Crime - Wikipedia

In ordinary language, a crime is an unlawful act punishable by a state or other authority. ... Governing or administering agencies may for example codify rules into ... Crime FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Forotheruses,seeCrime(disambiguation),Criminal(disambiguation),andCriminals(disambiguation). "Offender"redirectshere.Forthefilm,seeOffender(film). "Offenders"redirectshere.Forthe2017film,seeOffenders(2017film).Forthecomics,seeOffenders(comics).Forthe1921film,seeTheOffenders.Forthe1980film,seeTheOffenders(1980film).Forthe2021TVseries,seeTheOffenders(2021TVseries). IllegalbehaviordefinedbyexistingcriminallawInordinarylanguage,acrimeisanunlawfulactpunishablebyastateorotherauthority.[1]Thetermcrimedoesnot,inmoderncriminallaw,haveanysimpleanduniversallyaccepteddefinition,[2]thoughstatutorydefinitionshavebeenprovidedforcertainpurposes.[3]Themostpopularviewisthatcrimeisacategorycreatedbylaw;inotherwords,somethingisacrimeifdeclaredassuchbytherelevantandapplicablelaw.[2]Oneproposeddefinitionisthatacrimeoroffence(orcriminaloffence)isanactharmfulnotonlytosomeindividualbutalsotoacommunity,society,orthestate("apublicwrong").Suchactsareforbiddenandpunishablebylaw.[1][4] Thenotionthatactssuchasmurder,rape,andtheftaretobeprohibitedexistsworldwide.[5]Whatpreciselyisacriminaloffenceisdefinedbythecriminallawofeachrelevantjurisdiction.Whilemanyhaveacatalogueofcrimescalledthecriminalcode,insomecommonlawnationsnosuchcomprehensivestatuteexists. Thestate(government)hasthepowertoseverelyrestrictone'slibertyforcommittingacrime.Inmodernsocieties,thereareprocedurestowhichinvestigationsandtrialsmustadhere.Iffoundguilty,anoffendermaybesentencedtoaformofreparationsuchasacommunitysentence,or,dependingonthenatureoftheiroffence,toundergoimprisonment,lifeimprisonmentor,insomejurisdictions,death.Somejurisdictionssentenceindividualstoprogramstoemphasizeorprovidefortheirrehabilitationwhilemostjurisdictionssentenceindividualswiththegoalofpunishingthemoramixoftheaforementionedpractices.[citationneeded] Usually,tobeclassifiedasacrime,the"actofdoingsomethingcriminal"(actusreus)must –withcertainexceptions –beaccompaniedbythe"intentiontodosomethingcriminal"(mensrea).[4] Whileeverycrimeviolatesthelaw,noteveryviolationofthelawcountsasacrime.Breachesofprivatelaw(tortsandbreachesofcontract)arenotautomaticallypunishedbythestate,butcanbeenforcedthroughcivilprocedure. Contents 1Overview 2Etymology 3Definition 3.1EnglandandWales 3.2Scotland 3.3Sociology 3.4Otherdefinitions 4Criminalization 5Labellingtheory 6Natural-lawtheory 7History 7.1AncientNearEast 7.2RomeanditslegacyinEurope 8Classification 8.1Bytype 8.2Bypenalty 8.3Commonlaw 8.4Bymodeoftrial 8.5Byorigin 8.6UnitedStates 9Reports,studiesandorganizations 10"Offence"incommonlawjurisdictions 11Causesandcorrelates 12International 13Religion 14Militaryjurisdictionsandstatesofemergency 15Occupational 16Seealso 17Notes 18Referencesandfurtherreading 19Externallinks Overview Criminologyandpenology Theory Anomie Biosocialcriminology Brokenwindows Collectiveefficacy Crimeanalysis Criminalization Differentialassociation Deviance Expressivefunctionoflaw Labelingtheory Psychopathy Rationalchoice Risk&actuarialcriminology Socialcontrol Socialdisorganization Sociallearning Strain Subculture Symbolicinteractionism Victimology Typesofcrime Againsthumanity Againsttheperson Againstthestate Blue-collar Corporate Juvenile Organized Political Public-order State State-corporate Victimless White-collar War Methods Comparative Profiling Criticaltheory Ethnography UniformCrimeReports Crimemapping Positivistschool Qualitative Quantitative BJS NIBRS Penology Denunciation Deterrence Incapacitation Trial Prison abolition open reform Prisoner Prisonerabuse Prisoners'rights Rehabilitation Recidivism Justiceinpenology Participatory Restorative Retributive Solitaryconfinement Schools Anarchistcriminology Chicagoschool Classicalschool Conflictcriminology Criticalcriminology Environmentalcriminology Feministschool Integrativecriminology Italianschool Leftrealism Marxistcriminology Neo-classicalschool Positivistschool Postmodernistschool Rightrealism Subfields American Anthropological Biosocialcriminology Conflict Criminology Critical Culture Cyber Demography Development Environmental Experimental Organizational Political Public Radicalcriminology Browse Index Journals Organizations People vte Wheninformalrelationshipsproveinsufficienttoestablishandmaintainadesiredsocialorder,agovernmentorastatemayimposemoreformalizedorstrictersystemsofsocialcontrol.Withinstitutionalandlegalmachineryattheirdisposal,agentsofthestatecancompelpopulationstoconformtocodesandcanopttopunishorattempttoreformthosewhodonotconform. Authoritiesemployvariousmechanismstoregulate(encouragingordiscouraging)certainbehaviorsingeneral.Governingoradministeringagenciesmayforexamplecodifyrulesintolaws,policecitizensandvisitorstoensurethattheycomplywiththoselaws,andimplementotherpoliciesandpracticesthatlegislatorsoradministratorshaveprescribedwiththeaimofdiscouragingorpreventingcrime.Inaddition,authoritiesprovideremediesandsanctions,andcollectivelytheseconstituteacriminaljusticesystem.Legalsanctionsvarywidelyintheirseverity;theymayinclude(forexample)incarcerationoftemporarycharacteraimedatreformingtheconvict.Somejurisdictionshavepenalcodeswrittentoinflictpermanentharshpunishments:legalmutilation,capitalpunishment,orlifewithoutparole. Usually,anaturalpersonperpetratesacrime,butlegalpersonsmayalsocommitcrimes.Historically,severalpremodernsocietiesbelievedthatnon-humananimalswerecapableofcommittingcrimes,andprosecutedandpunishedthemaccordingly.