Ethics - Wikipedia

It can refer to philosophical ethics or moral philosophy—a project that attempts to use reason to answer various kinds of ethical questions. Ethics FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Branchofphilosophyconcerningrightandwrongconduct Forotheruses,seeEthics(disambiguation). PartofaseriesonPhilosophyPlatoKantNietzscheBuddhaConfuciusAverroes Branches Aesthetics Axiology Cosmology Epistemology Ethics Legal Linguistic Logic Mental Metaphilosophy Metaphysics Political Religious Scientific Social Periods Ancient Medieval Modern Contemporary Traditions Analytic Neopositivism Ordinarylanguage Aristotelian Buddhist Abhidharma Madhyamaka Pramāṇavāda Yogacara Cārvāka Christian Augustinian Humanist Scotist Thomist Occamist Confucian Neo-Confucianism NewConfucianism Continental Existentialism Phenomenology Hegelian Hindu Mīmāṃsā Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika Sāṃkhya Yoga Vedanta KashmirShaivism Navya-Nyāya Neo-Vedanta Integralyoga Islamic Ash'arism EarlyIslamic Averroist Avicennist Illuminationist Ismāʿīlism Sufi Jain Jewish Judeo-Islamic Kantian Legalism Platonist Neoplatonist Pragmatism Skepticism Taoistphilosophy Traditionsbyregion African Eastern Chinese Indian Middle-Eastern Egyptian Iranian Western Literature Aesthetics Epistemology Ethics Logic Metaphysics Politicalphilosophy Philosophers Aestheticians Epistemologists Ethicists Logicians Metaphysicians Socialandpoliticalphilosophers Womeninphilosophy Lists Index Outline Years Problems Publications Theories Glossary Philosophers  Philosophyportalvte Ethicsormoralphilosophyisabranch[1]ofphilosophythat"involvessystematizing,defending,andrecommendingconceptsofrightandwrongbehavior".[2]Thefieldofethics,alongwithaesthetics,concernsmattersofvalue;thesefieldscomprisethebranchofphilosophycalledaxiology.[3] Ethicsseekstoresolvequestionsofhumanmoralitybydefiningconceptssuchasgoodandevil,rightandwrong,virtueandvice,justiceandcrime.[4]Asafieldofintellectualinquiry,moralphilosophyisrelatedtothefieldsofmoralpsychology,descriptiveethics,andvaluetheory. Threemajorareasofstudywithinethicsrecognizedtodayare:[2] Meta-ethics,concerningthetheoreticalmeaningandreferenceofmoralpropositions,andhowtheirtruthvalues(ifany)canbedetermined; Normativeethics,concerningthepracticalmeansofdeterminingamoralcourseofaction; Appliedethics,concerningwhatapersonisobligated(orpermitted)todoinaspecificsituationoraparticulardomainofaction.[2] Contents 1History 2Definingethics 3Meta-ethics 3.1Moralskepticism 4Normativeethics 4.1Virtueethics 4.1.1Stoicism 4.1.2Contemporaryvirtueethics 4.2Intuitiveethics 4.3Hedonism 4.3.1Cyrenaichedonism 4.3.2Epicureanism 4.4Stateconsequentialism 4.5Consequentialism 4.5.1Utilitarianism 4.6Deontology 4.6.1Kantianism 4.6.2Divinecommandtheory 4.6.3Discourseethics 4.7Pragmaticethics 4.8Ethicsofcare 4.9Roleethics 4.10Anarchistethics 4.11Postmodernethics 5Appliedethics 5.1Specificquestions 5.2Particularfieldsofapplication 5.2.1Bioethics 5.2.2Businessethics 5.2.3Machineethics 5.2.4Militaryethics 5.2.5Politicalethics 5.2.6Publicsectorethics 5.2.7Publicationethics 5.2.8Relationalethics 5.2.9Ethicsofnanotechnologies 5.2.10Ethicsofquantification 5.2.11Animalethics 5.2.12Ethicsoftechnology 6Moralpsychology 6.1Evolutionaryethics 7Descriptiveethics 8Seealso 9Notes 10References 11Furtherreading 12Externallinks History[edit] Mainarticle:Historyofethics Thissectionneedsexpansion.Youcanhelpbyaddingtoit.(December2021) Definingethics[edit] TheEnglishwordethicsisderivedfromtheAncientGreekwordēthikós(ἠθικός),meaning"relatingtoone'scharacter",whichitselfcomesfromtherootwordêthos(ἦθος)meaning"character,moralnature".[5]ThiswordwastransferredintoLatinasethicaandthenintoFrenchaséthique,fromwhichitwastransferredintoEnglish. RushworthKidderstatesthat"standarddefinitionsofethicshavetypicallyincludedsuchphrasesas'thescienceoftheidealhumancharacter'or'thescienceofmoralduty'".[6]RichardWilliamPaulandLindaElderdefineethicsas"asetofconceptsandprinciplesthatguideusindeterminingwhatbehaviorhelpsorharmssentientcreatures".[7]TheCambridgeDictionaryofPhilosophystatesthattheword"ethics"is"commonlyusedinterchangeablywith'morality' ...andsometimesitisusedmorenarrowlytomeanthemoralprinciplesofaparticulartradition,grouporindividual."[8]PaulandElderstatethatmostpeopleconfuseethicswithbehavinginaccordancewithsocialconventions,religiousbeliefs,thelaw,anddonottreatethicsasastand-aloneconcept.[9] ThewordethicsinEnglishreferstoseveralthings.[10]Itcanrefertophilosophicalethicsormoralphilosophy—aprojectthatattemptstousereasontoanswervariouskindsofethicalquestions.AstheEnglishmoralphilosopherBernardWilliamswrites,attemptingtoexplainmoralphilosophy:"Whatmakesaninquiryaphilosophicaloneisreflectivegeneralityandastyleofargumentthatclaimstoberationallypersuasive."[11]Williamsdescribesthecontentofthisareaofinquiryasaddressingtheverybroadquestion,"howoneshouldlive".[12]Ethicscanalsorefertoacommonhumanabilitytothinkaboutethicalproblemsthatisnotparticulartophilosophy.AsbioethicistLarryChurchillhaswritten:"Ethics,understoodasthecapacitytothinkcriticallyaboutmoralvaluesanddirectouractionsintermsofsuchvalues,isagenerichumancapacity."[13]Ethicscanalsobeusedtodescribeaparticularperson'sownidiosyncraticprinciplesorhabits.[14]Forexample:"Joehasstrangeethics."Ethicsisanormativescience. Meta-ethics[edit] Mainarticle:Meta-ethics Meta-ethicsisthebranchofphilosophicalethicsthataskshowweunderstand,knowabout,andwhatwemeanwhenwetalkaboutwhatisrightandwhatiswrong.[15]Anethicalquestionpertainingtoaparticularpracticalsituation—suchas,"ShouldIeatthisparticularpieceofchocolatecake?"—cannotbeameta-ethicalquestion(rather,thisisanappliedethicalquestion).Ameta-ethicalquestionisabstractandrelatestoawiderangeofmorespecificpracticalquestions.Forexample,"Isiteverpossibletohaveasecureknowledgeofwhatisrightandwrong?"isameta-ethicalquestion. Meta-ethicshasalwaysaccompaniedphilosophicalethics.Forexample,Aristotleimpliesthatlesspreciseknowledgeispossibleinethicsthaninotherspheresofinquiry,andheregardsethicalknowledgeasdependinguponhabitandacculturationinawaythatmakesitdistinctivefromotherkindsofknowledge.Meta-ethicsisalsoimportantinG.E.Moore'sPrincipiaEthicafrom1903.Inithefirstwroteaboutwhathecalledthenaturalisticfallacy.Moorewasseentorejectnaturalisminethics,inhisopen-questionargument.Thismadethinkerslookagainatsecondorderquestionsaboutethics.Earlier,theScottishphilosopherDavidHumehadputforwardasimilarviewonthedifferencebetweenfactsandvalues. Studiesofhowweknowinethicsdivideintocognitivismandnon-cognitivism;these,respectively,takedescriptiveandnon-descriptiveapproachestomoralgoodnessorvalue.Non-cognitivismistheviewthatwhenwejudgesomethingasmorallyrightorwrong,thisisneithertruenorfalse.Wemay,forexample,beonlyexpressingouremotionalfeelingsaboutthesethings.[16]Cognitivismcanthenbeseenastheclaimthatwhenwetalkaboutrightandwrong,wearetalkingaboutmattersoffact. Theontologyofethicsisaboutvalue-bearingthingsorproperties,thatis,thekindofthingsorstuffreferredtobyethicalpropositions.Non-descriptivistsandnon-cognitivistsbelievethatethicsdoesnotneedaspecificontologysinceethicalpropositionsdonotrefer.Thisisknownasananti-realistposition.Realists,ontheotherhand,mustexplainwhatkindofentities,propertiesorstatesarerelevantforethics,howtheyhavevalue,andwhytheyguideandmotivateouractions.[17] Moralskepticism[edit] Mainarticle:Moralskepticism Moralskepticism(ormoralscepticism)isaclassofmetaethicaltheoriesinwhichallmembersentailthatnoonehasanymoralknowledge.Manymoralskepticsalsomakethestronger,modalclaimthatmoralknowledgeisimpossible.Moralskepticismisparticularlyagainstmoralrealismwhichholdstheviewthatthereareknowableandobjectivemoraltruths. SomeproponentsofmoralskepticismincludePyrrho,Aenesidemus,SextusEmpiricus,DavidHume,MaxStirner,FriedrichNietzsche,andJ.L.Mackie. Moralskepticismisdividedintothreesub-classes: Moralerrortheory(ormoralnihilism). Epistemologicalmoralskepticism. Non-cognitivism.[18] Allofthesethreetheoriessharethesameconclusions,whichareasfollows: (a)weareneverjustifiedinbelievingthatmoralclaims(claimsoftheform"stateofaffairsxisgood,""actionyismorallyobligatory,"etc.)aretrueand,evenmoreso (b)weneverknowthatanymoralclaimistrue. However,eachmethodarrivesat(a)and(b)bydifferentroutes. Moralerrortheoryholdsthatwedonotknowthatanymoralclaimistruebecause (i)allmoralclaimsarefalse, (ii)wehavereasontobelievethatallmoralclaimsarefalse,and (iii)sincewearenotjustifiedinbelievinganyclaimwehavereasontodeny,wearenotjustifiedinbelievinganymoralclaims. Epistemologicalmoralskepticismisasubclassoftheory,themembersofwhichincludePyrrhonianmoralskepticismanddogmaticmoralskepticism.Allmembersofepistemologicalmoralskepticismsharetwothings:first,theyacknowledgethatweareunjustifiedinbelievinganymoralclaim,andsecond,theyareagnosticonwhether(i)istrue(i.e.onwhetherallmoralclaimsarefalse). Pyrrhonianmoralskepticismholdsthatthereasonweareunjustifiedinbelievinganymoralclaimisthatitisirrationalforustobelieveeitherthatanymoralclaimistrueorthatanymoralclaimisfalse.Thus,inadditiontobeingagnosticonwhether(i)istrue,Pyrrhonianmoralskepticismdenies(ii). Dogmaticmoralskepticism,ontheotherhand,affirms(ii)andcites(ii)'struthasthereasonweareunjustifiedinbelievinganymoralclaim. Noncognitivismholdsthatwecanneverknowthatanymoralclaimistruebecausemoralclaimsareincapableofbeingtrueorfalse(theyarenottruth-apt).Instead,moralclaimsareimperatives(e.g."Don'tstealbabies!"),expressionsofemotion(e.g."stealingbabies:Boo!"),orexpressionsof"pro-attitudes"("Idonotbelievethatbabiesshouldbestolen.") Normativeethics[edit] Mainarticle:Normativeethics Normativeethicsisthestudyofethicalaction.Itisthebranchofethicsthatinvestigatesthesetofquestionsthatarisewhenconsideringhowoneoughttoact,morallyspeaking.Normativeethicsisdistinctfrommeta-ethicsbecausenormativeethicsexaminesstandardsfortherightnessandwrongnessofactions,whilemeta-ethicsstudiesthemeaningofmorallanguageandthemetaphysicsofmoralfacts.