicethatremovesparticlesfromaflowinggas(suchasair),usingtheforceofaninducedelectrostaticcharge.Electrostaticprecipitatorsarehighlyefficientfiltrationdevicesthatminimallyimpedetheflowofgasesthroughthedevice,andcaneasilyremovefineparticulatessuchasdustandsmokefromtheairstream. Baghouses:Designedtohandleheavydustloads,adustcollectorconsistsofablower,dustfilter,afilter-cleaningsystem,andadustreceptacleordustremovalsystem(distinguishedfromaircleanerswhichutilizedisposablefilterstoremovethedust). Particulatescrubbers:Awetscrubberisaformofpollutioncontroltechnology.Thetermdescribesavarietyofdevicesthatusepollutantsfromafurnacefluegasorfromothergasstreams.Inawetscrubber,thepollutedgasstreamisbroughtintocontactwiththescrubbingliquid,bysprayingitwiththeliquid,byforcingitthroughapoolofliquid,orbysomeothercontactmethod,soastoremovethepollutants. Scrubbers Bafflesprayscrubber Cyclonicsprayscrubber Ejectorventuriscrubber Mechanicallyaidedscrubber Spraytower Wetscrubber NOxcontrol LO-NOxburners Selectivecatalyticreduction(SCR) Selectivenon-catalyticreduction(SNCR) NOxscrubbers Exhaustgasrecirculation Catalyticconverter(alsoforVOCcontrol) VOCabatement Adsorptionsystems,usingactivatedcarbon,suchasFluidizedBedConcentrator Flares Thermaloxidizers Catalyticconverters Biofilters Absorption(scrubbing) Cryogeniccondensers Vaporrecoverysystems Acidgas/SO2control Wetscrubbers Dryscrubbers Flue-gasdesulfurization Mercurycontrol Sorbentinjectiontechnology Electro-catalyticoxidation(ECO) K-Fuel Dioxinandfurancontrol Miscellaneousassociatedequipment Sourcecapturingsystems Continuousemissionsmonitoringsystems(CEMS) Monitoring[edit] Seealso:Smartcity Furtherinformation:AirpollutionmeasurementandEnvironmentalmonitoringSpatiotemporalmonitoringofairqualitymaybenecessaryforimprovingairquality,andtherebythehealthandsafetyofthepublic,andassessingimpactsofinterventions.[234]SuchmonitoringisdonetodifferentextentswithdifferentregulatoryrequirementswithdiscrepantregionalcoveragebyavarietyoforganizationsandgovernanceentitiessuchasusingavarietyoftechnologiesforuseofthedataandsensingsuchmobileIoTsensors,[235]satellites,[236][237][238]andmonitoringstations.[239][240]Somewebsitesattempttomapairpollutionlevelsusingavailabledata.[241][242][243] Airqualitymodeling[edit] Mainarticle:Airqualitymodeling NumericalmodelseitheronaglobalscaleusingtoolssuchasGCMs(Generalcirculationmodelscoupledwithapollutionmodule)orCTMs(Chemicaltransportmodel)canbeusedtosimulatethelevelsofdifferentpollutantsintheatmosphere.Thesetoolscanhaveseveraltypes(Atmosphericmodel)anddifferentuses.Thesemodelscanbeusedinforecastmodewhichcanhelppolicymakerstodecideonappropriateactionswhenanairpollutionepisodeisdetected.Theycanalsobeusedforclimatemodelingincludingevolutionofairqualityinthefuture,forexampletheIPCC(IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange)providesclimatesimulationsincludingairqualityassessmentsintheirreports(latestreportaccessiblethroughtheirsite). Regulations[edit] Mainarticle:Airqualitylaw SmoginCairo Ingeneral,therearetwotypesofairqualitystandards.Thefirstclassofstandards(suchastheU.S.NationalAmbientAirQualityStandardsandE.U.AirQualityDirective[244])setmaximumatmosphericconcentrationsforspecificpollutants.Environmentalagenciesenactregulationswhichareintendedtoresultinattainmentofthesetargetlevels.Thesecondclass(suchastheNorthAmericanairqualityindex)taketheformofascalewithvariousthresholds,whichisusedtocommunicatetothepublictherelativeriskofoutdooractivity.Thescalemayormaynotdistinguishbetweendifferentpollutants. Canada[edit] InCanada,airpollutionandassociatedhealthrisksaremeasuredwiththeAirQualityHealthIndex(AQHI).