[6] ThesociologistRichardQuinneyhaswrittenabouttherelationshipbetweensocietyandcrime.WhenQuinneystates"crimeisasocialphenomenon"heenvisagesbothhowindividualsconceivecrimeandhowpopulationsperceiveit,basedonsocietalnorms.[7] Etymology ThewordcrimeisderivedfromtheLatinrootcernō,meaning"Idecide,Igivejudgment".OriginallytheLatinwordcrīmenmeant"charge"or"cryofdistress".[8]TheAncientGreekwordκρίμα,krima,fromwhichtheLatincognatederives,typicallyreferredtoanintellectualmistakeoranoffenseagainstthecommunity,ratherthanaprivateormoralwrong.[9] In13thcenturyEnglishcrimemeant"sinfulness",accordingtotheOnlineEtymologyDictionary.ItwasprobablybroughttoEnglandasOldFrenchcrimne(12thcenturyformofModernFrenchcrime),fromLatincrimen(inthegenitivecase:criminis).InLatin,crimencouldhavesignifiedanyoneofthefollowing:"charge,indictment,accusation;crime,fault,offense". ThewordmayderivefromtheLatincernere–"todecide,tosift"(seecrisis,mappedonKairosandChronos).ButErnestKlein(citingKarlBrugmann)rejectsthisandsuggests*cri-men,whichoriginallywouldhavemeant"cryofdistress".ThomasG.Tuckersuggestsarootin"cry"wordsandreferstoEnglishplaint,plaintiff,andsoon.Themeaning"offensepunishablebylaw"datesfromthelate14thcentury.TheLatinwordisglossedinOldEnglishbyfacen,also"deceit,fraud,treachery",[cf.fake].Crimewaveisfirstattestedin1893inAmericanEnglish. Definition Criminallaw Elements Actusreus Mensrea Causation Concurrence Scopeofcriminalliability Accessory Accomplice Complicity Corporate Principal Vicarious Severityofoffense Felony Infraction(alsocalledviolation) Misdemeanor Inchoateoffenses Attempt Conspiracy Incitement Solicitation Crimesagainsttheperson Assassination Assault Battery Childabuse Criminalnegligence Defamation Domesticviolence Falseimprisonment Harassment Homeinvasion Homicide Intimidation Kidnapping Castration Manslaughter (corporate) Mayhem Murder corporate Negligenthomicide Invasionofprivacy Robbery Stalking Torture Sexualoffenses Adultery Bigamy Childsexualabuse Cybersextrafficking Fornication Homosexuality Incest Indecentexposure Masturbation Obscenity Prostitution Rape Sextrafficking Sexualassault Sexualslavery Crimesagainstproperty Arson Blackmail Bribery Burglary Embezzlement Extortion Falsepretenses Forgery Fraud Gambling Intellectualpropertyviolation Larceny Payola Pickpocketing Possessingstolenproperty Robbery Smuggling Taxevasion Theft Vandalism Crimesagainstjustice Compounding Malfeasanceinoffice Miscarriageofjustice Misprision Obstruction Perjury Pervertingthecourseofjustice Crimesagainstthepublic Apostasy Begging Censorshipviolation Dueling Miscegenation Illegalconsumption(suchasprohibitionofdrugs,alcohol,andsmoking) Suicide Terrorism Crimesagainstanimals Crueltytoanimals Wildlifesmuggling Bestiality Crimesagainstthestate Lèse-majesté Treason Espionage Secession Sedition Subversion Defencestoliability Automatism Consent Defenceofproperty Diminishedresponsibility Duress Entrapment Ignorantiajurisnonexcusat Infancy Insanity Justification Mistake (oflaw) Necessity Provocation Self-defence Othercommon-lawareas Contracts Evidence Property Torts Wills,trustsandestates Portals Law vte EnglandandWales Whetheragivenactoromissionconstitutesacrimedoesnotdependonthenatureofthatactoromission;itdependsonthenatureofthelegalconsequencesthatmayfollowit.[10]Anactoromissionisacrimeifitiscapableofbeingfollowedbywhatarecalledcriminalproceedings.[11][12] ThefollowingdefinitionofcrimewasprovidedbythePreventionofCrimesAct1871,andapplied[13]forthepurposesofsection10ofthePreventionofCrimeAct1908: Theexpression"crime"means,inEnglandandIreland,anyfelonyortheoffenceofutteringfalseorcounterfeitcoin,orofpossessingcounterfeitgoldorsilvercoin,ortheoffenceofobtaininggoodsormoneybyfalsepretences,ortheoffenceofconspiracytodefraud,oranymisdemeanourunderthefifty-eighthsectionoftheLarcenyAct,1861. Scotland Forthepurposeofsection243oftheTradeUnionandLabourRelations(Consolidation)Act1992,acrimemeansanoffencepunishableonindictment,oranoffencepunishableonsummaryconviction,andforthecommissionofwhichtheoffenderisliableunderthestatutemakingtheoffencepunishabletobeimprisonedeitherabsolutelyoratthediscretionofthecourtasanalternativeforsomeotherpunishment.