[15]Normativeethicsisalsodistinctfromdescriptiveethics,asthelatterisanempiricalinvestigationofpeople'smoralbeliefs.Toputitanotherway,descriptiveethicswouldbeconcernedwithdeterminingwhatproportionofpeoplebelievethatkillingisalwayswrong,whilenormativeethicsisconcernedwithwhetheritiscorrecttoholdsuchabelief.Hence,normativeethicsissometimescalledprescriptiveratherthandescriptive.However,oncertainversionsofthemeta-ethicalviewcalledmoralrealism,moralfactsarebothdescriptiveandprescriptiveatthesametime.[19] Traditionally,normativeethics(alsoknownasmoraltheory)wasthestudyofwhatmakesactionsrightandwrong.Thesetheoriesofferedanoverarchingmoralprincipleonecouldappealtoinresolvingdifficultmoraldecisions. Attheturnofthe20thcentury,moraltheoriesbecamemorecomplexandwerenolongerconcernedsolelywithrightnessandwrongness,butwereinterestedinmanydifferentkindsofmoralstatus.Duringthemiddleofthecentury,thestudyofnormativeethicsdeclinedasmeta-ethicsgrewinprominence.Thisfocusonmeta-ethicswasinpartcausedbyanintenselinguisticfocusinanalyticphilosophyandbythepopularityoflogicalpositivism. Virtueethics[edit] Mainarticle:Virtueethics Socrates Virtueethicsdescribesthecharacterofamoralagentasadrivingforceforethicalbehavior,anditisusedtodescribetheethicsofearlyGreekphilosopherssuchasSocratesandAristotle,andancientIndianphilosopherssuchasValluvar.Socrates(469–399BC)wasoneofthefirstGreekphilosopherstoencouragebothscholarsandthecommoncitizentoturntheirattentionfromtheoutsideworldtotheconditionofhumankind.Inthisview,knowledgebearingonhumanlifewasplacedhighest,whileallotherknowledgewassecondary.Self-knowledgewasconsiderednecessaryforsuccessandinherentlyanessentialgood.Aself-awarepersonwillactcompletelywithinhiscapabilitiestohispinnacle,whileanignorantpersonwillflounderandencounterdifficulty.ToSocrates,apersonmustbecomeawareofeveryfact(anditscontext)relevanttohisexistence,ifhewishestoattainself-knowledge.Hepositedthatpeoplewillnaturallydowhatisgoodiftheyknowwhatisright.Evilorbadactionsaretheresultsofignorance.Ifacriminalwastrulyawareoftheintellectualandspiritualconsequencesofhisorheractions,heorshewouldneithercommitnorevenconsidercommittingthoseactions.Anypersonwhoknowswhatistrulyrightwillautomaticallydoit,accordingtoSocrates.Whilehecorrelatedknowledgewithvirtue,hesimilarlyequatedvirtuewithjoy.Thetrulywisemanwillknowwhatisright,dowhatisgood,andthereforebehappy.[20]: 32–33  Aristotle(384–323 BC)positedanethicalsystemthatmaybetermed"virtuous".InAristotle'sview,whenapersonactsinaccordancewithvirtuethispersonwilldogoodandbecontent.Unhappinessandfrustrationarecausedbydoingwrong,leadingtofailedgoalsandapoorlife.Therefore,itisimperativeforpeopletoactinaccordancewithvirtue,whichisonlyattainablebythepracticeofthevirtuesinordertobecontentandcomplete.Happinesswasheldtobetheultimategoal.Allotherthings,suchasciviclifeorwealth,wereonlymadeworthwhileandofbenefitwhenemployedinthepracticeofthevirtues.Thepracticeofthevirtuesisthesurestpathtohappiness.Aristotleassertedthatthesoulofmanhadthreenatures[citationneeded]:body(physical/metabolism),animal(emotional/appetite),andrational(mental/conceptual).Physicalnaturecanbeassuagedthroughexerciseandcare;emotionalnaturethroughindulgenceofinstinctandurges;andmentalnaturethroughhumanreasonanddevelopedpotential.Rationaldevelopmentwasconsideredthemostimportant,asessentialtophilosophicalself-awareness,andasuniquelyhuman.Moderationwasencouraged,withtheextremesseenasdegradedandimmoral.Forexample,courageisthemoderatevirtuebetweentheextremesofcowardiceandrecklessness.Manshouldnotsimplylive,butlivewellwithconductgovernedbyvirtue.Thisisregardedasdifficult,asvirtuedenotesdoingtherightthing,intherightway,attherighttime,fortherightreason. Valluvar(before5thcenturyCE)keepsvirtue,oraṟam(dharma)ashecallsit,asthecornerstonethroughoutthewritingoftheKuralliterature.[21]Whilereligiousscripturesgenerallyconsideraṟamasdivineinnature,Valluvardescribesitasawayofliferatherthananyspiritualobservance,awayofharmoniouslivingthatleadstouniversalhappiness.[22]Contrarytowhatothercontemporaryworkssay,Valluvarholdsthataṟamiscommonforall,irrespectiveofwhetherthepersonisabearerofpalanquinortheriderinit.Valluvarconsideredjusticeasafacetofaṟam.WhileancientGreekphilosopherssuchasPlato,Aristotle,andtheirdescendantsopinedthatjusticecannotbedefinedandthatitwasadivinemystery,Valluvarpositivelysuggestedthatadivineoriginisnotrequiredtodefinetheconceptofjustice.InthewordsofV.R.Nedunchezhiyan,justiceaccordingtoValluvar"dwellsinthemindsofthosewhohaveknowledgeofthestandardofrightandwrong;sotoodeceitdwellsinthemindswhichbreedfraud."[22] Stoicism[edit] Mainarticle:Stoicism Epictetus TheStoicphilosopherEpictetuspositedthatthegreatestgoodwascontentmentandserenity.Peaceofmind,orapatheia,wasofthehighestvalue;self-masteryoverone'sdesiresandemotionsleadstospiritualpeace.The"unconquerablewill"iscentraltothisphilosophy.Theindividual'swillshouldbeindependentandinviolate.Allowingapersontodisturbthementalequilibriumis,inessence,offeringyourselfinslavery.Ifapersonisfreetoangeryouatwill,youhavenocontroloveryourinternalworld,andthereforenofreedom.Freedomfrommaterialattachmentsisalsonecessary.Ifathingbreaks,thepersonshouldnotbeupset,butrealizeitwasathingthatcouldbreak.Similarly,ifsomeoneshoulddie,thoseclosetothemshouldholdtotheirserenitybecausethelovedonewasmadeoffleshandblooddestinedtodeath.Stoicphilosophysaystoacceptthingsthatcannotbechanged,resigningoneselftotheexistenceandenduringinarationalfashion.Deathisnotfeared.Peopledonot"lose"theirlife,butinstead"return",fortheyarereturningtoGod(whoinitiallygavewhatthepersonisasaperson).Epictetussaiddifficultproblemsinlifeshouldnotbeavoided,butratherembraced.Theyarespiritualexercisesneededforthehealthofthespirit,justasphysicalexerciseisrequiredforthehealthofthebody.Healsostatedthatsexandsexualdesirearetobeavoidedasthegreatestthreattotheintegrityandequilibriumofaman'smind.Abstinenceishighlydesirable.Epictetussaidremainingabstinentinthefaceoftemptationwasavictoryforwhichamancouldbeproud.[20]: 38–41  Contemporaryvirtueethics[edit] Modernvirtueethicswaspopularizedduringthelate20thcenturyinlargepartduetoarevivalofAristotelianism,andasaresponsetoG.E.M.Anscombe's"ModernMoralPhilosophy".Anscombearguesthatconsequentialistanddeontologicalethicsareonlyfeasibleasuniversaltheoriesifthetwoschoolsgroundthemselvesindivinelaw.AsadeeplydevotedChristianherself,Anscombeproposedthateitherthosewhodonotgiveethicalcredencetonotionsofdivinelawtakeupvirtueethics,whichdoesnotnecessitateuniversallawsasagentsthemselvesareinvestigatedforvirtueorviceandheldupto"universalstandards",orthatthosewhowishtobeutilitarianorconsequentialistgroundtheirtheoriesinreligiousconviction.[23]AlasdairMacIntyre,whowrotethebookAfterVirtue,wasakeycontributorandproponentofmodernvirtueethics,althoughsomeclaimthatMacIntyresupportsarelativisticaccountofvirtuebasedonculturalnorms,notobjectivestandards.[23]MarthaNussbaum,acontemporaryvirtueethicist,objectstoMacIntyre'srelativism,amongthatofothers,andrespondstorelativistobjectionstoformanobjectiveaccountinherwork"Non-RelativeVirtues:AnAristotelianApproach".[24]However,Nussbaum'saccusationofrelativismappearstobeamisreading.InWhoseJustice,WhoseRationality?,MacIntyre'sambitionoftakingarationalpathbeyondrelativismwasquiteclearwhenhestated"rivalclaimsmadebydifferenttraditions[…]aretobeevaluated[…]withoutrelativism"(p. 354)becauseindeed"rationaldebatebetweenandrationalchoiceamongrivaltraditionsispossible”(p. 352).CompleteConductPrinciplesforthe21stCentury[25]blendedtheEasternvirtueethicsandtheWesternvirtueethics,withsomemodificationstosuitthe21stCentury,andformedapartofcontemporaryvirtueethics.[25] MortimerJ.AdlerdescribedAristotle'sNicomacheanEthicsasa"uniquebookintheWesterntraditionofmoralphilosophy,theonlyethicsthatissound,practical,andundogmatic."