[245]Itisahealthprotectiontoolusedtomakedecisionstoreduceshort-termexposuretoairpollutionbyadjustingactivitylevelsduringincreasedlevelsofairpollution. TheAQHIisafederalprogramjointlycoordinatedbyHealthCanadaandEnvironmentCanada.However,theAQHIprogramwouldnotbepossiblewithoutthecommitmentandsupportoftheprovinces,municipalitiesandNGOs.Fromairqualitymonitoringtohealthriskcommunicationandcommunityengagement,localpartnersareresponsibleforthevastmajorityofworkrelatedtoAQHIimplementation.TheAQHIprovidesanumberfrom1to10+toindicatethelevelofhealthriskassociatedwithlocalairquality.Occasionally,whentheamountofairpollutionisabnormallyhigh,thenumbermayexceed10.TheAQHIprovidesalocalairqualitycurrentvalueaswellasalocalairqualitymaximumsforecastfortoday,tonightandtomorrowandprovidesassociatedhealthadvice. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 + Risk: Low(1–3) Moderate(4–6) High(7–10) Veryhigh(above10) Asitisnowknownthatevenlowlevelsofairpollutioncantriggerdiscomfortforthesensitivepopulation,theindexhasbeendevelopedasacontinuum:Thehigherthenumber,thegreaterthehealthriskandneedtotakeprecautions.Theindexdescribesthelevelofhealthriskassociatedwiththisnumberas'low','moderate','high'or'veryhigh',andsuggestsstepsthatcanbetakentoreduceexposure.[246] Healthrisk AirQualityHealthIndex Healthmessages[247] Atriskpopulation Generalpopulation Low 1–3 Enjoyyourusualoutdooractivities. Idealairqualityforoutdooractivities Moderate 4–6 Considerreducingorreschedulingstrenuousactivitiesoutdoorsifyouareexperiencingsymptoms. Noneedtomodifyyourusualoutdooractivitiesunlessyouexperiencesymptomssuchascoughingandthroatirritation. High 7–10 Reduceorreschedulestrenuousactivitiesoutdoors.Childrenandtheelderlyshouldalsotakeiteasy. Considerreducingorreschedulingstrenuousactivitiesoutdoorsifyouexperiencesymptomssuchascoughingandthroatirritation. Veryhigh Above10 Avoidstrenuousactivitiesoutdoors.Childrenandtheelderlyshouldalsoavoidoutdoorphysicalexertionandshouldstayindoors. Reduceorreschedulestrenuousactivitiesoutdoors,especiallyifyouexperiencesymptomssuchascoughingandthroatirritation. Themeasurementisbasedontheobservedrelationshipofnitrogendioxide(NO2),ground-levelozone(O3)andparticulates(PM2.5)withmortality,fromananalysisofseveralCanadiancities.Significantly,allthreeofthesepollutantscanposehealthrisks,evenatlowlevelsofexposure,especiallyamongthosewithpre-existinghealthproblems. WhendevelopingtheAQHI,HealthCanada'soriginalanalysisofhealtheffectsincludedfivemajorairpollutants:particulates,ozone,andnitrogendioxide(NO2),aswellassulfurdioxide(SO2),andcarbonmonoxide(CO).ThelattertwopollutantsprovidedlittleinformationinpredictinghealtheffectsandwereremovedfromtheAQHIformulation. TheAQHIdoesnotmeasuretheeffectsofodour,pollen,dust,heatorhumidity. Germany[edit] TALuftistheGermanairqualityregulation.[248] Governingurbanairpollution[edit] Furtherinformation:Phase-outoffossilfuelvehicles§ Citiesandterritories InEurope,CouncilDirective96/62/EConambientairqualityassessmentandmanagementprovidesacommonstrategyagainstwhichmemberstatescan"setobjectivesforambientairqualityinordertoavoid,preventorreduceharmfuleffectsonhumanhealthandtheenvironment ...andimproveairqualitywhereitisunsatisfactory".