Karl Marx - Wikipedia

Karl Heinrich Marx FRSA was a German philosopher, critic of political economy, economist, historian, sociologist, political theorist, journalist and ... KarlMarx FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Germanphilosopher(1818–1883) "Marx"redirectshere.Forotheruses,seeMarx(disambiguation)andKarlMarx(disambiguation). KarlMarxFRSA[1]PhotographofMarxbyJohnMayall,1875BornKarlHeinrichMarx(1818-05-05)5May1818Trier,Prussia,GermanConfederationDied14March1883(1883-03-14)(aged 64)London,EnglandBurialplaceTombofKarlMarx,HighgateCemeteryNationality Prussian(1818–1845) Stateless(after1845) Education UniversityofBonn UniversityofBerlin UniversityofJena(PhD,1841)[2] Spouse(s)JennyvonWestphalen ​​(m. 1843;died 1881)​Children7,includingJenny,LauraandEleanorParentsHeinrichMarx(father)HenriettePressburg(mother)Relatives LouiseJuta(sister) EdgarLonguet(grandson) JeanLonguet(grandson) PhilosophycareerEra19th-centuryphilosophyRegionWesternphilosophySchoolContinentalphilosophyMarxismThesisTheDifferenceBetweentheDemocriteanandEpicureanPhilosophyofNature (1841)DoctoraladvisorBrunoBauerMaininterestsPhilosophyeconomicshistorypoliticsNotableideas Marxistterminology Valueform Contributionstodialecticsandthemarxiancritiqueofpoliticaleconomy Classconflict Alienationandexploitationoftheworker Materialistconceptionofhistory Influences InfluencesonKarlMarx Influenced ListofMarxists Signature KarlHeinrichMarxFRSA(German:[maʁks];5May1818–14March1883)wasaGermanphilosopher,criticofpoliticaleconomy,economist,historian,sociologist,politicaltheorist,journalistandsocialistrevolutionary.Hisbest-knowntitlesarethe1848pamphletTheCommunistManifestoandthefour-volumeDasKapital(1867–1883).Marx'spoliticalandphilosophicalthoughthadenormousinfluenceonsubsequentintellectual,economic,andpoliticalhistory.Hisnamehasbeenusedasanadjective,anoun,andaschoolofsocialtheory. BorninTrier,Germany,MarxstudiedlawandphilosophyattheuniversitiesofBonnandBerlin.HemarriedGermantheatrecriticandpoliticalactivistJennyvonWestphalenin1843.Duetohispoliticalpublications,MarxbecamestatelessandlivedinexilewithhiswifeandchildreninLondonfordecades,wherehecontinuedtodevelophisthoughtincollaborationwithGermanphilosopherFriedrichEngelsandpublishhiswritings,researchingintheBritishMuseumReadingRoom. Marx'scriticaltheoriesaboutsociety,economics,andpolitics,collectivelyunderstoodasMarxism,holdthathumansocietiesdevelopthroughclassconflict.Inthecapitalistmodeofproduction,thismanifestsitselfintheconflictbetweentherulingclasses(knownasthebourgeoisie)thatcontrolthemeansofproductionandtheworkingclasses(knownastheproletariat)thatenablethesemeansbysellingtheirlabour-powerinreturnforwages.[3]Employingacriticalapproachknownashistoricalmaterialism,Marxpredictedthatcapitalismproducedinternaltensionslikeprevioussocioeconomicsystemsandthatthosewouldleadtoitsself-destructionandreplacementbyanewsystemknownasthesocialistmodeofproduction.ForMarx,classantagonismsundercapitalism—owinginparttoitsinstabilityandcrisis-pronenature—wouldeventuatetheworkingclass'sdevelopmentofclassconsciousness,leadingtotheirconquestofpoliticalpowerandeventuallytheestablishmentofaclassless,communistsocietyconstitutedbyafreeassociationofproducers.[4]Marxactivelypressedforitsimplementation,arguingthattheworkingclassshouldcarryoutorganisedproletarianrevolutionaryactiontotopplecapitalismandbringaboutsocio-economicemancipation.[5] Marxhasbeendescribedasoneofthemostinfluentialfiguresinhumanhistory,andhisworkhasbeenbothlaudedandcriticised.[6]Hisworkineconomicslaidthebasisforsomecurrenttheoriesaboutlabouranditsrelationtocapital.[7][8][9]Manyintellectuals,labourunions,artists,andpoliticalpartiesworldwidehavebeeninfluencedbyMarx'swork,withmanymodifyingoradaptinghisideas.Marxistypicallycitedasoneoftheprincipalarchitectsofmodernsocialscience.[10][11] Contents 1Biography 1.1Childhoodandearlyeducation:1818–1836 1.2Hegelianismandearlyjournalism:1836–1843 1.3Paris:1843–1845 1.4Brussels:1845–1848 1.5Cologne:1848–1849 1.6MovetoLondonandfurtherwriting:1850–1860 1.7New-YorkDailyTribuneandjournalism 1.8FirstInternationalandDasKapital 2Personallife 2.1Family 2.2Health 2.3Death 3Thought 3.1Influences 3.2Philosophyandsocialthought 3.2.1Humannature 3.2.2Labour,classstruggleandfalseconsciousness 3.2.3Critiqueofpoliticaleconomy,historyandsociety 3.3Internationalrelations 4Legacy 5Selectedbibliography 6Seealso 7References 7.1Sources 8Furtherreading 8.1Biographies 8.2CommentariesonMarx 8.3Fictionworks 8.4Medicalarticles 9Externallinks Biography Childhoodandearlyeducation:1818–1836 KarlHeinrichMarxwasbornon5May1818toHeinrichMarx(1777–1838)andHenriettePressburg(1788–1863).HewasbornatBrückengasse664inTrier,anancientcitythenpartoftheKingdomofPrussia'sProvinceoftheLowerRhine.[12]Marx'sfamilywasoriginallynon-religiousJewish,buthadconvertedformallytoChristianitybeforehisbirth.HismaternalgrandfatherwasaDutchrabbi,whilehispaternallinehadsuppliedTrier'srabbissince1723,aroletakenbyhisgrandfatherMeierHaleviMarx.[13]Hisfather,asachildknownasHerschel,wasthefirstinthelinetoreceiveaseculareducation.HebecamealawyerwithacomfortablyuppermiddleclassincomeandthefamilyownedanumberofMosellevineyards,inadditiontohisincomeasanattorney.Priortohisson'sbirthandaftertheabrogationofJewishemancipationintheRhineland,[14]HerschelconvertedfromJudaismtojointhestateEvangelicalChurchofPrussia,takingontheGermanforenameHeinrichovertheYiddishHerschel.