[26] OnemajortrendincontemporaryvirtueethicsistheModernStoicismmovement. Intuitiveethics[edit] Mainarticle:Ethicalintuitionism Ethicalintuitionism(alsocalledmoralintuitionism)isafamilyofviewsinmoralepistemology(and,onsomedefinitions,metaphysics).Atminimum,ethicalintuitionismisthethesisthatourintuitiveawarenessofvalue,orintuitiveknowledgeofevaluativefacts,formsthefoundationofourethicalknowledge. Theviewisatitscoreafoundationalismaboutmoralknowledge:itistheviewthatsomemoraltruthscanbeknownnon-inferentially(i.e.,knownwithoutoneneedingtoinferthemfromothertruthsonebelieves).Suchanepistemologicalviewimpliesthattherearemoralbeliefswithpropositionalcontents;soitimpliescognitivism.Assuch,ethicalintuitionismistobecontrastedwithcoherentistapproachestomoralepistemology,suchasthosethatdependonreflectiveequilibrium.[27] Throughoutthephilosophicalliterature,theterm"ethicalintuitionism"isfrequentlyusedwithsignificantvariationinitssense.Thisarticle'sfocusonfoundationalismreflectsthecorecommitmentsofcontemporaryself-identifiedethicalintuitionists.[27][28] Sufficientlybroadlydefined,ethicalintuitionismcanbetakentoencompasscognitivistformsofmoralsensetheory.[29]Itisusuallyfurthermoretakenasessentialtoethicalintuitionismthattherebeself-evidentorapriorimoralknowledge;thiscountsagainstconsideringmoralsensetheorytobeaspeciesofintuitionism.(seetheRationalintuitionversusmoralsensesectionofthisarticleforfurtherdiscussion). EthicalintuitionismwasfirstclearlyshowninusebythephilosopherFrancisHutcheson.LaterethicalintuitionistsofinfluenceandnoteincludeHenrySidgwick,G.E.Moore,HaroldArthurPrichard,C.S.Lewisand,mostinfluentially,RobertAudi. Objectionstoethicalintuitionismincludewhetherornotthereareobjectivemoralvalues-anassumptionwhichtheethicalsystemisbasedupon-thequestionofwhymanydisagreeoverethicsiftheyareabsolute,andwhetherOccam'srazorcancelssuchatheoryoutentirely. Hedonism[edit] Mainarticle:Hedonism Hedonismpositsthattheprincipalethicismaximizingpleasureandminimizingpain.ThereareseveralschoolsofHedonistthoughtrangingfromthoseadvocatingtheindulgenceofevenmomentarydesirestothoseteachingapursuitofspiritualbliss.Intheirconsiderationofconsequences,theyrangefromthoseadvocatingself-gratificationregardlessofthepainandexpensetoothers,tothosestatingthatthemostethicalpursuitmaximizespleasureandhappinessforthemostpeople.[20]: 37  Cyrenaichedonism[edit] FoundedbyAristippusofCyrene,Cyrenaicssupportedimmediategratificationorpleasure."Eat,drinkandbemerry,fortomorrowwedie."Evenfleetingdesiresshouldbeindulged,forfeartheopportunityshouldbeforeverlost.Therewaslittletonoconcernwiththefuture,thepresentdominatinginthepursuitofimmediatepleasure.Cyrenaichedonismencouragedthepursuitofenjoymentandindulgencewithouthesitation,believingpleasuretobetheonlygood.[20]: 37  Epicureanism[edit] Mainarticle:Epicureanism Epicureanethicsisahedonistformofvirtueethics.Epicurus"...presentedasustainedargumentthatpleasure,correctlyunderstood,willcoincidewithvirtue."[30]HerejectedtheextremismoftheCyrenaics,believingsomepleasuresandindulgencestobedetrimentaltohumanbeings.Epicureansobservedthatindiscriminateindulgencesometimesresultedinnegativeconsequences.Someexperienceswerethereforerejectedoutofhand,andsomeunpleasantexperiencesenduredinthepresenttoensureabetterlifeinthefuture.ToEpicurus,thesummumbonum,orgreatestgood,wasprudence,exercisedthroughmoderationandcaution.Excessiveindulgencecanbedestructivetopleasureandcanevenleadtopain.Forexample,eatingonefoodtoooftenmakesapersonloseatasteforit.Eatingtoomuchfoodatonceleadstodiscomfortandill-health.Painandfearweretobeavoided.Livingwasessentiallygood,barringpainandillness.Deathwasnottobefeared.Fearwasconsideredthesourceofmostunhappiness.Conqueringthefearofdeathwouldnaturallyleadtoahappierlife.Epicurusreasonediftherewereanafterlifeandimmortality,thefearofdeathwasirrational.Iftherewasnolifeafterdeath,thenthepersonwouldnotbealivetosuffer,fear,orworry;hewouldbenon-existentindeath.Itisirrationaltofretovercircumstancesthatdonotexist,suchasone'sstateofdeathintheabsenceofanafterlife.[20]: 37–38  Stateconsequentialism[edit] Mainarticle:Stateconsequentialism Stateconsequentialism,alsoknownasMohistconsequentialism,[31]isanethicaltheorythatevaluatesthemoralworthofanactionbasedonhowmuchitcontributestothebasicgoodsofastate.[31]TheStanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophydescribesMohistconsequentialism,datingbacktothe5thcenturyBC,as"aremarkablysophisticatedversionbasedonapluralityofintrinsicgoodstakenasconstitutiveofhumanwelfare".[32]Unlikeutilitarianism,whichviewspleasureasamoralgood,"thebasicgoodsinMohistconsequentialistthinkingare ...order,materialwealth,andincreaseinpopulation".[33]DuringMozi'sera,warandfamineswerecommon,andpopulationgrowthwasseenasamoralnecessityforaharmonioussociety.The"materialwealth"ofMohistconsequentialismreferstobasicneedslikeshelterandclothing,andthe"order"ofMohistconsequentialismreferstoMozi'sstanceagainstwarfareandviolence,whichheviewedaspointlessandathreattosocialstability.[34] StanfordsinologistDavidShepherdNivison,inTheCambridgeHistoryofAncientChina,writesthatthemoralgoodsofMohism"areinterrelated:morebasicwealth,thenmorereproduction;morepeople,thenmoreproductionandwealth ...ifpeoplehaveplenty,theywouldbegood,filial,kind,andsoonunproblematically."[33]TheMohistsbelievedthatmoralityisbasedon"promotingthebenefitofallunderheavenandeliminatingharmtoallunderheaven".IncontrasttoBentham'sviews,stateconsequentialismisnotutilitarianbecauseitisnothedonisticorindividualistic.Theimportanceofoutcomesthataregoodforthecommunityoutweighstheimportanceofindividualpleasureandpain.[35] Consequentialism[edit] Mainarticle:Consequentialism Seealso:Ethicalegoism Consequentialismreferstomoraltheoriesthatholdtheconsequencesofaparticularactionformthebasisforanyvalidmoraljudgmentaboutthataction(orcreateastructureforjudgment,seeruleconsequentialism).Thus,fromaconsequentialiststandpoint,morallyrightactionisonethatproducesagoodoutcome,orconsequence.Thisviewisoftenexpressedastheaphorism"Theendsjustifythemeans". Theterm"consequentialism"wascoinedbyG.E.M.Anscombeinheressay"ModernMoralPhilosophy"in1958,todescribewhatshesawasthecentralerrorofcertainmoraltheories,suchasthosepropoundedbyMillandSidgwick.[36]Sincethen,thetermhasbecomecommoninEnglish-languageethicaltheory. Thedefiningfeatureofconsequentialistmoraltheoriesistheweightgiventotheconsequencesinevaluatingtherightnessandwrongnessofactions.[37]Inconsequentialisttheories,theconsequencesofanactionorrulegenerallyoutweighotherconsiderations.Apartfromthisbasicoutline,thereislittleelsethatcanbeunequivocallysaidaboutconsequentialismassuch.However,therearesomequestionsthatmanyconsequentialisttheoriesaddress: Whatsortofconsequencescountasgoodconsequences? Whoistheprimarybeneficiaryofmoralaction? Howaretheconsequencesjudgedandwhojudgesthem? Onewaytodividevariousconsequentialismsisbythemanytypesofconsequencesthataretakentomattermost,thatis,whichconsequencescountasgoodstatesofaffairs.Accordingtoutilitarianism,agoodactionisonethatresultsinanincreaseandpositiveeffect,andthebestactionisonethatresultsinthateffectforthegreatestnumber.Closelyrelatediseudaimonicconsequentialism,accordingtowhichafull,flourishinglife,whichmayormaynotbethesameasenjoyingagreatdealofpleasure,istheultimateaim.Similarly,onemightadoptanaestheticconsequentialism,inwhichtheultimateaimistoproducebeauty.However,onemightfixonnon-psychologicalgoodsastherelevanteffect.Thus,onemightpursueanincreaseinmaterialequalityorpoliticallibertyinsteadofsomethinglikethemoreephemeral"pleasure".Othertheoriesadoptapackageofseveralgoods,alltobepromotedequally.Whetheraparticularconsequentialisttheoryfocusesonasinglegoodormany,conflictsandtensionsbetweendifferentgoodstatesofaffairsaretobeexpectedandmustbeadjudicated. Utilitarianism[edit] Mainarticle:Utilitarianism JeremyBentham JohnStuartMill Utilitarianismisanethicaltheorythatarguesthepropercourseofactionisonethatmaximizesapositiveeffect,suchas"happiness","welfare",ortheabilitytoliveaccordingtopersonalpreferences.[38]JeremyBenthamandJohnStuartMillareinfluentialproponentsofthisschoolofthought.InAFragmentonGovernmentBenthamsays'itisthegreatesthappinessofthegreatestnumberthatisthemeasureofrightandwrong'anddescribesthisasafundamentalaxiom.InAnIntroductiontothePrinciplesofMoralsandLegislationhetalksof'theprincipleofutility'butlaterprefers"thegreatesthappinessprinciple".[39][40] Utilitarianismistheparadigmaticexampleofaconsequentialistmoraltheory.Thisformofutilitarianismholdsthatthemorallycorrectactionistheonethatproducesthebestoutcomeforallpeopleaffectedbytheaction.JohnStuartMill,inhisexpositionofutilitarianism,proposedahierarchyofpleasures,meaningthatthepursuitofcertainkindsofpleasureismorehighlyvaluedthanthepursuitofotherpleasures.[41]OthernoteworthyproponentsofutilitarianismareneuroscientistSamHarris,authorofTheMoralLandscape,andmoralphilosopherPeterSinger,authorof,amongstotherworks,PracticalEthics. Themajordivisionwithinutilitarianismisbetweenactutilitarianismandruleutilitarianism.Inactutilitarianism,theprincipleofutilityappliesdirectlytoeachalternativeactinasituationofchoice.Therightactistheonethatbringsaboutthebestresults(ortheleastbadresults).Inruleutilitarianism,theprincipleofutilitydeterminesthevalidityofrulesofconduct(moralprinciples).Arulelikepromise-keepingisestablishedbylookingattheconsequencesofaworldinwhichpeoplebreakpromisesatwillandaworldinwhichpromisesarebinding.Rightandwrongarethefollowingorbreakingofrulesthataresanctionedbytheirutilitarianvalue.