[14] Sociology Anormativedefinitionviewscrimeasdeviantbehaviorthatviolatesprevailingnorms –culturalstandardsprescribinghowhumansoughttobehavenormally.Thisapproachconsidersthecomplexrealitiessurroundingtheconceptofcrimeandseekstounderstandhowchangingsocial,political,psychological,andeconomicconditionsmayaffectchangingdefinitionsofcrimeandtheformofthelegal,law-enforcement,andpenalresponsesmadebysociety. Thesestructuralrealitiesremainfluidandoftencontentious.Forexample:ascultureschangeandthepoliticalenvironmentshifts,societiesmaycriminaliseordecriminalisecertainbehaviours,whichdirectlyaffectsthestatisticalcrimerates,influencetheallocationofresourcesfortheenforcementoflaws,and(re-)influencethegeneralpublicopinion. Similarly,changesinthecollectionand/orcalculationofdataoncrimemayaffectthepublicperceptionsoftheextentofanygiven"crimeproblem".Allsuchadjustmentstocrimestatistics,alliedwiththeexperienceofpeopleintheireverydaylives,shapeattitudesontheextenttowhichthestateshoulduselaworsocialengineeringtoenforceorencourageanyparticularsocialnorm.Behaviourcanbecontrolledandinfluencedbyasocietyinmanywayswithouthavingtoresorttothecriminaljusticesystem. Indeed,inthosecaseswherenoclearconsensusexistsonagivennorm,thedraftingofcriminallawbythegroupinpowertoprohibitthebehaviourofanothergroupmayseemtosomeobserversanimproperlimitationofthesecondgroup'sfreedom,andtheordinarymembersofsocietyhavelessrespectforthelaworlawsingeneral –whethertheauthoritiesactuallyenforcethedisputedlawornot. Otherdefinitions Legislaturescanpasslaws(calledmalaprohibita)thatdefinecrimesagainstsocialnorms.Theselawsvaryfromtimetotimeandfromplacetoplace:notevariationsingamblinglaws,forexample,andtheprohibitionorencouragementofduellinginhistory.Othercrimes,calledmalainse,countasoutlawedinalmostallsocieties,(murder,theftandrape,forexample). EnglishcriminallawandtherelatedcriminallawofCommonwealthcountriescandefineoffencesthatthecourtsalonehavedevelopedovertheyears,withoutanyactuallegislation:commonlawoffences.Thecourtsusedtheconceptofmaluminsetodevelopvariouscommonlawoffences.[15] Criminalization Mainarticle:Criminalization ThespikedheadsofexecutedcriminalsonceadornedthegatehouseofthemedievalLondonBridge. Onecanviewcriminalizationasaproceduredeployedbysocietyasapreemptiveharm-reductiondevice,usingthethreatofpunishmentasadeterrenttoanyoneproposingtoengageinthebehaviorcausingharm.Thestatebecomesinvolvedbecausegoverningentitiescanbecomeconvincedthatthecostsofnotcriminalizing(throughallowingtheharmstocontinueunabated)outweighthecostsofcriminalizingit(restrictingindividualliberty,forexample,tominimizeharmtoothers).[citationneeded] Statescontroltheprocessofcriminalizationbecause: Evenifvictimsrecognizetheirownroleasvictims,theymaynothavetheresourcestoinvestigateandseeklegalredressfortheinjuriessuffered:theenforcersformallyappointedbythestateoftenhavebetteraccesstoexpertiseandresources. Thevictimsmayonlywantcompensationfortheinjuriessuffered,whileremainingindifferenttoapossibledesirefordeterrence.[16] Fearofretaliationmaydetervictimsorwitnessesofcrimesfromtakinganyaction.Eveninpolicedsocieties,fearmayinhibitfromreportingincidentsorfromco-operatinginatrial. Victims,ontheirown,maylacktheeconomiesofscalethatcouldallowthemtoadministerapenalsystem,letalonetocollectanyfinesleviedbyacourt.[17]GaroupaandKlerman(2002)warnthatarent-seekinggovernmenthasasitsprimarymotivationtomaximizerevenueandso,ifoffendershavesufficientwealth,arent-seekinggovernmentwillactmoreaggressivelythanasocial-welfare-maximizinggovernmentinenforcinglawsagainstminorcrimes(usuallywithafixedpenaltysuchasparkingandroutinetrafficviolations),butmorelaxlyinenforcinglawsagainstmajorcrimes. Asaresultofthecrime,victimsmaydieorbecomeincapacitated. Labellingtheory Furtherinformation:Labelingtheory§ The"criminal" Thelabelof"crime"andtheaccompanyingsocialstigmanormallyconfinetheirscopetothoseactivitiesseenasinjurioustothegeneralpopulationortothestate,includingsomethatcauseseriouslossordamagetoindividuals.Thosewhoapplythelabelsof"crime"or"criminal"intendtoassertthehegemonyofadominantpopulation,ortoreflectaconsensusofcondemnationfortheidentifiedbehaviorandtojustifyanypunishmentsprescribedbythestate(ifstandardprocessingtriesandconvictsanaccusedpersonofacrime). Natural-lawtheory Justifyingthestate'suseofforcetocoercecompliancewithitslawshasprovenaconsistenttheoreticalproblem.Oneoftheearliestjustificationsinvolvedthetheoryofnaturallaw.Thispositsthatthenatureoftheworldorofhumanbeingsunderliesthestandardsofmoralityorconstructsthem.ThomasAquinaswroteinthe13thcentury:"theruleandmeasureofhumanactsisthereason,whichisthefirstprincipleofhumanacts".[18]Heregardedpeopleasbynaturerationalbeings,concludingthatitbecomesmorallyappropriatethattheyshouldbehaveinawaythatconformstotheirrationalnature.Thus,tobevalid,anylawmustconformtonaturallawandcoercingpeopletoconformtothatlawismorallyacceptable.Inthe1760s,WilliamBlackstonedescribedthethesis:[19] "Thislawofnature,beingco-evalwithmankindanddictatedbyGodhimself,isofcoursesuperiorinobligationtoanyother.Itisbindingoveralltheglobe,inallcountries,andatalltimes:nohumanlawsareofanyvalidity,ifcontrarytothis;andsuchofthemasarevalidderivealltheirforce,andalltheirauthority,mediatelyorimmediately,fromthisoriginal." ButJohnAustin(1790–1859),anearlypositivist,appliedutilitarianisminacceptingthecalculatingnatureofhumanbeingsandtheexistenceofanobjectivemorality.Hedeniedthatthelegalvalidityofanormdependsonwhetheritscontentconformstomorality.ThusinAustinianterms,amoralcodecanobjectivelydeterminewhatpeopleoughttodo,thelawcanembodywhatevernormsthelegislaturedecreestoachievesocialutility,buteveryindividualremainsfreetochoosewhattodo.Similarly,H.L.A.Hartsawthelawasanaspectofsovereignty,withlawmakersabletoadoptanylawasameanstoamoralend.