[15] Marx'sbirthplace,nowBrückenstraße10,inTrier.Thefamilyoccupiedtworoomsonthegroundfloorandthreeonthefirstfloor.[16]PurchasedbytheSocialDemocraticPartyofGermanyin1928,itnowhousesamuseumdevotedtohim.[17] Largelynon-religious,HeinrichwasamanoftheEnlightenment,interestedintheideasofthephilosophersImmanuelKantandVoltaire.Aclassicalliberal,hetookpartinagitationforaconstitutionandreformsinPrussia,whichwasthenanabsolutemonarchy.[18]In1815,HeinrichMarxbeganworkingasanattorneyandin1819movedhisfamilytoaten-roompropertynearthePortaNigra.[19]Hiswife,HenriettePressburg,wasaDutchJewfromaprosperousbusinessfamilythatlaterfoundedthecompanyPhilipsElectronics.HersisterSophiePressburg(1797–1854)marriedLionPhilips(1794–1866)andwasthegrandmotherofbothGerardandAntonPhilipsandgreat-grandmothertoFritsPhilips.LionPhilipswasawealthyDutchtobaccomanufacturerandindustrialist,uponwhomKarlandJennyMarxwouldlateroftencometorelyforloanswhiletheywereexiledinLondon.[20] LittleisknownofMarx'schildhood.[21]Thethirdofninechildren,hebecametheeldestsonwhenhisbrotherMoritzdiedin1819.[22]Marxandhissurvivingsiblings,Sophie,Hermann,Henriette,Louise,Emilie,andCaroline,werebaptisedintotheLutheranChurchinAugust1824,andtheirmotherinNovember1825.[23]Marxwasprivatelyeducatedbyhisfatheruntil1830whenheenteredTrierHighSchool(GymnasiumzuTrier [de]),whoseheadmaster,HugoWyttenbach,wasafriendofhisfather.Byemployingmanyliberalhumanistsasteachers,Wyttenbachincurredtheangerofthelocalconservativegovernment.Subsequently,policeraidedtheschoolin1832anddiscoveredthatliteratureespousingpoliticalliberalismwasbeingdistributedamongthestudents.Consideringthedistributionofsuchmaterialaseditiousact,theauthoritiesinstitutedreformsandreplacedseveralstaffduringMarx'sattendance.[24] InOctober1835attheageof17,MarxtravelledtotheUniversityofBonnwishingtostudyphilosophyandliterature,buthisfatherinsistedonlawasamorepracticalfield.[25]Duetoaconditionreferredtoasa"weakchest",[26]Marxwasexcusedfrommilitarydutywhenheturned18.WhileattheUniversityatBonn,MarxjoinedthePoets'Club,agroupcontainingpoliticalradicalsthatweremonitoredbythepolice.[27]MarxalsojoinedtheTrierTavernClubdrinkingsociety(German:LandsmannschaftderTreveraner)wheremanyideaswerediscussedandatonepointheservedastheclub'sco-president.[28][29]Additionally,Marxwasinvolvedincertaindisputes,someofwhichbecameserious:inAugust1836hetookpartinaduelwithamemberoftheuniversity'sBorussianKorps.[30]Althoughhisgradesinthefirsttermweregood,theysoondeteriorated,leadinghisfathertoforceatransfertothemoreseriousandacademicUniversityofBerlin.[31] Hegelianismandearlyjournalism:1836–1843 GeorgWilhelmFriedrichHegelHegelianism Forerunners Aristotle Böhme Spinoza Rousseau Kant Goethe Fichte Hölderlin Schelling Successors Feuerbach Marx Stirner Gentile McTaggart Lukács Kojève Hyppolite Adorno Habermas Henrich Badiou Pippin Houlgate Honneth McDowell Brandom Taylor Rödl Žižek Principalworks ThePhenomenologyofSpirit ScienceofLogic EncyclopediaofthePhilosophicalSciences LecturesonAesthetics ElementsofthePhilosophyofRight LecturesonthePhilosophyofReligion LecturesonthePhilosophyofHistory LecturesontheHistoryofPhilosophy Schools Absoluteidealism Hegelianism(dialectics) Britishidealism Germanidealism Relatedtopics RightHegelians YoungHegelians Relatedcategories GeorgWilhelmFriedrichHegel vte Spendingsummerandautumn1836inTrier,Marxbecamemoreseriousabouthisstudiesandhislife.HebecameengagedtoJennyvonWestphalen,aneducatedmemberofthepettynobilitywhohadknownMarxsincechildhood.AsshehadbrokenoffherengagementwithayoungaristocrattobewithMarx,theirrelationshipwassociallycontroversialowingtothedifferencesbetweentheirreligiousandclassorigins,butMarxbefriendedherfatherLudwigvonWestphalen(aliberalaristocrat)andlaterdedicatedhisdoctoralthesistohim.[32]Sevenyearsaftertheirengagement,on19June1843,theymarriedinaProtestantchurchinKreuznach.[33] InOctober1836,MarxarrivedinBerlin,matriculatingintheuniversity'sfacultyoflawandrentingaroomintheMittelstrasse.[34]Duringthefirstterm,MarxattendedlecturesofEduardGans(whorepresentedtheprogressiveHegelianstandpoint,elaboratedonrationaldevelopmentinhistorybyemphasisingparticularlyitslibertarianaspects,andtheimportanceofsocialquestion)andofKarlvonSavigny(whorepresentedtheHistoricalSchoolofLaw).[35]Althoughstudyinglaw,hewasfascinatedbyphilosophyandlookedforawaytocombinethetwo,believingthat"withoutphilosophynothingcouldbeaccomplished".[36]MarxbecameinterestedintherecentlydeceasedGermanphilosopherGeorgWilhelmFriedrichHegel,whoseideaswerethenwidelydebatedamongEuropeanphilosophicalcircles.[37]DuringaconvalescenceinStralau,hejoinedtheDoctor'sClub(Doktorklub),astudentgroupwhichdiscussedHegelianideas,andthroughthembecameinvolvedwithagroupofradicalthinkersknownastheYoungHegeliansin1837.TheygatheredaroundLudwigFeuerbachandBrunoBauer,withMarxdevelopingaparticularlyclosefriendshipwithAdolfRutenberg.LikeMarx,theYoungHegelianswerecriticalofHegel'smetaphysicalassumptions,butadoptedhisdialecticalmethodtocriticiseestablishedsociety,politicsandreligionfromaleft-wingperspective.[38]Marx'sfatherdiedinMay1838,resultinginadiminishedincomeforthefamily.[39]Marxhadbeenemotionallyclosetohisfatherandtreasuredhismemoryafterhisdeath.