[249] On25July2008inthecaseDieterJanecekvFreistaatBayern,theEuropeanCourtofJusticeruledthatunderthisdirective[249]citizenshavetherighttorequirenationalauthoritiestoimplementashorttermactionplanthataimstomaintainorachievecompliancetoairqualitylimitvalues.[250][251] ThisimportantcaselawappearstoconfirmtheroleoftheECascentralisedregulatortoEuropeannation-statesasregardsairpollutioncontrol.ItplacesasupranationallegalobligationontheUKtoprotectitscitizensfromdangerouslevelsofairpollution,furthermoresupersedingnationalinterestswiththoseofthecitizen. In2010,theEuropeanCommission(EC)threatenedtheUKwithlegalactionagainstthesuccessivebreachingofPM10limitvalues.[252]TheUKgovernmenthasidentifiedthatiffinesareimposed,theycouldcostthenationupwardsof£300millionperyear.[253] InMarch2011,theGreaterLondonBuilt-upArearemainedtheonlyUKregioninbreachoftheEC'slimitvalues,andwasgiventhreemonthstoimplementanemergencyactionplanaimedatmeetingtheEUAirQualityDirective.[254]TheCityofLondonhasdangerouslevelsofPM10concentrations,estimatedtocause3000deathsperyearwithinthecity.[255]AswellasthethreatofEUfines,in2010itwasthreatenedwithlegalactionforscrappingthewesterncongestionchargezone,whichisclaimedtohaveledtoanincreaseinairpollutionlevels.[256] Inresponsetothesecharges,BorisJohnson,MayorofLondon,hascriticisedthecurrentneedforEuropeancitiestocommunicatewithEuropethroughtheirnationstate'scentralgovernment,arguingthatinfuture"AgreatcitylikeLondon"shouldbepermittedtobypassitsgovernmentanddealdirectlywiththeEuropeanCommissionregardingitsairqualityactionplan.[254] Thiscanbeinterpretedasrecognitionthatcitiescantranscendthetraditionalnationalgovernmentorganisationalhierarchyanddevelopsolutionstoairpollutionusingglobalgovernancenetworks,forexamplethroughtransnationalrelations.Transnationalrelationsincludebutarenotexclusivetonationalgovernmentsandintergovernmentalorganisations,[257]allowingsub-nationalactorsincludingcitiesandregionstopartakeinairpollutioncontrolasindependentactors. Globalcitypartnershipscanbebuiltintonetworks,forexampletheC40CitiesClimateLeadershipGroup,ofwhichLondonisamember.TheC40isapublic'non-state'networkoftheworld'sleadingcitiesthataimstocurbtheirgreenhouseemissions.[258]TheC40hasbeenidentifiedas'governancefromthemiddle'andisanalternativetointergovernmentalpolicy.[259]Ithasthepotentialtoimproveurbanairqualityasparticipatingcities"exchangeinformation,learnfrombestpracticesandconsequentlymitigatecarbondioxideemissionsindependentlyfromnationalgovernmentdecisions".[258]AcriticismoftheC40networkisthatitsexclusivenaturelimitsinfluencetoparticipatingcitiesandrisksdrawingresourcesawayfromlesspowerfulcityandregionalactors. Hotspots[edit] Mainarticle:Toxichotspot Airpollutionhotspotsareareaswhereairpollutionemissionsexposeindividualstoincreasednegativehealtheffects.[260]Theyareparticularlycommoninhighlypopulated,urbanareas,wheretheremaybeacombinationofstationarysources(e.g.industrialfacilities)andmobilesources(e.g.carsandtrucks)ofpollution.Emissionsfromthesesourcescancauserespiratorydisease,childhoodasthma,[116]cancer,andotherhealthproblems.Fineparticulatemattersuchasdieselsoot,whichcontributestomorethan3.2millionprematuredeathsaroundtheworldeachyear,isasignificantproblem.Itisverysmallandcanlodgeitselfwithinthelungsandenterthebloodstream.Dieselsootisconcentratedindenselypopulatedareas,andoneinsixpeopleintheU.S.livenearadieselpollutionhotspot.