[20] Thusthenecessaryandsufficientconditionsforthetruthofapropositionoflawsimplyinvolvedinternallogicandconsistency,andthatthestate'sagentsusedstatepowerwithresponsibility.RonaldDworkinrejectsHart'stheoryandproposesthatallindividualsshouldexpecttheequalrespectandconcernofthosewhogovernthemasafundamentalpoliticalright.Heoffersatheoryofcomplianceoverlaidbyatheoryofdeference(thecitizen'sdutytoobeythelaw)andatheoryofenforcement,whichidentifiesthelegitimategoalsofenforcementandpunishment.Legislationmustconformtoatheoryoflegitimacy,whichdescribesthecircumstancesunderwhichaparticularpersonorgroupisentitledtomakelaw,andatheoryoflegislativejustice,whichdescribesthelawtheyareentitledorobligedtomake.[21] Therearenatural-lawtheoristswhohaveacceptedtheideaofenforcingtheprevailingmoralityasaprimaryfunctionofthelaw.[22]Thisviewentailstheproblemthatitmakesanymoralcriticismofthelawimpossible:ifconformitywithnaturallawformsanecessaryconditionforlegalvalidity,allvalidlawmust,bydefinition,countasmorallyjust.Thus,onthislineofreasoning,thelegalvalidityofanormnecessarilyentailsitsmoraljustice.[23] Onecansolvethisproblembygrantingsomedegreeofmoralrelativismandacceptingthatnormsmayevolveovertimeand,therefore,onecancriticizethecontinuedenforcementofoldlawsinthelightofthecurrentnorms.Peoplemayfindsuchlawacceptable,buttheuseofstatepowertocoercecitizenstocomplywiththatlawlacksmoraljustification.Morerecentconceptionsofthetheorycharacterisecrimeastheviolationofindividualrights. Sincesocietyconsiderssomanyrightsasnatural(hencethetermright)ratherthanman-made,whatconstitutesacrimealsocountsasnatural,incontrasttolaws(seenasman-made).AdamSmithillustratesthisview,sayingthatasmugglerwouldbeanexcellentcitizen,"...hadnotthelawsofhiscountrymadethatacrimewhichnaturenevermeanttobeso." Natural-lawtheorythereforedistinguishesbetween"criminality"(whichderivesfromhumannature)and"illegality"(whichoriginateswiththeinterestsofthoseinpower).Lawyerssometimesexpressthetwoconceptswiththephrasesmaluminseandmalumprohibitumrespectively.Theyregarda"crimemaluminse"asinherentlycriminal;whereasa"crimemalumprohibitum"(theargumentgoes)countsascriminalonlybecausethelawhasdecreeditso. Itfollowsfromthisviewthatonecanperformanillegalactwithoutcommittingacrime,whileacriminalactcouldbeperfectlylegal.ManyEnlightenmentthinkers(suchasAdamSmithandtheAmericanFoundingFathers)subscribedtothisviewtosomeextent,anditremainsinfluentialamongso-calledclassicalliberals[citationneeded]andlibertarians.[citationneeded] History Somereligiouscommunitiesregardsinasacrime;somemayevenhighlightthecrimeofsinveryearlyinlegendaryormythologicalaccountsoforigins –notethetaleofAdamandEveandthetheoryoforiginalsin.Whatonegroupconsidersacrimemaycauseorignitewarorconflict.However,theearliestknowncivilizationshadcodesoflaw,containingbothcivilandpenalrulesmixedtogether,thoughnotalwaysinrecordedform. AncientNearEast TheSumeriansproducedtheearliestsurvivingwrittencodes.[24]Urukagina(reignedc. 2380BC –c. 2360BC,shortchronology)hadanearlycodethathasnotsurvived;alaterking,Ur-Nammu,lefttheearliestextantwrittenlawsystem,theCodeofUr-Nammu(c. 2100 –c. 2050BC),whichprescribedaformalsystemofpenaltiesforspecificcasesin57articles.TheSumerianslaterissuedothercodes,includingthe"codeofLipit-Ishtar".Thiscode,fromthe20thcenturyBCE,containssomefiftyarticles,andscholarshavereconstructeditbycomparingseveralsources.TheSumerianwasdeeplyconsciousofhispersonalrightsandresentedanyencroachmentonthem,whetherbyhisKing,hissuperior,orhisequal.NowonderthattheSumerianswerethefirsttocompilelawsandlawcodes.— Kramer[25] SuccessivelegalcodesinBabylon,includingthecodeofHammurabi(c. 1790BC),reflectedMesopotamiansociety'sbeliefthatlawderivedfromthewillofthegods(seeBabylonianlaw).[26][27] Manystatesatthistimefunctionedastheocracies,withcodesofconductlargelyreligiousinoriginorreference.IntheSanskrittextsofDharmaśāstra(c. 1250BC),issuessuchaslegalandreligiousduties,codeofconduct,penaltiesandremedies,etc.havebeendiscussedandformsoneoftheelaborateandearliestsourceoflegalcode.[28][29] SirHenryMainestudiedtheancientcodesavailableinhisday,andfailedtofindanycriminallawinthe"modern"senseoftheword.[30]Whilemodernsystemsdistinguishbetweenoffencesagainstthe"state"or"community",andoffencesagainstthe"individual",theso-calledpenallawofancientcommunitiesdidnotdealwith"crimes"(Latin:crimina),butwith"wrongs"(Latin:delicta).ThustheHelleniclawstreatedallformsoftheft,assault,rape,andmurderasprivatewrongs,andleftactionforenforcementuptothevictimsortheirsurvivors.Theearliestsystemsseemtohavelackedformalcourts.[31][32] RomeanditslegacyinEurope Thissectionneedsadditionalcitationsforverification.Pleasehelpimprovethisarticlebyaddingcitationstoreliablesources.Unsourcedmaterialmaybechallengedandremoved.Findsources: "Crime" – news ·newspapers ·books ·scholar ·JSTOR(June2022)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) TheRomanssystematizedlawandappliedtheirsystemacrosstheRomanEmpire.Again,theinitialrulesofRomanlawregardedassaultsasamatterofprivatecompensation.ThemostsignificantRomanlawconceptinvolveddominion.