[40] JennyvonWestphaleninthe1830s By1837,Marxwaswritingbothfictionandnon-fiction,havingcompletedashortnovel,ScorpionandFelix;adrama,Oulanem;aswellasanumberoflovepoemsdedicatedtoJennyvonWestphalen.Noneofthisearlyworkwaspublishedduringhislifetime.[41]ThelovepoemswerepublishedposthumouslyintheCollectedWorksofKarlMarxandFrederickEngels:Volume1.[42]Marxsoonabandonedfictionforotherpursuits,includingthestudyofbothEnglishandItalian,arthistoryandthetranslationofLatinclassics.[43]Hebeganco-operatingwithBrunoBaueroneditingHegel'sPhilosophyofReligionin1840.Marxwasalsoengagedinwritinghisdoctoralthesis,TheDifferenceBetweentheDemocriteanandEpicureanPhilosophyofNature,[44]whichhecompletedin1841.Itwasdescribedas"adaringandoriginalpieceofworkinwhichMarxsetouttoshowthattheologymustyieldtothesuperiorwisdomofphilosophy".[45]Theessaywascontroversial,particularlyamongtheconservativeprofessorsattheUniversityofBerlin.MarxdecidedinsteadtosubmithisthesistothemoreliberalUniversityofJena,whosefacultyawardedhimhisPh.D.inApril1841.[2][46]AsMarxandBauerwerebothatheists,inMarch1841theybeganplansforajournalentitledArchivdesAtheismus(AtheisticArchives),butitnevercametofruition.InJuly,MarxandBauertookatriptoBonnfromBerlin.Theretheyscandalisedtheirclassbygettingdrunk,laughinginchurchandgallopingthroughthestreetsondonkeys.[47] Marxwasconsideringanacademiccareer,butthispathwasbarredbythegovernment'sgrowingoppositiontoclassicalliberalismandtheYoungHegelians.[48]MarxmovedtoColognein1842,wherehebecameajournalist,writingfortheradicalnewspaperRheinischeZeitung(RhinelandNews),expressinghisearlyviewsonsocialismandhisdevelopinginterestineconomics.Marxcriticisedright-wingEuropeangovernmentsaswellasfiguresintheliberalandsocialistmovements,whomhethoughtineffectiveorcounter-productive.[49]ThenewspaperattractedtheattentionofthePrussiangovernmentcensors,whocheckedeveryissueforseditiousmaterialbeforeprinting,asMarxlamented:"Ournewspaperhastobepresentedtothepolicetobesniffedat,andifthepolicenosesmellsanythingun-Christianorun-Prussian,thenewspaperisnotallowedtoappear".[50]AftertheRheinischeZeitungpublishedanarticlestronglycriticisingtheRussianmonarchy,TsarNicholasIrequesteditbebannedandPrussia'sgovernmentcompliedin1843.[51] Paris:1843–1845 In1843,Marxbecameco-editorofanew,radicalleft-wingParisiannewspaper,theDeutsch-FranzösischeJahrbücher(German-FrenchAnnals),thenbeingsetupbytheGermanactivistArnoldRugetobringtogetherGermanandFrenchradicals.[52]ThereforeMarxandhiswifemovedtoParisinOctober1843.InitiallylivingwithRugeandhiswifecommunallyat23RueVaneau,theyfoundthelivingconditionsdifficult,somovedoutfollowingthebirthoftheirdaughterJennyin1844.[53]AlthoughintendedtoattractwritersfrombothFranceandtheGermanstates,theJahrbücherwasdominatedbythelatterandtheonlynon-GermanwriterwastheexiledRussiananarchistcollectivistMikhailBakunin.[54]Marxcontributedtwoessaystothepaper,"IntroductiontoaContributiontotheCritiqueofHegel'sPhilosophyofRight"[55]and"OntheJewishQuestion",[56]thelatterintroducinghisbeliefthattheproletariatwerearevolutionaryforceandmarkinghisembraceofcommunism.[57]Onlyoneissuewaspublished,butitwasrelativelysuccessful,largelyowingtotheinclusionofHeinrichHeine'ssatiricalodesonKingLudwigofBavaria,leadingtheGermanstatestobanitandseizeimportedcopies(RugeneverthelessrefusedtofundthepublicationoffurtherissuesandhisfriendshipwithMarxbrokedown).[58]Afterthepaper'scollapse,MarxbeganwritingfortheonlyuncensoredGerman-languageradicalnewspaperleft,Vorwärts!(Forward!).BasedinParis,thepaperwasconnectedtotheLeagueoftheJust,autopiansocialistsecretsocietyofworkersandartisans.Marxattendedsomeoftheirmeetingsbutdidnotjoin.[59]InVorwärts!,MarxrefinedhisviewsonsocialismbaseduponHegelianandFeuerbachianideasofdialecticalmaterialism,atthesametimecriticisingliberalsandothersocialistsoperatinginEurope.[60] FriedrichEngels,whomMarxmetin1844;thetwobecamelifelongfriendsandcollaborators. On28August1844,MarxmettheGermansocialistFriedrichEngelsattheCafédelaRégence,beginningalifelongfriendship.[61]EngelsshowedMarxhisrecentlypublishedTheConditionoftheWorkingClassinEnglandin1844,[62][63]convincingMarxthattheworkingclasswouldbetheagentandinstrumentofthefinalrevolutioninhistory.[64][65]Soon,MarxandEngelswerecollaboratingonacriticismofthephilosophicalideasofMarx'sformerfriend,BrunoBauer.Thisworkwaspublishedin1845asTheHolyFamily.[66][67]AlthoughcriticalofBauer,MarxwasincreasinglyinfluencedbytheideasoftheYoungHegeliansMaxStirnerandLudwigFeuerbach,buteventuallyMarxandEngelsabandonedFeuerbachianmaterialismaswell.[68] Duringthetimethathelivedat38RueVaneauinParis(fromOctober1843untilJanuary1845),[69]Marxengagedinanintensivestudyofpoliticaleconomy(AdamSmith,DavidRicardo,JamesMill,etc.),[70]theFrenchsocialists(especiallyClaudeHenriSt.SimonandCharlesFourier)[71]andthehistoryofFrance.[72]Thestudyof,andcritiqueofpoliticaleconomyisaprojectthatMarxwouldpursuefortherestofhislife[73]andwouldresultinhismajoreconomicwork—thethree-volumeseriescalledDasKapital.[74]Marxismisbasedinlargepartonthreeinfluences:Hegel'sdialectics,FrenchutopiansocialismandBritishpoliticaleconomy.TogetherwithhisearlierstudyofHegel'sdialectics,thestudyingthatMarxdidduringthistimeinParismeantthatallmajorcomponentsof"Marxism"wereinplacebytheautumnof1844.