[261] ExternalvideoAirVisualEarth–realtimemapofglobalwindandairpollution[262] Whileairpollutionhotspotsaffectavarietyofpopulations,somegroupsaremorelikelytobelocatedinhotspots.Previousstudieshaveshowndisparitiesinexposuretopollutionbyraceand/orincome.Hazardouslanduses(toxicstorageanddisposalfacilities,manufacturingfacilities,majorroadways)tendtobelocatedwherepropertyvaluesandincomelevelsarelow.Lowsocioeconomicstatuscanbeaproxyforotherkindsofsocialvulnerability,includingrace,alackofabilitytoinfluenceregulationandalackofabilitytomovetoneighborhoodswithlessenvironmentalpollution.Thesecommunitiesbearadisproportionateburdenofenvironmentalpollutionandaremorelikelytofacehealthriskssuchascancerorasthma.[263] Studiesshowthatpatternsinraceandincomedisparitiesnotonlyindicateahigherexposuretopollutionbutalsohigherriskofadversehealthoutcomes.[264]Communitiescharacterizedbylowsocioeconomicstatusandracialminoritiescanbemorevulnerabletocumulativeadversehealthimpactsresultingfromelevatedexposuretopollutantsthanmoreprivilegedcommunities.[264]BlacksandLatinosgenerallyfacemorepollutionthanwhitesandAsians,andlow-incomecommunitiesbearahigherburdenofriskthanaffluentones.[263]RacialdiscrepanciesareparticularlydistinctinsuburbanareasoftheSouthernUnitedStatesandmetropolitanareasoftheMidwesternandWesternUnitedStates.[265]Residentsinpublichousing,whoaregenerallylow-incomeandcannotmovetohealthierneighborhoods,arehighlyaffectedbynearbyrefineriesandchemicalplants.[266] Cities[edit] Seealso:Listofmostpollutedcitiesintheworldbyparticulatematterconcentration Nitrogendioxideconcentrationsasmeasuredfromsatellite2002–2004 Airpollutionisusuallyconcentratedindenselypopulatedmetropolitanareas,especiallyindevelopingcountrieswherecitiesareexperiencingrapidgrowthandenvironmentalregulationsarerelativelylaxornonexistent.Urbanizationleadstoarapidriseinprematuremortalityduetoanthropogenicairpollutioninfast-growingtropicalcities.[267]However,evenpopulatedareasindevelopedcountriesattainunhealthylevelsofpollution,withLosAngelesandRomebeingtwoexamples.[268]Between2002and2011theincidenceoflungcancerinBeijingneardoubled.WhilesmokingremainstheleadingcauseoflungcancerinChina,thenumberofsmokersisfallingwhilelungcancerratesarerising.[269] [270] World'sMostPollutedCities2020 2020Average 2019Average Hotan,China 110.2 110.1 Ghaziabad,India 106.6 110.2 Bulandshahr,India 98.4 89.4 BisrakhJalalpur,India 96.0 - Bhiwadi,India 95.5 83.4 TehranwasdeclaredthemostpollutedcityintheworldonMay24,2022.[271] Projections[edit] Accordingtoaprojection,by2030halfoftheworld'spollutionemissionscouldbegeneratedbyAfrica.[272]Potentialcontributorstosuchanoutcomeincludeincreasedburningactivities(suchastheburningofopenwaste),traffic,agri-foodandchemicalindustries,sanddustfromtheSahara,andoverallpopulationgrowth. AccordingtoOECD,by2050outdoorairpollution(particulatematterandground-levelozone)isprojectedtobecomethetopcauseofenvironmentallyrelateddeathsworldwide.