[42]Aproposed"middleground"betweenthesetwotypesisTwo-levelutilitarianism,whererulesareappliedinordinarycircumstances,butwithanallowancetochooseactionsoutsideofsuchruleswhenunusualsituationscallforit. Deontology[edit] Mainarticle:Deontologicalethics Deontologicalethicsordeontology(fromGreekδέον,deon,"obligation,duty";and-λογία,-logia)isanapproachtoethicsthatdeterminesgoodnessorrightnessfromexaminingacts,ortherulesanddutiesthatthepersondoingtheactstrovetofulfill.[43]Thisisincontrasttoconsequentialism,inwhichrightnessisbasedontheconsequencesofanact,andnottheactbyitself.Underdeontology,anactmaybeconsideredrightevenifitproducesabadconsequence,[44]ifitfollowstheruleormorallaw.Accordingtothedeontologicalview,peoplehaveadutytoactinwaysthataredeemedinherentlygood("truth-telling"forexample),orfollowanobjectivelyobligatoryrule(asinruleutilitarianism). Kantianism[edit] ImmanuelKant Mainarticle:Kantianethics ImmanuelKant'stheoryofethicsisconsidereddeontologicalforseveraldifferentreasons.[45][46]First,Kantarguesthattoactinthemorallyrightway,peoplemustactfromduty(Pflicht).[47]Second,Kantarguedthatitwasnottheconsequencesofactionsthatmakethemrightorwrongbutthemotivesofthepersonwhocarriesouttheaction. Kant'sargumentthattoactinthemorallyrightwayonemustactpurelyfromdutybeginswithanargumentthatthehighestgoodmustbebothgoodinitselfandgoodwithoutqualification.[48]Somethingis"goodinitself"whenitisintrinsicallygood,and"goodwithoutqualification",whentheadditionofthatthingnevermakesasituationethicallyworse.Kantthenarguesthatthosethingsthatareusuallythoughttobegood,suchasintelligence,perseveranceandpleasure,failtobeeitherintrinsicallygoodorgoodwithoutqualification.Pleasure,forexample,appearsnottobegoodwithoutqualification,becausewhenpeopletakepleasureinwatchingsomeonesuffer,thisseemstomakethesituationethicallyworse.Heconcludesthatthereisonlyonethingthatistrulygood: Nothingintheworld—indeednothingevenbeyondtheworld—canpossiblybeconceivedwhichcouldbecalledgoodwithoutqualificationexceptagoodwill.[48]Kantthenarguesthattheconsequencesofanactofwillingcannotbeusedtodeterminethatthepersonhasagoodwill;goodconsequencescouldarisebyaccidentfromanactionthatwasmotivatedbyadesiretocauseharmtoaninnocentperson,andbadconsequencescouldarisefromanactionthatwaswell-motivated.Instead,heclaims,apersonhasgoodwillwhenhe'actsoutofrespectforthemorallaw'.[48]People'actoutofrespectforthemorallaw'whentheyactinsomewaybecausetheyhaveadutytodoso.So,theonlythingthatistrulygoodinitselfisgoodwill,andgoodwillisonlygoodwhenthewillerchoosestodosomethingbecauseitisthatperson'sduty,i.e.outof"respect"forthelaw.Hedefinesrespectas"theconceptofaworthwhichthwartsmyself-love".[49] Kant'sthreesignificantformulationsofthecategoricalimperativeare: Actonlyaccordingtothatmaximbywhichyoucanalsowillthatitwouldbecomeauniversallaw. Actinsuchawaythatyoualwaystreathumanity,whetherinyourownpersonorinthepersonofanyother,neversimplyasameans,butalwaysatthesametimeasanend. Everyrationalbeingmustsoactasifhewerethroughhismaximalwaysalegislatingmemberinauniversalkingdomofends. Kantarguedthattheonlyabsolutelygoodthingisagoodwill,andsothesingledeterminingfactorofwhetheranactionismorallyrightisthewill,ormotiveofthepersondoingit.Iftheyareactingonabadmaxim,e.g."Iwilllie",thentheiractioniswrong,evenifsomegoodconsequencescomeofit. Inhisessay,OnaSupposedRighttoLieBecauseofPhilanthropicConcerns,arguingagainstthepositionof BenjaminConstant,Desréactionspolitiques,Kantstatesthat"Hencealiedefinedmerelyasanintentionallyuntruthfuldeclarationtoanothermandoesnotrequiretheadditionalconditionthatitmustdoharmtoanother,asjuristsrequireintheirdefinition(mendaciumestfalsiloquiuminpraeiudiciumalterius).Foraliealwaysharmsanother;ifnotsomehumanbeing,thenitneverthelessdoesharmtohumanityingeneral,inasmuchasitvitiatestheverysourceofright[Rechtsquelle]...Allpracticalprinciplesofrightmustcontainrigoroustruth...Thisisbecausesuchexceptionswoulddestroytheuniversalityonaccountofwhichalonetheybearthenameofprinciples."[50] Divinecommandtheory[edit] Mainarticle:Divinecommandtheory Althoughnotalldeontologistsarereligious,somebeliefinthe'divinecommandtheory',whichisactuallyaclusterofrelatedtheorieswhichessentiallystatethatanactionisrightifGodhasdecreedthatitisright.[51]AccordingtoRalphCudworth,anEnglishphilosopher,WilliamofOckham,RenéDescartes,andeighteenth-centuryCalvinistsallacceptedvariousversionsofthismoraltheory,astheyallheldthatmoralobligationsarisefromGod'scommands.[52]TheDivineCommandTheoryisaformofdeontologybecause,accordingtoit,therightnessofanyactiondependsuponthatactionbeingperformedbecauseitisaduty,notbecauseofanygoodconsequencesarisingfromthataction.IfGodcommandspeoplenottoworkonSabbath,thenpeopleactrightlyiftheydonotworkonSabbathbecauseGodhascommandedthattheydonotdoso.IftheydonotworkonSabbathbecausetheyarelazy,thentheiractionisnottrulyspeaking"right",eventhoughtheactualphysicalactionperformedisthesame.IfGodcommandsnottocovetaneighbour'sgoods,thistheoryholdsthatitwouldbeimmoraltodoso,evenifcovetingprovidesthebeneficialoutcomeofadrivetosucceedordowell. OnethingthatclearlydistinguishesKantiandeontologismfromdivinecommanddeontologyisthatKantianismmaintainsthatman,asarationalbeing,makesthemorallawuniversal,whereasdivinecommandmaintainsthatGodmakesthemorallawuniversal. Discourseethics[edit] PhotographofJurgenHabermas,whosetheoryofdiscourseethicswasinfluencedbyKantianethics Mainarticle:Discourseethics GermanphilosopherJürgenHabermashasproposedatheoryofdiscourseethicsthatheclaimsisadescendantofKantianethics.[53]Heproposesthatactionshouldbebasedoncommunicationbetweenthoseinvolved,inwhichtheirinterestsandintentionsarediscussedsotheycanbeunderstoodbyall.Rejectinganyformofcoercionormanipulation,Habermasbelievesthatagreementbetweenthepartiesiscrucialforamoraldecisiontobereached.[54]LikeKantianethics,discourseethicsisacognitiveethicaltheory,inthatitsupposesthattruthandfalsitycanbeattributedtoethicalpropositions.Italsoformulatesarulebywhichethicalactionscanbedeterminedandproposesthatethicalactionsshouldbeuniversalisable,inasimilarwaytoKant'sethics.[55] HabermasarguesthathisethicaltheoryisanimprovementonKant'sethics.[55]HerejectsthedualisticframeworkofKant'sethics.Kantdistinguishedbetweenthephenomenaworld,whichcanbesensedandexperiencedbyhumans,andthenoumena,orspiritualworld,whichisinaccessibletohumans.ThisdichotomywasnecessaryforKantbecauseitcouldexplaintheautonomyofahumanagent:althoughahumanisboundinthephenomenalworld,theiractionsarefreeintheintelligibleworld.ForHabermas,moralityarisesfromdiscourse,whichismadenecessarybytheirrationalityandneeds,ratherthantheirfreedom.[56] Pragmaticethics[edit] Mainarticle:Pragmaticethics Associatedwiththepragmatists,CharlesSandersPeirce,WilliamJames,andespeciallyJohnDewey,pragmaticethicsholdsthatmoralcorrectnessevolvessimilarlytoscientificknowledge:sociallyoverthecourseofmanylifetimes.Thus,weshouldprioritizesocialreformoverattemptstoaccountforconsequences,individualvirtueorduty(althoughthesemaybeworthwhileattempts,ifsocialreformisprovidedfor).[57] Ethicsofcare[edit] Mainarticle:Ethicsofcare Careethicscontrastswithmorewell-knownethicalmodels,suchasconsequentialisttheories(e.g.utilitarianism)anddeontologicaltheories(e.g.,Kantianethics)inthatitseekstoincorporatetraditionallyfeminizedvirtuesandvaluesthat—proponentsofcareethicscontend—areabsentinsuchtraditionalmodelsofethics.Thesevaluesincludetheimportanceofempatheticrelationshipsandcompassion. Care-focusedfeminismisabranchoffeministthought,informedprimarilybyethicsofcareasdevelopedbyCarolGilligan[58]andNelNoddings.[59]Thisbodyoftheoryiscriticalofhowcaringissociallyassignedtowomen,andconsequentlydevalued.Theywrite,"Care-focusedfeministsregardwomen'scapacityforcareasahumanstrength,"thatshouldbetaughttoandexpectedofmenaswellaswomen.Noddingsproposesthatethicalcaringhasthepotentialtobeamoreconcreteevaluativemodelofmoraldilemmathananethicofjustice.[60]Noddings’care-focusedfeminismrequirespracticalapplicationofrelationalethics,predicatedonanethicofcare.[61] Roleethics[edit] Mainarticle:Roleethics Roleethicsisanethicaltheorybasedonfamilyroles.[62]Unlikevirtueethics,roleethicsisnotindividualistic.Moralityisderivedfromaperson'srelationshipwiththeircommunity.[63]Confucianethicsisanexampleofroleethics[62]thoughthisisnotstraightforwardlyuncontested.[64]Confucianrolescenteraroundtheconceptoffilialpietyorxiao,arespectforfamilymembers.[65]AccordingtoRogerT.AmesandHenryRosemont,"Confuciannormativityisdefinedbylivingone'sfamilyrolestomaximumeffect."Moralityisdeterminedthroughaperson'sfulfillmentofarole,suchasthatofaparentorachild.Confucianrolesarenotrational,andoriginatethroughthexin,orhumanemotions.