[75]Marxwasconstantlybeingpulledawayfromhiscritiqueofpoliticaleconomy—notonlybytheusualdailydemandsofthetime,butadditionallybyeditingaradicalnewspaperandlaterbyorganisinganddirectingtheeffortsofapoliticalpartyduringyearsofpotentiallyrevolutionarypopularuprisingsofthecitizenry.Still,Marxwasalwaysdrawnbacktohisstudieswherehesought"tounderstandtheinnerworkingsofcapitalism".[72] Anoutlineof"Marxism"haddefinitelyformedinthemindofKarlMarxbylate1844.Indeed,manyfeaturesoftheMarxistviewoftheworldhadbeenworkedoutingreatdetail,butMarxneededtowritedownallofthedetailsofhisworldviewtofurtherclarifythenewcritiqueofpoliticaleconomyinhisownmind.[76]Accordingly,MarxwroteTheEconomicandPhilosophicalManuscripts.[77]Thesemanuscriptscoverednumeroustopics,detailingMarx'sconceptofalienatedlabour.[78]Bythespringof1845,hiscontinuedstudyofpoliticaleconomy,capitalandcapitalismhadledMarxtothebeliefthatthenewcritiqueofpoliticaleconomyhewasespousing—thatofscientificsocialism—neededtobebuiltonthebaseofathoroughlydevelopedmaterialisticviewoftheworld.[79] TheEconomicandPhilosophicalManuscriptsof1844hadbeenwrittenbetweenAprilandAugust1844,butsoonMarxrecognisedthattheManuscriptshadbeeninfluencedbysomeinconsistentideasofLudwigFeuerbach.Accordingly,MarxrecognisedtheneedtobreakwithFeuerbach'sphilosophyinfavourofhistoricalmaterialism,thusayearlater(inApril1845)aftermovingfromParistoBrussels,Marxwrotehiseleven"ThesesonFeuerbach".[80]The"ThesesonFeuerbach"arebestknownforThesis11,whichstatesthat"philosophershaveonlyinterpretedtheworldinvariousways,thepointistochangeit".[78][81]ThisworkcontainsMarx'scriticismofmaterialism(forbeingcontemplative),idealism(forreducingpracticetotheory),and,overall,philosophy(forputtingabstractrealityabovethephysicalworld).[78]ItthusintroducedthefirstglimpseatMarx'shistoricalmaterialism,anargumentthattheworldischangednotbyideasbutbyactual,physical,materialactivityandpractice.[78][82]In1845,afterreceivingarequestfromthePrussianking,theFrenchgovernmentshutdownVorwärts!,withtheinteriorminister,FrançoisGuizot,expellingMarxfromFrance.[83] Brussels:1845–1848 ThefirsteditionofTheManifestooftheCommunistParty,publishedinGermanin1848 UnableeithertostayinFranceortomovetoGermany,MarxdecidedtoemigratetoBrusselsinBelgiuminFebruary1845.However,tostayinBelgiumhehadtopledgenottopublishanythingonthesubjectofcontemporarypolitics.[83]InBrussels,MarxassociatedwithotherexiledsocialistsfromacrossEurope,includingMosesHess,KarlHeinzenandJosephWeydemeyer.InApril1845,EngelsmovedfromBarmeninGermanytoBrusselstojoinMarxandthegrowingcadreofmembersoftheLeagueoftheJustnowseekinghomeinBrussels.[83][84]Later,MaryBurns,Engels'long-timecompanion,leftManchester,EnglandtojoinEngelsinBrussels.[85] Inmid-July1845,MarxandEngelsleftBrusselsforEnglandtovisittheleadersoftheChartists,aworking-classmovementinBritain.ThiswasMarx'sfirsttriptoEnglandandEngelswasanidealguideforthetrip.EngelshadalreadyspenttwoyearslivinginManchesterfromNovember1842[86]toAugust1844.[87]NotonlydidEngelsalreadyknowtheEnglishlanguage,[88]hehadalsodevelopedacloserelationshipwithmanyChartistleaders.[88]Indeed,EngelswasservingasareporterformanyChartistandsocialistEnglishnewspapers.[88]MarxusedthetripasanopportunitytoexaminetheeconomicresourcesavailableforstudyinvariouslibrariesinLondonandManchester.[89] IncollaborationwithEngels,Marxalsosetaboutwritingabookwhichisoftenseenashisbesttreatmentoftheconceptofhistoricalmaterialism,TheGermanIdeology.[90]Inthiswork,MarxbrokewithLudwigFeuerbach,BrunoBauer,MaxStirnerandtherestoftheYoungHegelians,whilehealsobrokewithKarlGrünandother"truesocialists"whosephilosophieswerestillbasedinparton"idealism".InGermanIdeology,MarxandEngelsfinallycompletedtheirphilosophy,whichwasbasedsolelyonmaterialismasthesolemotorforceinhistory.[91]GermanIdeologyiswritteninahumorouslysatiricalform,buteventhissatiricalformdidnotsavetheworkfromcensorship.Likesomanyotherearlywritingsofhis,GermanIdeologywouldnotbepublishedinMarx'slifetimeandwouldbepublishedonlyin1932.[78][92][93] AftercompletingGermanIdeology,Marxturnedtoaworkthatwasintendedtoclarifyhisownpositionregarding"thetheoryandtactics"ofatruly"revolutionaryproletarianmovement"operatingfromthestandpointofatruly"scientificmaterialist"philosophy.[94]ThisworkwasintendedtodrawadistinctionbetweentheutopiansocialistsandMarx'sownscientificsocialistphilosophy.Whereastheutopiansbelievedthatpeoplemustbepersuadedonepersonatatimetojointhesocialistmovement,thewayapersonmustbepersuadedtoadoptanydifferentbelief,Marxknewthatpeoplewouldtend,onmostoccasions,toactinaccordancewiththeirowneconomicinterests,thusappealingtoanentireclass(theworkingclassinthiscase)withabroadappealtotheclass'sbestmaterialinterestwouldbethebestwaytomobilisethebroadmassofthatclasstomakearevolutionandchangesociety.ThiswastheintentofthenewbookthatMarxwasplanning,buttogetthemanuscriptpastthegovernmentcensorshecalledthebookThePovertyofPhilosophy(1847)[95]andoffereditasaresponsetothe"petty-bourgeoisphilosophy"oftheFrenchanarchistsocialistPierre-JosephProudhonasexpressedinhisbookThePhilosophyofPoverty(1840).[96] MarxwithhisdaughtersandEngels ThesebookslaidthefoundationforMarxandEngels'smostfamouswork,apoliticalpamphletthathassincecometobecommonlyknownasTheCommunistManifesto.WhileresidinginBrusselsin1846,MarxcontinuedhisassociationwiththesecretradicalorganisationLeagueoftheJust.[97]Asnotedabove,MarxthoughttheLeaguetobejustthesortofradicalorganisationthatwasneededtospurtheworkingclassofEuropetowardthemassmovementthatwouldbringaboutaworking-classrevolution.