[33]Thepaterfamiliasownedallthefamilyanditsproperty(includingslaves);thepaterenforcedmattersinvolvinginterferencewithanyproperty.TheCommentariesofGaius(writtenbetween130and180AD)ontheTwelveTablestreatedfurtum(inmodernparlance:"theft")asatort. Similarly,assaultandviolentrobberyinvolvedtrespassastothepater'sproperty(so,forexample,therapeofaslavecouldbecomethesubjectofcompensationtothepaterashavingtrespassedonhis"property"),andbreachofsuchlawscreatedavinculumjuris(anobligationoflaw)thatonlythepaymentofmonetarycompensation(modern"damages")coulddischarge.Similarly,theconsolidatedTeutoniclawsoftheGermanictribes,[34]includedacomplexsystemofmonetarycompensationsforwhatcourtswouldnow[update]considerthecomplete[citationneeded]rangeofcriminaloffencesagainsttheperson,frommurderdown. EventhoughRomeabandoneditsBritannicprovincesaround400AD,theGermanicmercenaries –whohadlargelybecomeinstrumentalinenforcingRomanruleinBritannia –acquiredownershipoflandthereandcontinuedtouseamixtureofRomanandTeutonicLaw,withmuchwrittendownundertheearlyAnglo-Saxonkings.[35]ButonlywhenamorecentralizedEnglishmonarchyemergedfollowingtheNormaninvasion,andwhenthekingsofEnglandattemptedtoassertpoweroverthelandanditspeoples,didthemodernconceptemerge,namelyofacrimenotonlyasanoffenceagainstthe"individual",butalsoasawrongagainstthe"state".[36] Thisideacamefromcommonlaw,andtheearliestconceptionofacriminalactinvolvedeventsofsuchmajorsignificancethatthe"state"hadtousurptheusualfunctionsoftheciviltribunals,anddirectaspeciallaworprivilegiumagainsttheperpetrator.AlltheearliestEnglishcriminaltrialsinvolvedwhollyextraordinaryandarbitrarycourtswithoutanysettledlawtoapply,whereasthecivil(delictual)lawoperatedinahighlydevelopedandconsistentmanner(exceptwhereakingwantedtoraisemoneybysellinganewformofwrit).Thedevelopmentoftheideathatthe"state"dispensesjusticeinacourtonlyemergesinparallelwithoraftertheemergenceoftheconceptofsovereignty. IncontinentalEurope,Romanlawpersisted,butwithastrongerinfluencefromtheChristianChurch.[37]Coupledwiththemorediffusepoliticalstructurebasedonsmallerfeudalunits,variouslegaltraditionsemerged,remainingmorestronglyrootedinRomanjurisprudence,butmodifiedtomeettheprevailingpoliticalclimate. InScandinaviatheeffectofRomanlawdidnotbecomeapparentuntilthe17thcentury,andthecourtsgrewoutofthethings –theassembliesofthepeople.Thepeopledecidedthecases(usuallywithlargestfreeholdersdominating).Thissystemlatergraduallydevelopedintoasystemwitharoyaljudgenominatinganumberofthemostesteemedmenoftheparishashisboard,fulfillingthefunctionof"thepeople"ofyore. FromtheHellenicsystemonwards,thepolicyrationaleforrequiringthepaymentofmonetarycompensationforwrongscommittedhasinvolvedtheavoidanceoffeudingbetweenclansandfamilies.[38]Ifcompensationcouldmollifyfamilies'feelings,thiswouldhelptokeepthepeace.Ontheotherhand,theinstitutionofoathsalsoplayeddownthethreatoffeudalwarfare.BothinarchaicGreeceandinmedievalScandinavia,anaccusedpersonwalkedfreeifhecouldgetasufficientnumberofmalerelativestoswearhimnotguilty.(ComparetheUnitedNationsSecurityCouncil,inwhichthevetopowerofthepermanentmembersensuresthattheorganizationdoesnotbecomeinvolvedincriseswhereitcouldnotenforceitsdecisions.) Thesemeansofrestrainingprivatefeudsdidnotalwayswork,andsometimespreventedthefulfillmentofjustice.Butintheearliesttimesthe"state"didnotalwaysprovideanindependentpolicingforce.Thuscriminallawgrewoutofwhat21st-centurylawyerswouldcalltorts;and,inrealterms,manyactsandomissionsclassifiedascrimesactuallyoverlapwithcivil-lawconcepts. Thedevelopmentofsociologicalthoughtfromthe19thcenturyonwardspromptedsomefreshviewsoncrimeandcriminality,andfosteredthebeginningsofcriminologyasastudyofcrimeinsociety.Nietzschenotedalinkbetweencrimeandcreativity –inTheBirthofTragedyheasserted:[needscontext]"Thebestandbrightestthatmancanacquirehemustobtainbycrime".Inthe20thcentury,MichelFoucaultinDisciplineandPunishmadeastudyofcriminalizationasacoercivemethodofstatecontrol. Classification Bytype Thefollowingclassesofoffencesareused,orhavebeenused,aslegalterms: Offenceagainsttheperson[39] Violentoffence[40] Sexualoffence[40] Offenceagainstproperty[39] Researchersandcommentatorshaveclassifiedcrimesintothefollowingcategories,inadditiontothoseabove: Forgery,personationandcheating[41] Firearmsandoffensiveweapons[42] Offencesagainstthestate/offencesagainsttheCrownandGovernment,[43]orpoliticaloffences[44] Harmfulordangerousdrugs[45] Offencesagainstreligionandpublicworship[46] Offencesagainstpublicjustice,[47]oroffencesagainsttheadministrationofpublicjustice[48] Publicorderoffence[49] Commerce,financialmarketsandinsolvency[50] Offencesagainstpublicmoralsandpublicpolicy[51] Motorvehicleoffences[52] Conspiracy,incitementandattempttocommitcrime[53] Inchoateoffence Juveniledelinquency Victimlesscrime Bypenalty Onecancategorisecrimesdependingontherelatedpunishment,withsentencingtariffsprescribedinlinewiththeperceivedseriousnessoftheoffence.Thusfinesandnoncustodialsentencesmayaddressthecrimesseenasleastserious,withlengthyimprisonmentor(insomejurisdictions)capitalpunishmentreservedforthemostserious. Commonlaw UnderthecommonlawofEngland,crimeswereclassifiedaseithertreason,felonyormisdemeanour,withtreasonsometimesbeingincludedwiththefelonies.Thissystemwasbasedontheperceivedseriousnessoftheoffence.ItisstillusedintheUnitedStatesbutthedistinctionbetweenfelonyandmisdemeanourisabolishedinEngland,WalesandNorthernIreland. Bymodeoftrial Thefollowingclassesofoffencearebasedonmodeoftrial: Indictable-onlyoffence Indictableoffence Hybridoffence,a.k.a.either-wayoffenceinEnglandandWales Summaryoffence,a.k.a.infractionintheUS Byorigin Incommonlawcountries,crimesmaybecategorisedintocommonlawoffencesandstatutoryoffences.IntheUS,AustraliaandCanada(inparticular),theyaredividedintofederalcrimesandunderstatecrimes. UnitedStates FelonySentencesinStateCourts,studybytheUnitedStatesDepartmentofJustice. IntheUnitedStatessince1930,theFBIhastabulatedUniformCrimeReports(UCR)annuallyfromcrimedatasubmittedbylawenforcementagenciesacrosstheUnitedStates.