[63] Anarchistethics[edit] Mainarticle:Anarchism Anarchistethicsisanethicaltheorybasedonthestudiesofanarchistthinkers.ThebiggestcontributortotheanarchistethicsistheRussianzoologist,geographer,economist,andpoliticalactivistPeterKropotkin. Startingfromthepremisethatthegoalofethicalphilosophyshouldbetohelphumansadaptandthriveinevolutionaryterms,Kropotkin'sethicalframeworkusesbiologyandanthropologyasabasis–inordertoscientificallyestablishwhatwillbestenableagivensocialordertothrivebiologicallyandsocially–andadvocatescertainbehaviouralpracticestoenhancehumanity'scapacityforfreedomandwell-being,namelypracticeswhichemphasisesolidarity,equality,andjustice. Kropotkinarguesthatethicsitselfisevolutionary,andisinheritedasasortofasocialinstinctthroughculturalhistory,andbyso,herejectsanyreligiousandtranscendentalexplanationofmorality.Theoriginofethicalfeelinginbothanimalsandhumanscanbefound,heclaims,inthenaturalfactof"sociality"(mutualisticsymbiosis),whichhumanscanthencombinewiththeinstinctforjustice(i.e.equality)andthenwiththepracticeofreasontoconstructanon-supernaturalandanarchisticsystemofethics.[66]KropotkinsuggeststhattheprincipleofequalityatthecoreofanarchismisthesameastheGoldenrule:Thisprincipleoftreatingothersasonewishestobetreatedoneself,whatisitbuttheverysameprincipleasequality,thefundamentalprincipleofanarchism?Andhowcananyonemanagetobelievehimselfananarchistunlesshepracticesit?Wedonotwishtoberuled.Andbythisveryfact,dowenotdeclarethatweourselveswishtorulenobody?Wedonotwishtobedeceived,wewishalwaystobetoldnothingbutthetruth.Andbythisveryfact,dowenotdeclarethatweourselvesdonotwishtodeceiveanybody,thatwepromisetoalwaystellthetruth,nothingbutthetruth,thewholetruth?Wedonotwishtohavethefruitsofourlaborstolenfromus.Andbythatveryfact,dowenotdeclarethatwerespectthefruitsofothers'labor?Bywhatrightindeedcanwedemandthatweshouldbetreatedinonefashion,reservingittoourselvestotreatothersinafashionentirelydifferent?Oursenseofequalityrevoltsatsuchanidea.[67] Postmodernethics[edit] Mainarticle:Postmodernism Thisarticleorsectionpossiblycontainssynthesisofmaterialwhichdoesnotverifiablymentionorrelatetothemaintopic.Relevantdiscussionmaybefoundonthetalkpage.(July2009)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) The20thcenturysawaremarkableexpansionandevolutionofcriticaltheory,followingonearlierMarxistTheoryeffortstolocateindividualswithinlargerstructuralframeworksofideologyandaction. AntihumanistssuchasLouisAlthusser,MichelFoucaultandstructuralistssuchasRolandBartheschallengedthepossibilitiesofindividualagencyandthecoherenceofthenotionofthe'individual'itself.Thiswasonthebasisthatpersonalidentitywas,inthemostpart,asocialconstruction.Ascriticaltheorydevelopedinthelater20thcentury,post-structuralismsoughttoproblematizehumanrelationshipstoknowledgeand'objective'reality.JacquesDerridaarguedthataccesstomeaningandthe'real'wasalwaysdeferred,andsoughttodemonstrateviarecoursetothelinguisticrealmthat"thereisnooutside-text/non-text"("iln'yapasdehors-texte"isoftenmistranslatedas"thereisnothingoutsidethetext");atthesametime,JeanBaudrillardtheorisedthatsignsandsymbolsorsimulacramaskreality(andeventuallytheabsenceofrealityitself),particularlyintheconsumerworld. Post-structuralismandpostmodernismarguethatethicsmuststudythecomplexandrelationalconditionsofactions.Asimplealignmentofideasofrightandparticularactsisnotpossible.Therewillalwaysbeanethicalremainderthatcannotbetakenintoaccountoroftenevenrecognized.Suchtheoristsfindnarrative(or,followingNietzscheandFoucault,genealogy)tobeahelpfultoolforunderstandingethicsbecausenarrativeisalwaysaboutparticularlivedexperiencesinalltheircomplexityratherthantheassignmentofanideaornormtoseparateandindividualactions. ZygmuntBaumansayspostmodernityisbestdescribedasmodernitywithoutillusion,theillusionbeingthebeliefthathumanitycanberepairedbysomeethicprinciple.Postmodernitycanbeseeninthislightasacceptingthemessynatureofhumanityasunchangeable.Inthispostmodernworld,themeanstoactcollectivelyandgloballytosolvelarge-scaleproblemshavebeenallbutdiscredited,dismantledorlost.Problemscanbehandledonlylocallyandeachonitsown.Allproblem-handlingmeansbuildingamini-orderattheexpenseoforderelsewhere,andatthecostofrisingglobaldisorderaswellasdepletingtheshrinkingsuppliesofresourceswhichmakeorderingpossible.HeconsidersEmmanuelLevinas'sethicsaspostmodern.UnlikethemodernethicalphilosophywhichleavestheOtherontheoutsideoftheselfasanambivalentpresence,Levinas'sphilosophyreadmitsherasaneighborandasacrucialcharacterintheprocessthroughwhichthemoralselfcomesintoitsown.[68] DavidCouzensHoystatesthatEmmanuelLevinas'swritingsonthefaceoftheOtherandDerrida'smeditationsontherelevanceofdeathtoethicsaresignsofthe"ethicalturn"inContinentalphilosophythatoccurredinthe1980sand1990s.Hoydescribespost-critiqueethicsasthe"obligationsthatpresentthemselvesasnecessarilytobefulfilledbutareneitherforcedononeorareenforceable".[69] Hoy'spost-critiquemodelusesthetermethicalresistance.Examplesofthiswouldbeanindividual'sresistancetoconsumerisminaretreattoasimplerbutperhapsharderlifestyle,oranindividual'sresistancetoaterminalillness.HoydescribesLevinas'saccountas"nottheattempttousepoweragainstitself,ortomobilizesectorsofthepopulationtoexerttheirpoliticalpower;theethicalresistanceisinsteadtheresistanceofthepowerless".[70] Hoyconcludesthat Theethicalresistanceofthepowerlessotherstoourcapacitytoexertpoweroverthemisthereforewhatimposesunenforceableobligationsonus.Theobligationsareunenforceablepreciselybecauseoftheother'slackofpower.Thatactionsareatonceobligatoryandatthesametimeunenforceableiswhatputtheminthecategoryoftheethical.Obligationsthatwereenforcedwould,bythevirtueoftheforcebehindthem,notbefreelyundertakenandwouldnotbeintherealmoftheethical.[71] Appliedethics[edit] Mainarticle:Appliedethics Appliedethicsisadisciplineofphilosophythatattemptstoapplyethicaltheorytoreal-lifesituations.Thedisciplinehasmanyspecializedfields,suchasengineeringethics,bioethics,geoethics,publicserviceethicsandbusinessethics. Specificquestions[edit] Appliedethicsisusedinsomeaspectsofdeterminingpublicpolicy,aswellasbyindividualsfacingdifficultdecisions.Thesortofquestionsaddressedbyappliedethicsinclude:"Isgettinganabortionimmoral?";"Iseuthanasiaimmoral?";"Isaffirmativeactionrightorwrong?";"Whatarehumanrights,andhowdowedeterminethem?";"Doanimalshaverightsaswell?";and"Doindividualshavetherightofself-determination?"[15] Amorespecificquestioncouldbe:"Ifsomeoneelsecanmakebetteroutofhis/herlifethanIcan,isitthenmoraltosacrificemyselfforthemifneeded?"Withoutthesequestions,thereisnoclearfulcrumonwhichtobalancelaw,politics,andthepracticeofarbitration—infact,nocommonassumptionsofallparticipants—sotheabilitytoformulatethequestionsarepriortorightsbalancing.Butnotallquestionsstudiedinappliedethicsconcernpublicpolicy.Forexample,makingethicaljudgmentsregardingquestionssuchas,"Islyingalwayswrong?"and,"Ifnot,whenisitpermissible?"ispriortoanyetiquette. People,ingeneral,aremorecomfortablewithdichotomies(twoopposites).However,inethics,theissuesaremostoftenmultifacetedandthebest-proposedactionsaddressmanydifferentareasconcurrently.Inethicaldecisions,theanswerisalmostnevera"yesorno"ora"rightorwrong"statement.Manybuttonsarepushedsothattheoverallconditionisimprovedandnottothebenefitofanyparticularfaction. Andithasnotonlybeenshownthatpeopleconsiderthecharacterofthemoralagent(i.e.aprincipleimpliedinvirtueethics),thedeedoftheaction(i.e.aprincipleimpliedindeontology),andtheconsequencesoftheaction(i.e.aprincipleimpliedinutilitarianism)whenformulatingmoraljudgments,butmoreoverthattheeffectofeachofthesethreecomponentsdependsonthevalueofeachcomponent.[72] Particularfieldsofapplication[edit] Bioethics[edit] Mainarticle:Bioethics Seealso:IslamicbioethicsandJewishmedicalethics Bioethicsisthestudyofcontroversialethicsbroughtaboutbyadvancesinbiologyandmedicine.Bioethicistsareconcernedwiththeethicalquestionsthatariseintherelationshipsamonglifesciences,biotechnology,medicine,politics,law,andphilosophy.Italsoincludesthestudyofthemorecommonplacequestionsofvalues("theethicsoftheordinary")thatariseinprimarycareandotherbranchesofmedicine. Bioethicsalsoneedstoaddressemergingbiotechnologiesthataffectbasicbiologyandfuturehumans.Thesedevelopmentsincludecloning,genetherapy,humangeneticengineering,astroethicsandlifeinspace,[73]andmanipulationofbasicbiologythroughalteredDNA,RNAandproteins,e.g."threeparentbaby,wherebabyisbornfromgeneticallymodifiedembryos,wouldhaveDNAfromamother,afatherandfromafemaledonor.[74]Correspondingly,newbioethicsalsoneedtoaddresslifeatitscore.Forexample,bioticethicsvalueorganicgene/proteinlifeitselfandseektopropagateit.[75]Withsuchlife-centeredprinciples,ethicsmaysecureacosmologicalfutureforlife.