[98]However,toorganisetheworkingclassintoamassmovementtheLeaguehadtoceaseits"secret"or"underground"orientationandoperateintheopenasapoliticalparty.[99]MembersoftheLeagueeventuallybecamepersuadedinthisregard.Accordingly,inJune1847theLeaguewasreorganisedbyitsmembershipintoanewopen"aboveground"politicalsocietythatappealeddirectlytotheworkingclasses.[100]ThisnewopenpoliticalsocietywascalledtheCommunistLeague.[101]BothMarxandEngelsparticipatedindrawinguptheprogrammeandorganisationalprinciplesofthenewCommunistLeague.[102] Inlate1847,MarxandEngelsbeganwritingwhatwastobecometheirmostfamouswork –aprogrammeofactionfortheCommunistLeague.WrittenjointlybyMarxandEngelsfromDecember1847toJanuary1848,TheCommunistManifestowasfirstpublishedon21February1848.[103]TheCommunistManifestolaidoutthebeliefsofthenewCommunistLeague.Nolongerasecretsociety,theCommunistLeaguewantedtomakeaimsandintentionscleartothegeneralpublicratherthanhidingitsbeliefsastheLeagueoftheJusthadbeendoing.[104]TheopeninglinesofthepamphletsetforththeprincipalbasisofMarxism:"Thehistoryofallhithertoexistingsocietyisthehistoryofclassstruggles".[105]ItgoesontoexaminetheantagonismsthatMarxclaimedwerearisingintheclashesofinterestbetweenthebourgeoisie(thewealthycapitalistclass)andtheproletariat(theindustrialworkingclass).Proceedingonfromthis,theManifestopresentstheargumentforwhytheCommunistLeague,asopposedtoothersocialistandliberalpoliticalpartiesandgroupsatthetime,wastrulyactingintheinterestsoftheproletariattooverthrowcapitalistsocietyandtoreplaceitwithsocialism.[106] Laterthatyear,Europeexperiencedaseriesofprotests,rebellions,andoftenviolentupheavalsthatbecameknownastheRevolutionsof1848.[107]InFrance,arevolutionledtotheoverthrowofthemonarchyandtheestablishmentoftheFrenchSecondRepublic.[107]Marxwassupportiveofsuchactivityandhavingrecentlyreceivedasubstantialinheritancefromhisfather(withheldbyhisuncleLionelPhilipssincehisfather'sdeathin1838)ofeither6,000[108]or5,000francs[109][110]heallegedlyusedathirdofittoarmBelgianworkerswhowereplanningrevolutionaryaction.[110]Althoughtheveracityoftheseallegationsisdisputed,[108][111]theBelgianMinistryofJusticeaccusedMarxofit,subsequentlyarrestinghimandhewasforcedtofleebacktoFrance,wherewithanewrepublicangovernmentinpowerhebelievedthathewouldbesafe.[110][112] Cologne:1848–1849 MarxandEngelsintheprintinghouseoftheNeueRheinischeZeitung.E.Capiro,1895. TemporarilysettlingdowninParis,MarxtransferredtheCommunistLeagueexecutiveheadquarterstothecityandalsosetupaGermanWorkers'ClubwithvariousGermansocialistslivingthere.[113]HopingtoseetherevolutionspreadtoGermany,in1848MarxmovedbacktoColognewherehebeganissuingahandbillentitledtheDemandsoftheCommunistPartyinGermany,[114]inwhichhearguedforonlyfourofthetenpointsoftheCommunistManifesto,believingthatinGermanyatthattimethebourgeoisiemustoverthrowthefeudalmonarchyandaristocracybeforetheproletariatcouldoverthrowthebourgeoisie.[115]On1June,Marxstartedthepublicationofadailynewspaper,theNeueRheinischeZeitung,whichhehelpedtofinancethroughhisrecentinheritancefromhisfather.DesignedtoputforwardnewsfromacrossEuropewithhisownMarxistinterpretationofevents,thenewspaperfeaturedMarxasaprimarywriterandthedominanteditorialinfluence.DespitecontributionsbyfellowmembersoftheCommunistLeague,accordingtoFriedrichEngelsitremained"asimpledictatorshipbyMarx".[116][117][118] Whilsteditorofthepaper,MarxandtheotherrevolutionarysocialistswereregularlyharassedbythepoliceandMarxwasbroughttotrialonseveraloccasions,facingvariousallegationsincludinginsultingtheChiefPublicProsecutor,committingapressmisdemeanorandincitingarmedrebellionthroughtaxboycotting,[119][120][121][122][123]althougheachtimehewasacquitted.[121][123][124]Meanwhile,thedemocraticparliamentinPrussiacollapsedandtheking,FrederickWilliamIV,introducedanewcabinetofhisreactionarysupporters,whoimplementedcounterrevolutionarymeasurestoexpungeleft-wingandotherrevolutionaryelementsfromthecountry.[120]Consequently,theNeueRheinischeZeitungwassoonsuppressedandMarxwasorderedtoleavethecountryon16May.[118][125]MarxreturnedtoParis,whichwasthenunderthegripofbothareactionarycounterrevolutionandacholeraepidemic,andwassoonexpelledbythecityauthorities,whoconsideredhimapoliticalthreat.WithhiswifeJennyexpectingtheirfourthchildandwithMarxnotabletomovebacktoGermanyorBelgium,inAugust1849hesoughtrefugeinLondon.[126][127] MovetoLondonandfurtherwriting:1850–1860 MarxmovedtoLondoninearlyJune1849andwouldremainbasedinthecityfortherestofhislife.TheheadquartersoftheCommunistLeaguealsomovedtoLondon.However,inthewinterof1849–1850,asplitwithintheranksoftheCommunistLeagueoccurredwhenafactionwithinitledbyAugustWillichandKarlSchapperbeganagitatingforanimmediateuprising.WillichandSchapperbelievedthatoncetheCommunistLeaguehadinitiatedtheuprising,theentireworkingclassfromacrossEuropewouldrise"spontaneously"tojoinit,thuscreatingrevolutionacrossEurope.MarxandEngelsprotestedthatsuchanunplanneduprisingonthepartoftheCommunistLeaguewas"adventuristic"andwouldbesuicidefortheCommunistLeague.[128]SuchanuprisingasthatrecommendedbytheSchapper/WillichgroupwouldeasilybecrushedbythepoliceandthearmedforcesofthereactionarygovernmentsofEurope.MarxmaintainedthatthiswouldspelldoomfortheCommunistLeagueitself,arguingthatchangesinsocietyarenotachievedovernightthroughtheeffortsandwillpowerofahandfulofmen.