[273] Seealso[edit] Globalwarmingportal Airpollutantconcentrations Airpollutionmeasurement Airstagnation ASEANAgreementonTransboundaryHazePollution Asianbrowncloud Atmosphericchemistry Beehiveburner BenMAP BestAvailableControlTechnology Criticalload Emissionstandard Emissions&GenerationResourceIntegratedDatabase Environmentalagreement Environmentalracism Flue-gasemissionsfromfossil-fuelcombustion GlobalAtmosphereWatch Globaldimming GreatSmogofLondon Haze HealthEffectsInstitute(HEI) Indicatorvalue Intakefraction InternationalAgencyforResearchonCancer InternationalDayofCleanAirforBlueSkies KyotoProtocol Lightwaterreactorsustainability Listofsmogsbydeathtoll LowestAchievableEmissionsRate NASACleanAirStudy Non-exhaustemissions Organicmoleculartracers Particulatemattersampler Polluterpaysprinciple RegulationofgreenhousegasesundertheCleanAirAct 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^Pettit,David(14December2014)."GlobalTollofAirPollution:Over3MillionDeathsEachYear".SwitchboardNRDC.Archivedfromtheoriginalon8May2014. ^WatchairpollutionflowacrosstheplanetinrealtimeScienceMagazineNews,28November2016. ^abDrury,Richard;Belliveau,Michael;Kuhn,JScott;Shipra,Bansal(Spring1999)."PollutionTradingandEnvironmentalJustice:LosAngeles'FailedExperimentinAirPollutionPolicy".DukeEnvironmentalLaw&PolicyForum.9(231). ^abMorello-Frosch,Rachel;Zuk,Miriam;Jerrett,Michael;Shamasunder,Bhavna;Kyle,AmyD.(2011)."UnderstandingtheCumulativeImpactsofInequalitiesinEnvironmentalHealth:ImplicationsforPolicy".HealthAffairs.30(5):879–87.doi:10.1377/hlthaff.2011.0153.PMID 21555471. ^Mohai,P;Lantz,PM;Morenoff,J;House,JS;Mero,RP(2009)."RacialandSocioeocnomicDisparitiesinResidentialProximity".AmericanJournalofPublicHealth.99(3):S649–56.doi:10.2105/ajph.2007.131383.PMC 2774179.PMID 19890171. ^Lerner,Steve(2010)."SacrificeZones:TheFrontLinesofToxicChemicalExposureintheUnitedStates".PortArthur,Texas:PublicHousingResidentsBreatheContaminatedAirfromNearbyRefineriesandChemicalPlants.MITPress. ^Vohra,Karn;Marais,EloiseA.;Bloss,WilliamJ.;Schwartz,Joel;Mickley,LorettaJ.;VanDamme,Martin;Clarisse,Lieven;Coheur,Pierre-F.(8April2022)."Rapidriseinprematuremortalityduetoanthropogenicairpollutioninfast-growingtropicalcitiesfrom2005to2018".ScienceAdvances.8(14):eabm4435.Bibcode:2022SciA....8M4435V.doi:10.1126/sciadv.abm4435.ISSN 2375-2548.PMC 8993110.PMID 35394832. ^Michelozzi,P.;Forastiere,F.;Fusco,D.;Perucci,C.A.;Ostro,B.;Ancona,C.;Pallotti,G.(1998)."AirPollutionandDailyMortalityinRome,Italy".OccupationalandEnvironmentalMedicine.55(9):605–10.doi:10.1136/oem.55.9.605.JSTOR 27730990.PMC 1757645.PMID 9861182. ^TheDailyTelegraph8January2014'Airpollutionkillingupto500,000Chineseeachyear,admitsformerhealthminister'. ^"World'sMostPollutedCitiesin2020-PM2.5Ranking|AirVisual".www.iqair.com.Retrieved1February2022. ^"WorldAirQualityIndex(AQI)Ranking|IQAir".www.iqair.com.Retrieved24May2022. ^MariamaDarame(29November2019)."EnAfriquedel'Ouest,unepollutionmortellemaisd'ampleurinconnue".LeMonde(inFrench). ^OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment(1March2012)."ENVIRONMENTALOUTLOOKTO2050-OECD"(PDF).OECD. Furtherreading[edit] LibraryresourcesaboutAirpollution Resourcesinyourlibrary Resourcesinotherlibraries Brimblecombe,Peter.TheBigSmoke:AHistoryofAirPollutioninLondonSinceMedievalTimes(Methuen,1987) Brimblecombe,Peter."Historyofairpollution."inComposition,ChemistryandClimateoftheAtmosphere(VanNostrandReinhold(1995):1–18 