[54] Officialscompilethisdataatthecity,county,andstatelevelsintotheUCR.TheyclassifyviolationsoflawsbasedoncommonlawasPartI(index)crimesinUCRdata.Thesearefurthercategorizedasviolentorpropertycrimes.PartIviolentcrimesincludemurderandcriminalhomicide(voluntarymanslaughter),forciblerape,aggravatedassault,androbbery;whilePartIpropertycrimesincludeburglary,arson,larceny/theft,andmotor-vehicletheft.AllothercrimescountcomeunderPartII. Forconvenience,suchlistsusuallyincludeinfractionsalthough,intheU.S.,theymaycomeintothespherenotofthecriminallaw,butratherofthecivillaw.Comparetortfeasance. Bookingarrestsrequiredetentionforatime-frameranging1to24hours. Reports,studiesandorganizations ThereareseveralnationalandInternationalorganizationsofferingstudiesandstatisticsaboutglobalandlocalcrimeactivity,suchasUnitedNationsOfficeonDrugsandCrime,theUnitedStatesofAmericaOverseasSecurityAdvisoryCouncil(OSAC)safetyreportornationalreportsgeneratedbythelaw-enforcementauthoritiesofEUstatememberreportedtotheEuropol. "Offence"incommonlawjurisdictions InEnglandandWales,aswellasinHongKong,theterm"offence"meansthesamethingas"crime",[11]Theyarefurthersplitinto: Summaryoffences Indictableoffences Causesandcorrelates Mainarticle:Causesandcorrelatesofcrime Manydifferentcausesandcorrelatesofcrimehavebeenproposedwithvaryingdegreeofempiricalsupport.Theyincludesocioeconomic,psychological,biological,andbehavioralfactors.Controversialtopicsincludemediaviolenceresearchandeffectsofgunpolitics. Emotionalstate(bothchronicandcurrent)haveatremendousimpactonindividualthoughtprocessesand,asaresult,canbelinkedtocriminalactivities.ThepositivepsychologyconceptofBroadenandBuildpositsthatcognitivefunctioningexpandswhenanindividualisinagood-feelingemotionalstateandcontractsasemotionalstatedeclines.[55]Inpositiveemotionalstatesanindividualisabletoconsidermorepossiblesolutionstoproblems,butinloweremotionalstatesfewersolutionscanbeascertained.Thenarrowedthought-actionrepertoirescanresultintheonlypathsperceptibletoanindividualbeingonestheywouldneveruseiftheysawanalternative,butiftheycan'tconceiveofthealternativesthatcarrylessrisktheywillchooseonethattheycansee.Criminalswhocommiteventhemosthorrendousofcrimes,suchasmassmurders,didnotseeanothersolution.[56] International Mainarticle:Internationalcriminallaw KangKekIewbeforetheCambodianGenocideTribunalonJuly20,2009 Crimesdefinedbytreatyascrimesagainstinternationallawinclude: Crimesagainstpeace Crimesofapartheid Forceddisappearance Genocide Incitementtogenocide Piracy Sexualslavery Slavery Torture Wagingawarofaggression Warcrimes Fromthepointofviewofstate-centriclaw,extraordinaryprocedures(internationalcourtsornationalcourtsoperatingwithuniversaljurisdiction)mayprosecutesuchcrimes.NotetheroleoftheInternationalCriminalCourtatTheHagueintheNetherlands.[citationneeded] Religion Mainarticle:Religiouslaw Seealso:Category:Crimesinreligion Religioussentimentoftenbecomesacontributoryfactorofcrime.Inthe1819anti-JewishHep-HepriotsinWürzburg,riotersattackedJewishbusinessesanddestroyedproperty. Differentreligioustraditionsmaypromotedistinctnormsofbehaviour,andtheseinturnmayclashorharmonisewiththeperceivedinterestsofastate.Sociallyacceptedorimposedreligiousmoralityhasinfluencedsecularjurisdictionsonissuesthatmayotherwiseconcernonlyanindividual'sconscience.Activitiessometimescriminalizedonreligiousgroundsinclude(forexample)alcoholconsumption(prohibition),abortionandstem-cellresearch.Invarioushistoricalandpresent-daysocieties,institutionalizedreligionshaveestablishedsystemsofearthlyjusticethatpunishcrimesagainstthedivinewillandagainstspecificdevotional,organizationalandotherrulesunderspecificcodes,suchasRomanCatholiccanonlawandIslamicShariahLaw. Militaryjurisdictionsandstatesofemergency Inthemilitarysphere,authoritiescanprosecutebothregularcrimesandspecificacts(suchasmutinyordesertion)undermartial-lawcodesthateithersupplantorextendcivilcodesintimesof(forexample)war. Manyconstitutionscontainprovisionstocurtailfreedomsandcriminalizeotherwisetoleratedbehaviorsunderastateofemergencyincaseofwar,naturaldisasterorcivilunrest.Undesiredactivitiesatsuchtimesmayincludeassemblyinthestreets,violationofcurfew,orpossessionoffirearms. Occupational Mainarticle:Occupationalcrime Twocommontypesofemployeecrimeexist:embezzlementandwagetheft. Thecomplexityandanonymityofcomputersystemsmayhelpcriminalemployeescamouflagetheiroperations.Thevictimsofthemostcostlyscamsincludebanks,brokeragehouses,insurancecompanies,andotherlargefinancialinstitutions.[57] IntheUnitedStates,itisestimated[bywhom?]that$40billionto$60billionarelostannuallyduetoallformsofwagetheft.[58]Thiscomparestonationalannuallossesof$340millionduetorobbery,$4.1billionduetoburglary,$5.3billionduetolarceny,and$3.8billionduetoautotheftin2012.[59]InSingapore,asintheUnitedStates,wagetheftwasfoundtobewidespreadandsevere.Ina2014surveyitwasfoundthatasmanyasone-thirdoflowwagemaleforeignworkersinSingapore,orabout130,000,wereaffectedbywagetheftfrompartialtofulldenialofpay.