[128]Theyareinsteadbroughtaboutthroughascientificanalysisofeconomicconditionsofsocietyandbymovingtowardrevolutionthroughdifferentstagesofsocialdevelopment.Inthepresentstageofdevelopment(circa1850),followingthedefeatoftheuprisingsacrossEuropein1848hefeltthattheCommunistLeagueshouldencouragetheworkingclasstounitewithprogressiveelementsoftherisingbourgeoisietodefeatthefeudalaristocracyonissuesinvolvingdemandsforgovernmentalreforms,suchasaconstitutionalrepublicwithfreelyelectedassembliesanduniversal(male)suffrage.Inotherwords,theworkingclassmustjoinwithbourgeoisanddemocraticforcestobringaboutthesuccessfulconclusionofthebourgeoisrevolutionbeforestressingtheworkingclassagendaandaworking-classrevolution. AfteralongstrugglethatthreatenedtoruintheCommunistLeague,Marx'sopinionprevailedandeventually,theWillich/SchappergrouplefttheCommunistLeague.Meanwhile,MarxalsobecameheavilyinvolvedwiththesocialistGermanWorkers'EducationalSociety.[129]TheSocietyheldtheirmeetingsinGreatWindmillStreet,Soho,centralLondon'sentertainmentdistrict.[130][131]Thisorganisationwasalsorackedbyaninternalstrugglebetweenitsmembers,someofwhomfollowedMarxwhileothersfollowedtheSchapper/Willichfaction.TheissuesinthisinternalsplitwerethesameissuesraisedintheinternalsplitwithintheCommunistLeague,butMarxlostthefightwiththeSchapper/WillichfactionwithintheGermanWorkers'EducationalSocietyandon17September1850resignedfromtheSociety.[132] New-YorkDailyTribuneandjournalism IntheearlyperiodinLondon,Marxcommittedhimselfalmostexclusivelytohisstudies,suchthathisfamilyenduredextremepoverty.[133][134]HismainsourceofincomewasEngels,whoseownsourcewashiswealthyindustrialistfather.[134]InPrussiaaseditorofhisownnewspaper,andcontributortoothersideologicallyaligned,Marxcouldreachhisaudience,theworkingclasses.InLondon,withoutfinancestorunanewspaperthemselves,heandEngelsturnedtointernationaljournalism.AtonestagetheywerebeingpublishedbysixnewspapersfromEngland,theUnitedStates,Prussia,Austria,andSouthAfrica.[135]Marx'sprincipalearningscamefromhisworkasEuropeancorrespondent,from1852to1862,fortheNew-YorkDailyTribune,[136]: 17 andfromalsoproducingarticlesformore"bourgeois"newspapers.MarxhadhisarticlestranslatedfromGermanbyWilhelmPieper [de],untilhisproficiencyinEnglishhadbecomeadequate.[137] TheNew-YorkDailyTribunehadbeenfoundedinApril1841byHoraceGreeley.[138]Itseditorialboardcontainedprogressivebourgeoisjournalistsandpublishers,amongthemGeorgeRipleyandthejournalistCharlesDana,whowaseditor-in-chief.Dana,afourieristandanabolitionist,wasMarx'scontact.TheTribunewasavehicleforMarxtoreachatransatlanticpublic,suchasforhis"hiddenwarfare"againstHenryCharlesCarey.[139]Thejournalhadwideworking-classappealfromitsfoundation;attwocents,itwasinexpensive;[140]and,withabout50,000copiesperissue,itscirculationwasthewidestintheUnitedStates.[136]: 14 Itseditorialethoswasprogressiveanditsanti-slaverystancereflectedGreeley's.[136]: 82 Marx'sfirstarticleforthepaper,ontheBritishparliamentaryelections,waspublishedon21August1852.[141] On21March1857,DanainformedMarxthatduetotheeconomicrecessiononlyonearticleaweekwouldbepaidfor,publishedornot;theotherswouldbepaidforonlyifpublished.MarxhadsenthisarticlesonTuesdaysandFridays,but,thatOctober,theTribunedischargedallitscorrespondentsinEuropeexceptMarxandB.Taylor,andreducedMarxtoaweeklyarticle.BetweenSeptemberandNovember1860,onlyfivewerepublished.Afterasix-monthinterval,MarxresumedcontributionsfromSeptember1861untilMarch1862,whenDanawrotetoinformhimthattherewasnolongerspaceintheTribuneforreportsfromLondon,duetoAmericandomesticaffairs.[142] In1868,Danasetuparivalnewspaper,theNewYorkSun,atwhichhewaseditor-in-chief.[143]InApril1857,DanainvitedMarxtocontributearticles,mainlyonmilitaryhistory,totheNewAmericanCyclopedia,anideaofGeorgeRipley,Dana'sfriendandliteraryeditoroftheTribune.Inall,67Marx-Engelsarticleswerepublished,ofwhich51werewrittenbyEngels,althoughMarxdidsomeresearchforthemintheBritishMuseum.[144]Bythelate1850s,AmericanpopularinterestinEuropeanaffairswanedandMarx'sarticlesturnedtotopicssuchasthe"slaverycrisis"andtheoutbreakoftheAmericanCivilWarin1861inthe"WarBetweentheStates".[145]BetweenDecember1851andMarch1852,MarxworkedonhistheoreticalworkabouttheFrenchRevolutionof1848,titledTheEighteenthBrumaireofLouisNapoleon.[146]Inthisheexploredconceptsinhistoricalmaterialism,classstruggle,dictatorshipoftheproletariat,andvictoryoftheproletariatoverthebourgeoisstate.[147] The1850sand1860smaybesaidtomarkaphilosophicalboundarydistinguishingtheyoungMarx'sHegelianidealismandthemorematureMarx's[148][149][150][151]scientificideologyassociatedwithstructuralMarxism.[151]However,notallscholarsacceptthisdistinction.[150][152]ForMarxandEngels,theirexperienceoftheRevolutionsof1848to1849wereformativeinthedevelopmentoftheirtheoryofeconomicsandhistoricalprogression.Afterthe"failures"of1848,therevolutionaryimpetusappearedspentandnottoberenewedwithoutaneconomicrecession.ContentionarosebetweenMarxandhisfellowcommunists,whomhedenouncedas"adventurists".Marxdeemeditfancifultoproposethat"willpower"couldbesufficienttocreatetherevolutionaryconditionswheninrealitytheeconomiccomponentwasthenecessaryrequisite.TherecessionintheUnitedStates'economyin1852gaveMarxandEngelsgroundsforoptimismforrevolutionaryactivity,yetthiseconomywasseenastooimmatureforacapitalistrevolution.OpenterritoriesonAmerica'swesternfrontierdissipatedtheforcesofsocialunrest.Moreover,anyeconomiccrisisarisingintheUnitedStateswouldnotleadtorevolutionarycontagionoftheoldereconomiesofindividualEuropeannations,whichwereclosedsystemsboundedbytheirnationalborders.Whentheso-calledPanicof1857intheUnitedStatesspreadglobally,itbrokealleconomictheorymodels,andwasthefirsttrulyglobaleconomiccrisis.