Brimblecombe,Peter;Makra,László(2005)."Selectionsfromthehistoryofenvironmentalpollution,withspecialattentiontoairpollution.Part2*:Frommedievaltimestothe19thcentury".InternationalJournalofEnvironmentandPollution.23(4):351–67.doi:10.1504/ijep.2005.007599. Cherni,JudithA.EconomicGrowthversustheEnvironment:ThePoliticsofWealth,HealthandAirPollution(2002)online Corton,ChristineL.LondonFog:TheBiography(2015) Currie,Donya."WHO:AirPollutionaContinuingHealthThreatinWorld'sCities,"TheNation'sHealth(February2012)42#1online Dewey,ScottHamilton.Don'tBreathetheAir:AirPollutionandUSEnvironmentalPolitics,1945–1970(TexasA&MUniversityPress,2000) Gonzalez,GeorgeA.Thepoliticsofairpollution:Urbangrowth,ecologicalmodernization,andsymbolicinclusion(SUNYPress,2012) Grinder,RobertDale(1978)."FromInsurgencytoEfficiency:TheSmokeAbatementCampaigninPittsburghbeforeWorldWarI.".WesternPennsylvaniaHistoricalMagazine.61(3):187–202. Grinder,RobertDale."TheBattleforCleanAir:TheSmokeProbleminPost-CivilWarAmerica"inMartinV.Melosi,ed.,Pollution&ReforminAmericanCities,1870–1930(1980),pp. 83–103. Mingle,Jonathan,"OurLethalAir"[reviewofGaryFuller,TheInvisibleKiller...;BethGardiner,Choked...;TimSmedley,ClearingtheAir...;U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency,IntegratedScienceAssessmentforParticulateMatter(ExternalReviewDraft,2018);andCharteredCleanAirScientificAdvisoryCommittee,LettertoEPAAdministratorontheEPA'sIntegratedScienceAssessmentforParticulateMatter,11April2019],TheNewYorkReviewofBooks,vol.LXVI,no.14(26September2019),pp. 64–66,68."Today,91percentofpeopleworldwideliveinareaswhereairpollutionlevelsexceedtheWorldHealthOrganization'srecommendedlimits. ...[T]hereisnosafelevelofexposuretofineparticulatematter. ...Mostofthesefineparticlesareaby-productof ...burning ...coal,gasoline,diesel,wood,trash ...Theseparticlescangetpastthedefensesofourupperairwaystopenetratedeepintoourlungsandreachthealveoli ...Fromthere,theycrossintothebloodstreamandspreadthroughoutthebody.Theycantravelthroughthenose,uptheolfactorynerve,andlodge ...inthebrain.Theycanformdepositsontheliningofarteries,constrictingbloodvesselsandraisingthelikelihoodof ...strokesandheartattacks.[T]heyexacerbaterespiratoryillnesseslikeasthmaandchronicobstructivepulmonarydisease ...There's ...evidencelinkingairpollutionexposuretoanincreasedriskofAlzheimer'sandotherformsofdementia."(p. 64.) Mosley,Stephen.Thechimneyoftheworld:ahistoryofsmokepollutioninVictorianandEdwardianManchester.Routledge,2013. Schreurs,MirandaA.EnvironmentalPoliticsinJapan,Germany,andtheUnitedStates(CambridgeUniversityPress,2002)online Thorsheim,Peter.InventingPollution:Coal,Smoke,andCultureinBritainsince1800(2009) Externallinks[edit] WikimediaCommonshasmediarelatedtoAirpollution. WikivoyagehastravelinformationforAirpollution. AirPollution:EverythingYouNeedtoKnowGuidebytheNaturalResourcesDefenseCouncil(NRDC) Globalreal-timeairqualityindexmap AirQualityIndex(AQI)Basics AQICalculatorAQItoConcentrationandConcentrationtoAQIforfivepollutants InternationalConferenceonUrbanAirQualityArchived16December2008attheWaybackMachine. UNEPUrbanenvironmentalplanning EuropeanCommission>Environment>Air>AirQuality Database:outdoorairpollutionincitiesfromtheWorldHealthOrganization WorldHealthOrganizationFactSheetonAirqualityandhealth CentreforResearchonEnergyandCleanAir TheMortalityEffectsofLong-TermExposuretoParticulateAirPollutionintheUnitedKingdom,UKCommitteeontheMedicalEffectsofAirPollution,2010. 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