[76] Businessethics[edit] Mainarticle:Businessethics Businessethics(alsocorporateethics)isaformofappliedethicsorprofessionalethicsthatexaminesethicalprinciplesandmoralorethicalproblemsthatariseinabusinessenvironment,includingfieldslikemedicalethics.Businessethicsrepresentsthepracticesthatanyindividualorgroupexhibitswithinanorganizationthatcannegativelyorpositivelyaffectthebusinessescorevalues.Itappliestoallaspectsofbusinessconductandisrelevanttotheconductofindividualsandentireorganizations. Businessethicshasbothnormativeanddescriptivedimensions.Asacorporatepracticeandacareerspecialization,thefieldisprimarilynormative.Academicsattemptingtounderstandbusinessbehavioremploydescriptivemethods.Therangeandquantityofbusinessethicalissuesreflecttheinteractionofprofit-maximizingbehaviorwithnon-economicconcerns.Interestinbusinessethicsaccelerateddramaticallyduringthe1980sand1990s,bothwithinmajorcorporationsandwithinacademia.Forexample,todaymostmajorcorporationspromotetheircommitmenttonon-economicvaluesunderheadingssuchasethicscodesandsocialresponsibilitycharters.AdamSmithsaid,"Peopleofthesametradeseldommeettogether,evenformerrimentanddiversion,buttheconversationendsinaconspiracyagainstthepublic,orinsomecontrivancetoraiseprices."[77]Governmentsuselawsandregulationstopointbusinessbehaviorinwhattheyperceivetobebeneficialdirections.Ethicsimplicitlyregulatesareasanddetailsofbehaviorthatliebeyondgovernmentalcontrol.[78]Theemergenceoflargecorporationswithlimitedrelationshipsandsensitivitytothecommunitiesinwhichtheyoperateacceleratedthedevelopmentofformalethicsregimes.[79][80]Businessethicsalsorelatestounethicalactivitiesofinterorganizationalrelationships,suchasstrategicalliances,buyer-supplierrelationships,orjointventures.Suchunethicalpracticesinclude,forinstance,opportunisticbehaviors,contractviolations,anddeceitfulpractices.[81]Somecorporationshavetriedtoburnishtheirethicalimagebycreatingwhistle-blowerprotections,suchasanonymity.InthecaseofCiti,theycallthistheEthicsHotline,[82]thoughitisunclearwhetherfirmssuchasCititakeoffencesreportedtothesehotlinesseriouslyornot. Machineethics[edit] Mainarticle:Machineethics InMoralMachines:TeachingRobotsRightfromWrong,WendellWallachandColinAllenconcludethatissuesinmachineethicswilllikelydriveadvancementinunderstandingofhumanethicsbyforcingustoaddressgapsinmodernnormativetheoryandbyprovidingaplatformforexperimentalinvestigation.[83]Theefforttoactuallyprogramamachineorartificialagenttobehaveasthoughinstilledwithasenseofethics[84]requiresnewspecificityinournormativetheories,especiallyregardingaspectscustomarilyconsideredcommon-sense.Forexample,machines,unlikehumans,cansupportawideselectionoflearningalgorithms,andcontroversyhasarisenovertherelativeethicalmeritsoftheseoptions.Thismayreopenclassicdebatesofnormativeethicsframedinnew(highlytechnical)terms. Militaryethics[edit] Seealso:GenevaConventionsandNurembergPrinciples Militaryethicsareconcernedwithquestionsregardingtheapplicationofforceandtheethosofthesoldierandareoftenunderstoodasappliedprofessionalethics.[85]Justwartheoryisgenerallyseentosetthebackgroundtermsofmilitaryethics.Howeverindividualcountriesandtraditionshavedifferentfieldsofattention.[86] Militaryethicsinvolvesmultiplesubareas,includingthefollowingamongothers: what,ifany,shouldbethelawsofwar. justificationfortheinitiationofmilitaryforce. decisionsaboutwhomaybetargetedinwarfare. decisionsonchoiceofweaponry,andwhatcollateraleffectssuchweaponrymayhave. standardsforhandlingmilitaryprisoners. methodsofdealingwithviolationsofthelawsofwar. Politicalethics[edit] Mainarticle:Politicalethics Politicalethics(alsoknownaspoliticalmoralityorpublicethics)isthepracticeofmakingmoraljudgementsaboutpoliticalactionandpoliticalagents.[87] Publicsectorethics[edit] Mainarticle:Publicsectorethics Publicsectorethicsisasetofprinciplesthatguidepublicofficialsintheirservicetotheirconstituents,includingtheirdecision-makingonbehalfoftheirconstituents.Fundamentaltotheconceptofpublicsectorethicsisthenotionthatdecisionsandactionsarebasedonwhatbestservesthepublic'sinterests,asopposedtotheofficial'spersonalinterests(includingfinancialinterests)orself-servingpoliticalinterests.[88] Publicationethics[edit] Publicationethicsisthesetofprinciplesthatguidethewritingandpublishingprocessforallprofessionalpublications.Tofollowtheseprinciples,authorsmustverifythatthepublicationdoesnotcontainplagiarismorpublicationbias.[89]Asawaytoavoidmisconductinresearchtheseprinciplescanalsoapplytoexperimentsthatarereferencedoranalyzedinpublicationsbyensuringthedataisrecordedhonestlyandaccurately.[90] Plagiarismisthefailuretogivecredittoanotherauthor'sworkorideas,whenitisusedinthepublication.[91]Itistheobligationoftheeditorofthejournaltoensurethearticledoesnotcontainanyplagiarismbeforeitispublished.[92]Ifapublicationthathasalreadybeenpublishedisproventocontainplagiarism,theeditorofthejournalcanretractthearticle.[93] Publicationbiasoccurswhenthepublicationisone-sidedor"prejudicedagainstresults".[94]Inbestpractice,anauthorshouldtrytoincludeinformationfromallpartiesinvolved,oraffectedbythetopic.Ifanauthorisprejudicedagainstcertainresults,thanitcan"leadtoerroneousconclusionsbeingdrawn".[95] Misconductinresearchcanoccurwhenanexperimenterfalsifiesresults.[96]Falselyrecordedinformationoccurswhentheresearcher"fakes"informationordata,whichwasnotusedwhenconductingtheactualexperiment.[96]Byfakingthedata,theresearchercanaltertheresultsfromtheexperimenttobetterfitthehypothesistheyoriginallypredicted.Whenconductingmedicalresearch,itisimportanttohonorthehealthcarerightsofapatientbyprotectingtheiranonymityinthepublication.[89] Respectforautonomyistheprinciplethatdecision-makingshouldallowindividualstobeautonomous;theyshouldbeabletomakedecisionsthatapplytotheirownlives.Thismeansthatindividualsshouldhavecontroloftheirlives. Justiceistheprinciplethatdecision-makersmustfocusonactionsthatarefairtothoseaffected.Ethicaldecisionsneedtobeconsistentwiththeethicaltheory.Therearecaseswherethemanagementhasmadedecisionsthatseemtobeunfairtotheemployees,shareholders,andotherstakeholders(Solomon,1992,pp49).Suchdecisionsareunethical. Relationalethics[edit] Relationalethicsarerelatedtoanethicsofcare.[58]: 62–63 Theyareusedinqualitativeresearch,especiallyethnographyandautoethnography.Researcherswhoemployrelationalethicsvalueandrespecttheconnectionbetweenthemselvesandthepeopletheystudy,and"...betweenresearchersandthecommunitiesinwhichtheyliveandwork."(Ellis,2007,p. 4).[97]Relationalethicsalsohelpresearchersunderstanddifficultissuessuchasconductingresearchonintimateothersthathavediedanddevelopingfriendshipswiththeirparticipants.[98][99]Relationalethicsinclosepersonalrelationshipsformacentralconceptofcontextualtherapy. Ethicsofnanotechnologies[edit] Mainarticle:Ethicsofnanotechnologies Ethicsofnanotechnologyisthestudyoftheethicalissuesemergingfromadvancesinnanotechnology. Ethicsofquantification[edit] Mainarticle:Ethicsofquantification Ethicsofquantificationisthestudyoftheethicalissuesassociatedtodifferentformsofvisibleorinvisibleformsofquantification. Animalethics[edit] Mainarticle:Animalethics Animalethicsisatermusedinacademiatodescribehuman-animalrelationshipsandhowanimalsoughttobetreated.Thesubjectmatterincludesanimalrights,animalwelfare,animallaw,speciesism,animalcognition,wildlifeconservation,themoralstatusofnonhumananimals,theconceptofnonhumanpersonhood,humanexceptionalism,thehistoryofanimaluse,andtheoriesofjustice. Ethicsoftechnology[edit] Mainarticle:Ethicsoftechnology Ethicsoftechnologyisasub-fieldofethicsaddressingtheethicalquestionsspecifictotheTechnologyAge.SomeprominentworksofphilosopherHansJonasaredevotedtoethicsoftechnology.Thesubjecthasalsobeenexplored,followingtheworkofMarioBunge,underthetermtechnoethics. Moralpsychology[edit] Mainarticle:Moralpsychology Moralpsychologyisafieldofstudythatbeganasanissueinphilosophyandthatisnowproperlyconsideredpartofthedisciplineofpsychology.Someusetheterm"moralpsychology"relativelynarrowlytorefertothestudyofmoraldevelopment.[100]However,otherstendtousethetermmorebroadlytoincludeanytopicsattheintersectionofethicsandpsychology(andphilosophyofmind).[101]Suchtopicsareonesthatinvolvethemindandarerelevanttomoralissues.Someofthemaintopicsofthefieldaremoralresponsibility,moraldevelopment,moralcharacter(especiallyasrelatedtovirtueethics),altruism,psychologicalegoism,moralluck,andmoraldisagreement.[102] Evolutionaryethics[edit] Mainarticle:Evolutionaryethics Seealso:Evolutionofmorality Evolutionaryethicsconcernsapproachestoethics(morality)basedontheroleofevolutioninshapinghumanpsychologyandbehavior.Suchapproachesmaybebasedinscientificfieldssuchasevolutionarypsychologyorsociobiology,withafocusonunderstandingandexplainingobservedethicalpreferencesandchoices.[103] Descriptiveethics[edit] Mainarticle:Descriptiveethics Descriptiveethicsisonthelessphilosophicalendofthespectrumsinceitseekstogatherparticularinformationabouthowpeopleliveanddrawgeneralconclusionsbasedonobservedpatterns.Abstractandtheoreticalquestionsthataremoreclearlyphilosophical—suchas,"Isethicalknowledgepossible?"