[153] FinancialnecessityhadforcedMarxtoabandoneconomicstudiesin1844andgivethirteenyearstoworkingonotherprojects.Hehadalwayssoughttoreturntoeconomics.[citationneeded] FirstInternationalandDasKapital ThefirstvolumeofDasKapital MarxcontinuedtowritearticlesfortheNewYorkDailyTribuneaslongashewassurethattheTribune'seditorialpolicywasstillprogressive.However,thedepartureofCharlesDanafromthepaperinlate1861andtheresultantchangeintheeditorialboardbroughtaboutaneweditorialpolicy.[154]NolongerwastheTribunetobeastrongabolitionistpaperdedicatedtoacompleteUnionvictory.TheneweditorialboardsupportedanimmediatepeacebetweentheUnionandtheConfederacyintheCivilWarintheUnitedStateswithslaveryleftintactintheConfederacy.Marxstronglydisagreedwiththisnewpoliticalpositionandin1863wasforcedtowithdrawasawriterfortheTribune.[155] In1864,MarxbecameinvolvedintheInternationalWorkingmen'sAssociation(alsoknownastheFirstInternational),[121]towhoseGeneralCouncilhewaselectedatitsinceptionin1864.[156]Inthatorganisation,MarxwasinvolvedinthestruggleagainsttheanarchistwingcentredonMikhailBakunin(1814–1876).[134]AlthoughMarxwonthiscontest,thetransferoftheseatoftheGeneralCouncilfromLondontoNewYorkin1872,whichMarxsupported,ledtothedeclineoftheInternational.[157]ThemostimportantpoliticaleventduringtheexistenceoftheInternationalwastheParisCommuneof1871whenthecitizensofParisrebelledagainsttheirgovernmentandheldthecityfortwomonths.Inresponsetothebloodysuppressionofthisrebellion,Marxwroteoneofhismostfamouspamphlets,"TheCivilWarinFrance",adefenceoftheCommune.[158][159] Giventherepeatedfailuresandfrustrationsofworkers'revolutionsandmovements,Marxalsosoughttounderstandandprovideacritiquesuitableforthecapitalistmodeofproduction,andhencespentagreatdealoftimeinthereadingroomoftheBritishMuseumstudying.[160]By1857,Marxhadaccumulatedover800pagesofnotesandshortessaysoncapital,landedproperty,wagelabour,thestate,andforeigntrade,andtheworldmarket,thoughthisworkdidnotappearinprintuntil1939,underthetitleOutlinesoftheCritiqueofPoliticalEconomy.[161][162][163] In1859,MarxpublishedAContributiontotheCritiqueofPoliticalEconomy,[164]hisfirstseriouscritiqueofpoliticaleconomy.Thisworkwasintendedmerelyasapreviewofhisthree-volumeDasKapital(Englishtitle:Capital:CritiqueofPoliticalEconomy),whichheintendedtopublishatalaterdate.InAContributiontotheCritiqueofPoliticalEconomy,Marxbeguntocriticallyexamineaxiomsandcategoriesofeconomicthinking.[165][166][167]Theworkwasenthusiasticallyreceived,andtheeditionsoldoutquickly.[168] MarxphotographedbyJohnMayall,1875 ThesuccessfulsalesofAContributiontotheCritiqueofPoliticalEconomystimulatedMarxintheearly1860stofinishworkonthethreelargevolumesthatwouldcomposehismajorlife'swork –DasKapitalandtheTheoriesofSurplusValue,whichdiscussedandcritiquedthetheoreticiansofpoliticaleconomy,particularlyAdamSmithandDavidRicardo.[134]TheoriesofSurplusValueisoftenreferredtoasthefourthvolumeofDasKapitalandconstitutesoneofthefirstcomprehensivetreatisesonthehistoryofeconomicthought.[169]In1867,thefirstvolumeofDasKapitalwaspublished,aworkwhichcriticallyanalysedcapital.[170][167]DasKapitalproposesanexplanationofthe"lawsofmotion"ofthemodeofproductionfromitsoriginstoitsfuturebydescribingthedynamicsoftheaccumulationofcapital.Withtopicssuchasthegrowthofwagelabour,thetransformationoftheworkplace,capitalaccumulation,competition,thebankingsystem,thetendencyoftherateofprofittofall,land-rents.Aswellashowwagedlabourcontinuallyreproducetheruleofcapital,etcetera.[171][172][173]Marxproposesthatthedrivingforceofcapitalisintheexploitationoflabor,whoseunpaidworkistheultimatesourceofsurplusvalue. DemandforaRussianlanguageeditionofDasKapitalsoonledtotheprintingof3,000copiesofthebookintheRussianlanguage,whichwaspublishedon27March1872.Bytheautumnof1871,theentirefirsteditionoftheGerman-languageeditionofDasKapitalhadbeensoldoutandasecondeditionwaspublished. VolumesIIandIIIofDasKapitalremainedmeremanuscriptsuponwhichMarxcontinuedtoworkfortherestofhislife.BothvolumeswerepublishedbyEngelsafterMarx'sdeath.[134]VolumeIIofDasKapitalwaspreparedandpublishedbyEngelsinJuly1893underthenameCapitalII:TheProcessofCirculationofCapital.[174]VolumeIIIofDasKapitalwaspublishedayearlaterinOctober1894underthenameCapitalIII:TheProcessofCapitalistProductionasaWhole.[175]TheoriesofSurplusValuederivedfromthesprawlingEconomicManuscriptsof1861–1863,aseconddraftforDasKapital,thelatterspanningvolumes30–34oftheCollectedWorksofMarxandEngels.Specifically,TheoriesofSurplusValuerunsfromthelatterpartoftheCollectedWorks'thirtiethvolumethroughtheendoftheirthirty-secondvolume;[176][177][178]meanwhile,thelargerEconomicManuscriptsof1861–1863runfromthestartoftheCollectedWorks'thirtiethvolumethroughthefirsthalfoftheirthirty-fourthvolume.ThelatterhalfoftheCollectedWorks'thirty-fourthvolumeconsistsofthesurvivingfragmentsoftheEconomicManuscriptsof1863–1864,whichrepresentedathirddraftforDasKapital,andalargeportionofwhichisincludedasanappendixtothePenguineditionofDasKapital,volumeI.