[60] Seealso Lawportal Crimedisplacement Crimescience FederalCrime Lawandorder(politics) NationalMuseumofCrime&PunishmentinWashingtonDC Organizedcrime(alsoknowsasthecriminalunderworld) Category:Ageofcriminalresponsibility Notes ^ab"Crime".OxfordEnglishDictionarySecondEditiononCD-ROM.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.2009. ^abFarmer,Lindsay:"Crime,definitionsof",inCaneandConoghan(editors),TheNewOxfordCompaniontoLaw,OxfordUniversityPress,2008(ISBN 978-0-19-929054-3),p.263(GoogleBooksArchived2016-06-04attheWaybackMachine). ^IntheUnitedKingdom,forinstance,thedefinitionsprovidedbysection243(2)oftheTradeUnionandLabourRelations(Consolidation)Act1992andbytheScheduletothePreventionofCrimesAct1871. ^abElizabethA.Martin(2003).OxfordDictionaryofLaw(7 ed.).Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-19-860756-4. ^Easton,Mark(17June2010)."Whatiscrime?".BBCNews.Archivedfromtheoriginalon27February2013.Retrieved10June2013. ^Girgen,Jen(2003)."TheHistoricalandContemporaryProsecutionandPunishmentofAnimals".AnimalLawJournal.9:97.Archivedfromtheoriginalon29December2019.Retrieved1October2017. ^Quinney,Richard,"StructuralCharacteristics,PopulationAreas,andCrimeRatesintheUnitedStates,"TheJournalofCriminalLaw,CriminologyandPoliceScience,57(1),pp.45–52 ^ErnestKlein,Klein'sComprehensiveEtymologicalDictionaryoftheEnglishLanguageArchived2016-03-22attheWaybackMachine ^Bakaoukas,Michael."Theconceptualisationof'Crime'inClassicalGreekAntiquity:FromtheancientGreek'crime'(krima)asanintellectualerrortothechristian'crime'(crimen)asamoralsin."ERCES(EuropeanandInternationalresearchgrouponcrime,SocialPhilosophyandEthics).2005."Ercesoqr".Archivedfromtheoriginalon2011-09-28.Retrieved2011-06-27. ^SeamanvBurley[1896]2QB,perLordEsherMRat346 ^abGlanvilleWilliams,LearningtheLaw,EleventhEdition,Stevens,1982,p.3 ^Chapter1of"SmithandHogan'sCriminalLaw"(13thEdbyOrmerod)discussesthevariousproposeddefinitionsof"crime"inmoredetail. ^ThePreventionofCrimeAct1908,section10(6)andSchedule ^TheTradeUnionandLabourRelations(Consolidation)Act1992,section243(2)Archived2012-01-11attheWaybackMachine ^CanadianLawDictionary,JohnA.Yogis,Q.C.,Barrons:2003 ^SeePolinsky&Shavell(1997)onthefundamentaldivergencebetweentheprivateandthesocialmotivationforusingthelegalsystem. ^SeePolinsky(1980)ontheenforcementoffines ^Thomas,Aquinas,Saint,1225?-1274.(2002).Onlaw,morality,andpolitics.Regan,RichardJ.,Baumgarth,WilliamP.(2nd ed.).Indianapolis:HackettPub.ISBN 0872206637.OCLC 50423002.{{citebook}}:CS1maint:multiplenames:authorslist(link) ^Blackstone,William,1723-1780.(1979).CommentariesonthelawsofEngland.WilliamBlackstoneCollection(LibraryofCongress).Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.p. 41.ISBN 0226055361.OCLC 4832359.{{citebook}}:CS1maint:multiplenames:authorslist(link) ^Hart,H.L.A.(HerbertLionelAdolphus),1907-1992.(1994).Theconceptoflaw(2nd ed.).Oxford:ClarendonPress.ISBN 0198761228.OCLC 31410701.{{citebook}}:CS1maint:multiplenames:authorslist(link) ^Dworkin,Ronald.(1978).Takingrightsseriously :[withanewappendix,aresponsetocritics].Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress.ISBN 0674867114.OCLC 4313351. ^Finnis,John(2015).NaturalLaw&NaturalRights.3.2Naturallaw&(purely)positivelawasconcurrentdimensionsoflegalreasoning.OUP.ISBN 978-0199599141.Archivedfromtheoriginalon2019-08-06.Retrieved2019-07-17.Themoralstandards...whichDworkin(inlinewithnaturallawtheory)treatsascapableofbeingmorallyobjective&true,thusfunctionasadirectsourceoflawand...asalreadylaw,exceptwhentheirfitwiththewholesetofsocial-factsourcesintherelevantcommunityissoweakthatitwouldbemoreaccurate(accordingtoDworkin)tosaythatjudgeswhoapplythemareapplyingmoralitynotlaw. ^Bix,BrianH.(August2015)."Kelsen,Hart,&legalnormativity".3.3Lawandmorality.Revus-OpenEditionJournals.34(34).doi:10.4000/revus.3984....itwaspartofthetaskofalegaltheoristtoexplainthe'normativity'or'authority'oflaw,bywhichtheymeant'oursensethat‘legal’normsprovideagentswithspecialreasonsforacting,reasonstheywouldnothaveifthenormwerenota‘legal’one'...thismaybeamattercallingmoreforapsychologicalorsociologicalexplanation,ratherthanaphilosophicalone. ^Oppenheim(1964) ^Kramer(1971:4) ^DriverandMills(1952–55)andSkaist(1994) ^TheBabylonianlaws.Driver,G.R.(GodfreyRolles),1892–1975;Miles,JohnC.(JohnCharles),Sir,1870–1963.Eugene,Oregon:Wipf&StockPub.April2007.ISBN 978-1556352294.OCLC 320934300.{{citebook}}:CS1maint:others(link) ^ AnuradhaJaiswal,CriminalJusticeTenetsofManusmriti–ACritiqueoftheAncientHinduCode ^Olivelle,Patrick.2004.TheLawCodeofManu.NewYork:OxfordUP. ^Maine,HenrySumner,1822–1888(1861).Ancientlaw :itsconnectionwiththeearlyhistoryofsociety,anditsrelationtomodernideas.Tucson.ISBN 0816510067.OCLC 13358229.{{citebook}}:CS1maint:multiplenames:authorslist(link) ^Gagarin,Michael.(1986).EarlyGreeklaw.London:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.ISBN 9780520909168.OCLC 43477491. ^Garner,Richard,1953-(1987).Law&societyinclassicalAthens.NewYork:St.Martin'sPress.ISBN 0312008562.OCLC 15365822.{{citebook}}:CS1maint:multiplenames:authorslist(link) ^Daube,David.(1969).Romanlaw:linguistic,socialandphilosophicalaspects.Edinburgh:EdinburghU.P.ISBN 0852240511.OCLC 22054. ^Guterman,SimeonL.(SimeonLeonard),1907-(1990).TheprincipleofthepersonalityoflawintheGermanickingdomsofwesternEuropefromthefifthtotheeleventhcentury.NewYork:P.Lang.ISBN 0820407313.OCLC 17731409.