—arenotcentraltodescriptiveethics.Descriptiveethicsoffersavalue-freeapproachtoethics,whichdefinesitasasocialscienceratherthanahumanity.Itsexaminationofethicsdoesnotstartwithapreconceivedtheorybutratherinvestigatesobservationsofactualchoicesmadebymoralagentsinpractice.Somephilosophersrelyondescriptiveethicsandchoicesmadeandunchallengedbyasocietyorculturetoderivecategories,whichtypicallyvarybycontext.Thiscanleadtosituationalethicsandsituatedethics.Thesephilosophersoftenviewaesthetics,etiquette,andarbitrationasmorefundamental,percolating"bottomup"toimplytheexistenceof,ratherthanexplicitlyprescribe,theoriesofvalueorofconduct.Thestudyofdescriptiveethicsmayincludeexaminationsofthefollowing: Ethicalcodesappliedbyvariousgroups.Someconsideraestheticsitselfthebasisofethics—andapersonalmoralcoredevelopedthroughartandstorytellingasveryinfluentialinone'slaterethicalchoices. Informaltheoriesofetiquettethattendtobelessrigorousandmoresituational.Someconsideretiquetteasimplenegativeethics,i.e.,wherecanoneevadeanuncomfortabletruthwithoutdoingwrong?OnenotableadvocateofthisviewisJudithMartin("MissManners").Accordingtothisview,ethicsismoreasummaryofcommonsensesocialdecisions. Practicesinarbitrationandlaw,e.g.,theclaimthatethicsitselfisamatterofbalancing"rightversusright",i.e.,puttingprioritiesontwothingsthatarebothright,butthatmustbetradedoffcarefullyineachsituation. Observedchoicesmadebyordinarypeople,withoutexpertaidoradvice,whovote,buy,anddecidewhatisworthvaluing.Thisisamajorconcernofsociology,politicalscience,andeconomics.[104] Seealso[edit] Morality Integrity Appliedethics Axiologicalethics Contemporaryethics Corporatesocialresponsibility DeclarationofGeneva DeclarationofHelsinki Deductivereasoning Dharma Effectivealtruism Environmentalethics Ethicalmovement Ethicsinreligion Ethicspaper Internalismandexternalism Humanism Indexofethicsarticles—alphabeticallistofethics-relatedarticles Neuroethics Outlineofethics—listofethics-relatedarticles,arrangedbysub-topic Practicalphilosophy Scienceofmorality Secularethics Sexualethics Theoryofjustification Trailethics Notes[edit] ^Verst,Ludger;Kampmann,Susanne;Eilers,Franz-Josef(July27,2015).DieLiteraturrundschau.CommunicatioSocialis.OCLC 914511982. ^abcInternetEncyclopediaofPhilosophy"Ethics" ^RandomHouseUnabridgedDictionary:EntryonAxiology. 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^DavidTanguay(January24,2014)."BuddhaandSocratesshareCommonground".SoulofWit.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonJuly22,2014.RetrievedJuly22,2014. ^abc"Whatisethics?".BBC.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonOctober28,2013.RetrievedJuly22,2014. ^"Non-CognitivisminEthics|InternetEncyclopediaofPhilosophy". ^Miller,C(2009)."TheConditionsofMoralRealism".TheJournalofPhilosophicalResearch.34:123–155.doi:10.5840/jpr_2009_5. ^Sinnott-Armstrong,Walter(2019),"MoralSkepticism",inZalta,EdwardN.(ed.),TheStanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy(Summer2019 ed.),MetaphysicsResearchLab,StanfordUniversity,retrievedJuly28,2020 ^Cavalier,Robert."Meta-ethics,NormativeEthics,andAppliedEthics".OnlineGuidetoEthicsandMoralPhilosophy.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonNovember12,2013.RetrievedFebruary26,2014. ^abcdeWilliamS.Sahakian;MabelLewisSahakian(1966).IdeasoftheGreatPhilosophers.Barnes&Noble.ISBN 978-1-56619-271-2. ^Velusamy,N.;Faraday,MosesMichael,eds.(February2017).WhyShouldThirukkuralBeDeclaredtheNationalBookofIndia?.UniqueMediaIntegrators.p. 55.ISBN 978-93-85471-70-4. ^abN.Sanjeevi(1973).FirstAllIndiaTirukkuralSeminarPapers(2nd ed.).Chennai:UniversityofMadras.p. xxiii–xxvii. ^abProfessorMichielS.S.DeDeVries;ProfessorPanSukKim(2011).ValueandVirtueinPublicAdministration:AComparativePerspective.PalgraveMacmillan.p. 42.ISBN 978-0-230-35709-9. ^Nussbaum,Martha(1987).Non-RelativeVirtues:AnAristotelianApproach. ^abJohnNewton,Ph.D.,CompleteConductPrinciplesforthe21stCentury(2000).ISBN 0-9673705-7-4. ^Adler1985,p. 194. ^abShafer-Landau&Cuneo(2012),p.385 ^Stratton-Lake(2014)http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/intuitionism-ethics/ ^Stratton-Lake(2013),p.337 ^AncientEthicalTheory,StanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy. ^abIvanhoe,P.J.;VanNorden,BryanWilliam(2005).ReadingsinclassicalChinesephilosophy.HackettPublishing.p. 60.ISBN 978-0-87220-780-6.headvocatedaformofstateconsequentialism,whichsoughttomaximizethreebasicgoods:thewealth,order,andpopulationofthestate ^Fraser,Chris,"Mohism",TheStanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy,EdwardN.Zalta. ^abLoewe,Michael;Shaughnessy,EdwardL.(1999).TheCambridgeHistoryofAncientChina.CambridgeUniversityPress.p. 761.ISBN 978-0-521-47030-8. ^VanNorden,BryanW.(2011).IntroductiontoClassicalChinesePhilosophy.HackettPublishing.p. 52.ISBN 978-1-60384-468-0. ^JayL.Garfield;WilliamEdelglass(2011).TheOxfordHandbookofWorldPhilosophy.OxfordUniversityPress.p. 62.ISBN 978-0-19-532899-8.Thegoodsthatserveascriteriaofmoralityarecollectiveorpublic,incontrast,forinstance,toindividualhappinessorwell-being ^Anscombe,G.E.M.(1958)."ModernMoralPhilosophy".Philosophy.33(124):1–19.doi:10.1017/S0031819100037943. ^Mackie,J.L.(1990)[1977].Ethics:InventingRightandWrong.London:Penguin.ISBN 978-0-14-013558-9. ^Baqgini,Julian;Fosl,PeterS.(2007).TheEthicsToolkit:ACompendiumofEthicalConceptsandMethods.Malden:Blackwell.pp. 57–58.ISBN 978-1-4051-3230-5. ^Bentham,Jeremy(2001).TheWorksofJeremyBentham:PublishedundertheSuperintendenceofHisExecutor,JohnBowring.Volume1.AdamantMediaCorporation.p. 18.ISBN 978-1-4021-6393-7. ^Mill,JohnStuart,Utilitarianism(ProjectGutenbergonlineedition) ^Mill,JohnStuart(1998).Utilitarianism.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-19-875163-2. ^"UtilitarianTheories".DepartmentofPhilosophy,CarnegieMellonUniversity.1996.RetrievedJuly28,2017. ^Stanford.edu ^Olson,RobertG.1967.'DeontologicalEthics'.InPaulEdwards(ed.)TheEncyclopediaofPhilosophy.London:CollierMacmillan:343. ^Orend,Brian.2000.WarandInternationalJustice:AKantianPerspective.WestWaterloo,Ontario:WilfridLaurierUniversityPress:19. ^Kelly,Eugene.2006.TheBasicsofWesternPhilosophy.GreenwoodPress:160. ^Kant,Immanuel(1889).TheMetaphysicalElementsofEthics.TranslatedbyThomasKingsmillAbbott.Longmans,Green&Co.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonOctober14,2016.PrefaceandIntroductiontoMetaphysischeAnfangsgründederTugendlehre,1797.Abbott'sdeontologytranslatesKant'sPflichtenlehre. ^abcKant,Immanuel.1785.'FirstSection:TransitionfromtheCommonRationalKnowledgeofMoralstothePhilosophical',GroundworkoftheMetaphysicofMorals. ^Kant,Immanuel(1785).ThomasKingsmillAbbott(ed.).FundamentalPrinciplesoftheMetaphysicofMorals(10 ed.).ProjectGutenberg.p. 23. ^"ÜbereinvermeintesRechtausMenschenliebezulügen",BerlinischeBlätter1(1797),301-314;editedin:WerkeinzwölfBänden,vol.8,FrankfurtamMain(1977),zeno.org/nid/20009192123. ^Wierenga,Edward.1983."ADefensibleDivineCommandTheory".Noûs,Vol.17,No.3:387–407. ^Cudworth,Ralph.1731.ATreatiseConcerningEternalandImmutableMorality.Reprintedin1996.SarahHutton(ed.).Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress. ^PayrowShabani2003,p.53 ^Collin2007,p.78 ^abPayrowShabani2003,p.54 ^PayrowShabani2003,pp.55–56 ^Lafollette,Hugh,ed.(2000).TheBlackwellGuidetoEthicalTheory.BlackwellPhilosophyGuides(1 ed.).Wiley-Blackwell.ISBN 978-0-631-20119-9. ^abCarolGilligan(2009).InaDifferentVoice.HarvardUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-674-03761-8. ^Tong,Rosemarie;Williams,Nancy(May4,2009)."FeministEthics".StanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy.TheMetaphysicsResearchLab.RetrievedJanuary6,2017. ^Noddings,Nel:Caring:AFeminineApproachtoEthicsandMoralEducation,pp.3–4.UniversityofCaliforniaPress,Berkeley,1984. ^Noddings,Nel:WomenandEvil,p.222.UniversityofCaliforniaPress,Berkeley,1989. ^abRogerT.Ames(2011).ConfucianRoleEthics:AVocabulary.UniversityofHawaiʻiPress.ISBN 978-0-8248-3576-7. ^abChrisFraser;DanRobins;TimothyO'Leary(2011).EthicsinEarlyChina:AnAnthology.HongKongUniversityPress.pp. 17–35.ISBN 978-988-8028-93-1. ^Sim,May,2015,"WhyConfucius'EthicsisaVirtueEthics",inBesser-JonesandSlote(2015),pp.63–76 ^WonsukChang;LeahKalmanson(2010).ConfucianisminContext:ClassicPhilosophyandContemporaryIssues,EastAsiaandBeyond.SUNYPress.p. 68.ISBN 978-1-4384-3191-8. ^"Ethics:OriginandDevelopment"byPëtrKropotkin ^"Anarchistmorality",chapterVI,PëtrKropotkin ^Bauman,Zygmunt(1993).PostmodernEthics.Oxford:BlackwellPublishers.pp. 84,245. ^Hoy2004,p. 103.sfnerror:notarget:CITEREFHoy2004(help) ^Hoy2004,p. 8.sfnerror:notarget:CITEREFHoy2004(help) ^Hoy2004,p. 184.sfnerror:notarget:CITEREFHoy2004(help) ^Dubljević,Veljko;Sattler,Sebastian;Racine,Eric(2018)."Decipheringmoralintuition:Howagents,deeds,andconsequencesinfluencemoraljudgment".PLOSOne.13(10):e0206750.Bibcode:2018PLoSO..1304631D.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0204631.PMC 6166963.PMID 30273370. ^"Astroethics".ArchivedfromtheoriginalonOctober23,2013.RetrievedDecember21,2005. ^Freemont,P.F.;Kitney,R.I.(2012).SyntheticBiology.NewJersey:WorldScientific.ISBN 978-1-84816-862-6. ^Mautner,MichaelN.(2009)."Life-centeredethics,andthehumanfutureinspace"(PDF).Bioethics.23(8):433–440.doi:10.1111/j.1467-8519.2008.00688.x.PMID 19077128.S2CID 25203457. ^Mautner,MichaelN.(2000).SeedingtheUniversewithLife:SecuringOurCosmologicalFuture(PDF).Washington,DC.ISBN 978-0-476-00330-9. ^Smith,A(1776/1952).AnInquiryIntotheNatureandCausesoftheWealthofNations.Chicago,Illinois:UniversityofChicagoPress,p.55. ^Berle,A.A.,&Means,G.C.