{{citebook}}:CS1maint:multiplenames:authorslist(link) ^Attenborough:1963 ^Kern:1948;Blythe:1992;andPennington:1993 ^Vinogradoff(1909);Tierney:1964,1979 ^Theconceptofthepaterfamiliasactedasaunifyingfactorinextendedkingroups,andthelaterpracticeofwergildfunctionedinthiscontext.[citationneeded] ^abForexample,bytheVisitingForcesAct1952 ^abForexample,bysection31(1)oftheCriminalJusticeAct1991,andbytheCriminalJusticeAct2003 ^E.g.ArchboldCriminalPleading,EvidenceandPractice,1999,chapter22 ^E.g.ArchboldCriminalPleading,EvidenceandPractice,1999,chapter24 ^E.g.ArchboldCriminalPleading,EvidenceandPractice,1999,chapter25 ^E.g.Card,CrossandJones:CriminalLaw,12thed,1992,chapter17 ^E.g.ArchboldCriminalPleading,EvidenceandPractice,1999,chapter26 ^E.g.ArchboldCriminalPleading,EvidenceandPractice,1999,chapter27 ^E.g.ArchboldCriminalPleading,EvidenceandPractice,1999,chapter28 ^E.g.Card,CrossandJones:CriminalLaw,12thed,1992,chapter16 ^E.g.ArchboldCriminalPleading,EvidenceandPractice,1999,chapter29 ^E.g.ArchboldCriminalPleading,EvidenceandPractice,1999,chapter30 ^E.g.ArchboldCriminalPleading,EvidenceandPractice,1999,chapter31 ^E.g.ArchboldCriminalPleading,EvidenceandPractice,1999,chapter32 ^E.g.ArchboldCriminalPleading,EvidenceandPractice,1999,chapter33 ^"FBI:UniformCrimeReports".Fbi.gov.Archivedfromtheoriginalon2004-10-24.Retrieved2013-02-28. ^Fredrickson,B.L.(2005).PositiveEmotionsbroadenthescopeofattentionandthough-actionrepertoires.CognitionandEmotion,19:313–332. ^Baumeister,R.F.(2012).HumanEvil:Themythofpureevilandthetruecausesofviolence.InA.P.Association,M.Mikulincer,&P.R.Shaver(Eds.),Thesocialpsychologyofmorality:Exploringthecausesofgoodandevil(pp.367–380).Washington,DC ^SaraBaase,AGiftofFire:Social,Legal,andEthicalIssuesforComputingandTheInternet.ThirdEd."EmployeeCrime"(2008) ^MichaelDeGroote,MichaelDeGroote(24June2014)."Wagetheft:Howemployersstealmillionsfromworkerseveryweek".DesertNewsNational.Archivedfromtheoriginalon2July2014.RetrievedJuly1,2014. ^"CrimeintheUnitedStates2012,Table23".UniformCrimeReports.FederalBureauofInvestigation.Archivedfromtheoriginalon2016-06-05. ^Choo,Irene(1September2014)."Cheapforeignlabourtospureconomicgrowth–thinkdeeperandharder".TheOnlineCitizen.Archivedfromtheoriginalon14October2014. Referencesandfurtherreading Attenborough,F.L.(ed.andtrans.)(1922).TheLawsoftheEarliestEnglishKings.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.ReprintMarch2006.TheLawbookExchange,Ltd.ISBN 1-58477-583-1 Blythe,JamesM.(1992).IdealGovernmentandtheMixedConstitutionintheMiddleAges.Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress.ISBN 0-691-03167-3 Cohen,Stanley(1985).VisionsofSocialControl:Crime,Punishment,andClassification.PolityPress.ISBN 0-7456-0021-2 Foucault,Michel(1975).DisciplineandPunish:theBirthofthePrison,NewYork:RandomHouse. Garoupa,Nuno&Klerman,Daniel.(2002)."OptimalLawEnforcementwithaRent-SeekingGovernment".AmericanLawandEconomicsReviewVol.4,No.1.pp. 116–140. Hart,H.L.A.(1972).Law,LibertyandMorality.Stanford:StanfordUniversityPress.ISBN 0-8047-0154-7 Hitchins,Peter.ABriefHistoryofCrime(2003)2ndeditionwasissuedasheAbolitionofLiberty:TheDeclineofOrderandJusticeinEngland(2004) Kalifa,Dominique.Vice,Crime,andPoverty:HowtheWesternImaginationInventedtheUnderworld(ColumbiaUniversityPress,2019) Kern,Fritz.(1948).KingshipandLawintheMiddleAges.Reprintedition(1985),Westport,Conn.:GreenwoodPress. Kramer,SamuelNoah.(1971).TheSumerians:TheirHistory,Culture,andCharacter.Chicago:UniversityofChicago.ISBN 0-226-45238-7 Maine,HenrySumner.(1861).AncientLaw:ItsConnectionwiththeEarlyHistoryofSociety,andItsRelationtoModernIdeas.Reprintedition(1986).Tucson:UniversityofArizonaPress.ISBN 0-8165-1006-7 Oppenheim,A.Leo(andReiner,Ericaaseditor).(1964).AncientMesopotamia:PortraitofaDeadCivilization.Revisededition(September15,1977).Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.ISBN 0-226-63187-7 Pennington,Kenneth.(1993).ThePrinceandtheLaw,1200–1600:SovereigntyandRightsintheWesternLegalTradition.Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.ISBN 0-520-07995-7 Polinsky,A.Mitchell.(1980)."PrivateversusPublicEnforcementofFines".TheJournalofLegalStudies,Vol.IX,No.1,(January),pp. 105–127. Polinsky,A.Mitchell&Shavell,Steven.(1997).OntheDisutilityandDiscountingofImprisonmentandtheTheoryofDeterrence,NBERWorkingPapers6259,NationalBureauofEconomicResearch,Inc. Skaist,AaronJacob.(1994).TheOldBabylonianLoanContract:ItsHistoryandGeography.RamatGan,Israel:Bar-IlanUniversityPress.ISBN 965-226-161-0 Théry,Julien.(2011)."Atrocitas/enormitas.Esquissepourunehistoiredelacatégoriede'crimeénorme'duMoyenÂgeàl'époquemoderne",Clio@Themis,Revueélectroniqued'histoiredudroit,n.4 Tierney,Brian.(1979).ChurchLawandConstitutionalThoughtintheMiddleAges.London:VariorumReprints.ISBN 0-86078-036-8 Tierney,Brian(1988)[1964].TheCrisisofChurchandState,1050–1300:withselecteddocuments(Reprint ed.).Toronto:UniversityofTorontoPress.ISBN 978-0-8020-6701-2. Vinogradoff,Paul.(1909).RomanLawinMedievalEurope.Reprintedition(2004).KessingerPublishingCo.ISBN 1-4179-4909-0 Externallinks WikiquotehasquotationsrelatedtoCrime. LookupcrimeinWiktionary,thefreedictionary. WikimediaCommonshasmediarelatedtoCrime. Wikivoyagehastravelinformationforcrime. 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