(1932).TheModernCorporationandPrivateProperty.NewJersey:TransactionPublishers.Inthisbook,BerleandMeansobserve,"Corporationshaveceasedtobemerelylegaldevicesthroughwhichtheprivatebusinesstransactionsofindividualsmaybecarriedon.Thoughstillmuchusedforthispurpose,thecorporateformhasacquiredamuchlargersignificance.Thecorporationhas,infact,becomebothamethodofpropertytenureandameansoforganizingeconomiclife.Growntotremendousproportions,theremaybesaidtohaveevolveda'corporatesystem'—asthereoncewasafeudalsystem—whichhasattractedtoitselfacombinationofattributesandpowers,andhasattainedadegreeofprominenceentitlingittobedealtwithasamajorsocialinstitution. ...Weareexaminingthisinstitutionprobablybeforeithasattaineditszenith.Spectacularasitsrisehasbeen,everyindicationseemstobethatthesystemwillmoveforwardtoproportionswhichstaggerimaginationtoday ...They[management]haveplacedthecommunityinapositiontodemandthatthemoderncorporationservenotonlytheowners ...butallsociety."p.1. ^Jones,C.;Parker,M.;et al.(2005).ForBusinessEthics:ACriticalText.London:Routledge.p. 17.ISBN 978-0-415-31135-9. ^Ferrell,O.C.(2015).BusinessEthics:EthicalDecisionMakingandCases.ISBN 978-1-305-50084-6. ^Carter,CraigR.(2000)."PrecursorsofUnethicalBehaviorinGlobalSupplierManagement".JournalofSupplyChainManagement.36(4):45–56.doi:10.1111/j.1745-493X.2000.tb00069.x.ISSN 1745-493X. ^"Citi|InvestorRelations|EthicsHotline".www.citigroup.com.RetrievedJune15,2020. ^Wallach,Wendell;Allen,Colin(2008).MoralMachines:TeachingRobotsRightfromWrong.USA:OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-19-537404-9. ^Knight,Will."ThisProgramCanGiveAIaSenseofEthics—Sometimes".Wired.ISSN 1059-1028.RetrievedOctober30,2021. ^Cook,MartinL.;Syse,Henrik(2010)."WhatShouldWeMeanby'MilitaryEthics'?".JournalofMilitaryEthics.9(2).p. 122. ^Goffi,Emmanuel(2011).LesArméeFrançaisesFaceàlaMorale[TheFrenchArmyFacingMorale](inFrench).France:L'Harmattan.ISBN 978-2-296-54249-5. ^Thompson,DennisF."PoliticalEthics".InternationalEncyclopediaofEthics,ed.HughLaFollette(BlackwellPublishing,2012). ^See,forexample,workofInstituteforLocalGovernment,atwww.ca-ilg.org/trust. ^abMorton,Neil(October2009)."Publicationethics"(PDF).PediatricAnesthesia.19(10):1011–1013.doi:10.1111/j.1460-9592.2009.03086.x.PMID 19619189.S2CID 45641680. ^Wager,E.;Fiack,S.;Graf,C.;Robinson,A.;Rowlands,I.(March31,2009)."Sciencejournaleditors'viewsonpublicationethics:resultsofaninternationalsurvey".JournalofMedicalEthics.35(6):348–353.doi:10.1136/jme.2008.028324.PMID 19482976. ^Scollon,Ron(June1999)."Plagiarism".JournalofLinguisticAnthropology.9(1–2):188–190.doi:10.1525/jlin.1999.9.1-2.188.JSTOR 43102462.S2CID 214832669. ^Wager,Elizabeth;Williams,Peter(September2011)."Whyandhowdojournalsretractarticles?AnanalysisofMedlineretractions1988—2008".JournalofMedicalEthics.37(9):567–570.doi:10.1136/jme.2010.040964.JSTOR 23034717.PMID 21486985. ^Sanjeev,Handa(2008)."Plagiarismandpublicationethics:Dosanddon'ts".IndianJournalofDermatology,VenereologyandLeprology.74(4):301–303.doi:10.4103/0378-6323.42882.PMID 18797047. ^Sigelman,Lee(2000)."PublicationBiasReconsidered".PoliticalAnalysis.8(2):201–210.doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.pan.a029813.JSTOR 25791607. ^Peters,JamieL.;Sutton,AlexJ.;Jones,DavidR.;Abrams,KeithR.;Rushton,Lesley;Moreno,SantiagoG.(July2010)."Assessingpublicationbiasinmeta-analysisinthepresenceofbetween-studyheterogeneity".JournaloftheRoyalStatisticalSociety,SeriesA(StatisticsinSociety).173(3):575–591.doi:10.1111/j.1467-985x.2009.00629.x. ^abSmith,Richard(July26,1997)."MisconductinResearch:EditorsRespond:TheCommitteeonPublicationEthics(COPE)IsFormed".BritishMedicalJournal.315(7102):201–202.doi:10.1136/bmj.315.7102.201.JSTOR 25175246.PMC 2127155.PMID 9253258. ^Ellis,C(2007)."Tellingsecrets,revealinglives:Relationalethicsinresearchwithintimateothers".QualitativeInquiry.13:3–29.CiteSeerX 10.1.1.574.7450.doi:10.1177/1077800406294947.S2CID 143995976. ^Ellis,C.(1986).Fisherfolk.TwocommunitiesonChesapeakeBay.Lexington:UniversityPressofKentucky. ^Ellis,C.(1995).Finalnegotiations:Astoryoflove,loss,andchronicillness.Philadelphia:TempleUniversityPress. ^See,forexample,Lapsley(2006)and"moralpsychology"(2007). ^See,forexample,Doris&Stich(2008)andWallace(2007).Wallacewrites:"Moralpsychologyisthestudyofmoralityinitspsychologicaldimensions"(p.86). ^SeeDoris&Stich(2008),§1. ^DorisSchroeder."EvolutionaryEthics".ArchivedfromtheoriginalonOctober7,2013.RetrievedJanuary5,2010. ^HaryGunarto,EthicalIssuesinCyberspaceandITSociety,SymposiumonWhitherTheAgeofUncertainty,APUUniv.,paper,Jan.2003 References[edit] Hoy,D.(2005).CriticalResistancefromPoststructuralismtoPostcritique.MassachusettsInstituteofTechnology,Cambridge,Massachusetts. Lyon,D.(1999).Postmodernity(2nded.).OpenUniversityPress,Buckingham. Singer,P.(2000).WritingsonanEthicalLife.HarperCollinsPublishers,London. Furtherreading[edit] Aristotle,NicomacheanEthics TheLondonPhilosophyStudyGuideArchivedSeptember23,2009,attheWaybackMachineoffersmanysuggestionsonwhattoread,dependingonthestudent'sfamiliaritywiththesubject:EthicsArchivedNovember11,2020,attheWaybackMachine EncyclopediaofEthics.LawrenceC.BeckerandCharlotteB.Becker,editors.Secondeditioninthreevolumes.NewYork:Routledge,2002.Ascholarlyencyclopediawithover500signed,peer-reviewedarticles,mostlyontopicsandfiguresof,orofspecialinterestin,Westernphilosophy. Azurmendi,J.1998:"Theviolenceandthesearchfornewvalues"inEuskalHerriakrisian,(Elkar,1999),pp. 11–116.ISBN 84-8331-572-6 Blackburn,S.(2001).Beinggood:Ashortintroductiontoethics.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress. DeFinance,Joseph,AnEthicalInquiry,Rome,EditricePontificiaUniversitàGregoriana,1991. DeLaTorre,MiguelA.,"DoingChristianEthicsfromtheMargins",OrbisBooks,2004. Derrida,J.1995,TheGiftofDeath,translatedbyDavidWills,UniversityofChicagoPress,Chicago. Fagothey,Austin,RightandReason,TanBooks&Publishers,Rockford,Illinois,2000. Levinas,E.1969,Totalityandinfinity,anessayonexteriority,translatedbyAlphonsoLingis,DuquesneUniversityPress,Pittsburgh. Perle,Stephen(March11,2004)."MoralityandEthics:AnIntroduction".RetrievedFebruary13,2007.,Butchvarov,Panayot.SkepticisminEthics(1989). JadrankaSkorin-Kapov,TheIntertwiningofAestheticsandEthics:ExceedingofExpectations,Ecstasy,Sublimity.LexingtonBooks,2016.ISBN 978-1-4985-2456-8 Solomon,R.C.,MoralityandtheGoodLife:AnIntroductiontoEthicsThroughClassicalSources,NewYork:McGraw-HillBookCompany,1984. Vendemiati,Aldo,IntheFirstPerson,AnOutlineofGeneralEthics,Rome,UrbanianaUniversityPress,2004. JohnPaulII,EncyclicalLetterVeritatisSplendor,August6,1993. D'Urance,Michel,Jalonspouruneéthiquerebelle,Aléthéia,Paris,2005. JohnNewton,Ph.D.CompleteConductPrinciplesforthe21stCentury,2000.ISBN 0-9673705-7-4. GuyCools&PascalGielen,TheEthicsofArt.Valiz:Amsterdam,2014. Lafollette,Hugh[ed.]:EthicsinPractice:AnAnthology.WileyBlackwell,4thedition,Oxford2014.ISBN 978-0-470-67183-2 AnentireissueofPacificIslandStudiesdevotedtostudying"ConstructingMoralCommunities"inPacificislands,2002,vol.25:Link[permanentdeadlink] PaulR.Ehrlich(May2016),Conferenceonpopulation,environment,ethics:wherewestandnow(video,93min),UniversityofLausanne Adler,Mortimer(1985).TenPhilosophicalMistakes:BasicErrorsInModernThought-Howtheycameabout,theirconsequences,andhowtoavoidthem.Macmillan.ISBN 0-02-500330-5. Nagel,Thomas,"TypesofIntuition:ThomasNagelonhumanrightsandmoralknowledge",LondonReviewofBooks,vol.43,no.11(3June2021),pp.3,5–6,8.Deontology,consequentialism,utilitarianism. Externallinks[edit] EthicsatWikipedia'ssisterprojectsDefinitionsfromWiktionaryMediafromCommonsQuotationsfromWikiquoteTextsfromWikisourceTextbooksfromWikibooksResourcesfromWikiversityDatafromWikidata LibraryresourcesaboutEthics Resourcesinyourlibrary Resourcesinotherlibraries Meta-EthicsatPhilPapers NormativeEthicsatPhilPapers AppliedEthicsatPhilPapers EthicsattheIndianaPhilosophyOntologyProject "Ethics".InternetEncyclopediaofPhilosophy. AnIntroductiontoEthicsArchivedJune3,2013,attheWaybackMachinebyPaulNewall,aimedatbeginners. Ethics,2ded.,1973.byWilliamFrankena EthicsBites,OpenUniversitypodcastseriespodcastexploringethicaldilemmasineverydaylife. NationalReferenceCenterforBioethicsLiteratureWorld'slargestlibraryforethicalissuesinmedicineandbiomedicalresearch EthicsArchivedMarch27,2010,attheWaybackMachineentryinEncyclopædiaBritannicabyPeterSinger ThePhilosophyofEthicsonPhilosophyArchive KirbyLaingInstituteforChristianEthicsResources,events,andresearchonarangeofethicalsubjectsfromaChristianperspective. Basicprincipleofethicssummarytalk InternationalAssociationforGeoethics(IAGETH) InternationalAssociationforPromotingGeoethics(IAPG) MarkkulaCenterforAppliedEthicsatSantaClaraUniversityResourcesforanalyzingreal-worldethicalissuesandtoolstoaddressthem. EthicspublicdomainaudiobookatLibriVox vtePhilosophyBranchesTraditional Axiology Aesthetics Ethics Epistemology Logic Metaphysics Ontology Philosophyof... 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