[179]AGerman-languageabridgededitionofTheoriesofSurplusValuewaspublishedin1905andin1910.ThisabridgededitionwastranslatedintoEnglishandpublishedin1951inLondon,butthecompleteunabridgededitionofTheoriesofSurplusValuewaspublishedasthe"fourthvolume"ofDasKapitalin1963and1971inMoscow.[180] Marxin1882 Duringthelastdecadeofhislife,Marx'shealthdeclinedandhebecameincapableofthesustainedeffortthathadcharacterisedhispreviouswork.[134]Hedidmanagetocommentsubstantiallyoncontemporarypolitics,particularlyinGermanyandRussia.HisCritiqueoftheGothaProgrammeopposedthetendencyofhisfollowersWilhelmLiebknechtandAugustBebeltocompromisewiththestatesocialismofFerdinandLassalleintheinterestsofaunitedsocialistparty.[134]ThisworkisalsonotableforanotherfamousMarxquote:"Fromeachaccordingtohisability,toeachaccordingtohisneed".[181] InalettertoVeraZasulichdated8March1881,MarxcontemplatedthepossibilityofRussia'sbypassingthecapitaliststageofdevelopmentandbuildingcommunismonthebasisofthecommonownershipoflandcharacteristicofthevillagemir.[134][182]WhileadmittingthatRussia'srural"communeisthefulcrumofsocialregenerationinRussia",Marxalsowarnedthatinorderforthemirtooperateasameansformovingstraighttothesocialiststagewithoutaprecedingcapitaliststageit"wouldfirstbenecessarytoeliminatethedeleteriousinfluenceswhichareassailingit[theruralcommune]fromallsides".[183]Giventheeliminationoftheseperniciousinfluences,Marxallowedthat"normalconditionsofspontaneousdevelopment"oftheruralcommunecouldexist.[183]However,inthesamelettertoVeraZasulichhepointsoutthat"atthecoreofthecapitalistsystem ...liesthecompleteseparationoftheproducerfromthemeansofproduction".[183]Inoneofthedraftsofthisletter,Marxrevealshisgrowingpassionforanthropology,motivatedbyhisbeliefthatfuturecommunismwouldbeareturnonahigherleveltothecommunismofourprehistoricpast.Hewrotethat"thehistoricaltrendofourageisthefatalcrisiswhichcapitalistproductionhasundergoneintheEuropeanandAmericancountrieswhereithasreacheditshighestpeak,acrisisthatwillendinitsdestruction,inthereturnofmodernsocietytoahigherformofthemostarchaictype –collectiveproductionandappropriation".Headdedthat"thevitalityofprimitivecommunitieswasincomparablygreaterthanthatofSemitic,Greek,Roman,etc.societies,and,afortiori,thatofmoderncapitalistsocieties".[184]Beforehedied,MarxaskedEngelstowriteuptheseideas,whichwerepublishedin1884underthetitleTheOriginoftheFamily,PrivatePropertyandtheState. Personallife Family JennyCarolinaandJennyLauraMarx(1869):alltheMarxdaughterswerenamedJennyinhonouroftheirmother,JennyvonWestphalen. MarxandvonWestphalenhadsevenchildrentogether,butpartlyowingtothepoorconditionsinwhichtheylivedwhilstinLondon,onlythreesurvivedtoadulthood.[185]Theirchildrenwere:JennyCaroline(m.Longuet;1844–1883);JennyLaura(m.Lafargue;1845–1911);Edgar(1847–1855);HenryEdwardGuy("Guido";1849–1850);JennyEvelineFrances("Franziska";1851–1852);JennyJuliaEleanor(1855–1898)andonemorewhodiedbeforebeingnamed(July1857).Accordingtohisson-in-law,PaulLafargue,Marxwasalovingfather.[186]In1962,therewereallegationsthatMarxfatheredason,Freddy,[187]outofwedlockbyhishousekeeper,HeleneDemuth,[188]buttheclaimisdisputedforlackofdocumentedevidence.[189] Marxfrequentlyusedpseudonyms,oftenwhenrentingahouseorflat,apparentlytomakeitharderfortheauthoritiestotrackhimdown.WhileinParis,heusedthatof"MonsieurRamboz",whilstinLondon,hesignedoffhislettersas"A.Williams".Hisfriendsreferredtohimas"Moor",owingtohisdarkcomplexionandblackcurlyhair,whileheencouragedhischildrentocallhim"OldNick"and"Charley".[190]Healsobestowednicknamesandpseudonymsonhisfriendsandfamilyaswell,referringtoFriedrichEngelsas"General",hishousekeeperHeleneas"Lenchen"or"Nym",whileoneofhisdaughters,Jennychen,wasreferredtoas"QuiQui,EmperorofChina"andanother,Laura,wasknownas"Kakadou"or"theHottentot".[190] Health MarxdrankheavilyuntilhisdeathafterjoiningtheTrierTavernClubdrinkingsocietyinthe1830s.[29] Marxwasafflictedbypoorhealth(whathehimselfdescribedas"thewretchednessofexistence")[191]andvariousauthorshavesoughttodescribeandexplainit.HisbiographerWernerBlumenbergattributedittoliverandgallproblemswhichMarxhadin1849andfromwhichhewasneverafterwardfree,exacerbatedbyanunsuitablelifestyle.Theattacksoftencamewithheadaches,eyeinflammation,neuralgiainthehead,andrheumaticpains.Aseriousnervousdisorderappearedin1877andprotractedinsomniawasaconsequence,whichMarxfoughtwithnarcotics.Theillnesswasaggravatedbyexcessivenocturnalworkandfaultydiet.Marxwasfondofhighlyseasoneddishes,smokedfish,caviare,pickledcucumbers,"noneofwhicharegoodforliverpatients",buthealsolikedwineandliqueursandsmokedanenormousamount"andsincehehadnomoney,itwasusuallybad-qualitycigars".From1863,Marxcomplainedalotaboutboils:"Theseareveryfrequentwithliverpatientsandmaybeduetothesamecauses".[192]TheabscessesweresobadthatMarxcouldneithersitnorworkupright.AccordingtoBlumenberg,Marx'sirritabilityisoftenfoundinliverpatients: Theillnessemphasisedcertaintraitsinhischaracter.Hearguedcuttingly,hisbitingsatiredidnotshrinkatinsults,andhisexpressionscouldberudeandcruel.ThoughingeneralMarxhadblindfaithinhisclosestfriends,neverthelesshehimselfcomplainedthathewassometimestoomistrustfulandunjusteventothem.Hisverdicts,notonlyaboutenemiesbutevenaboutfriends,weresometimessoharshthatevenlesssensitivepeoplewouldtakeoffence ...Theremusthavebeenfewwhomhedidnotcriticizelikethis ...notevenEngelswasanexception.[193] AccordingtoPrincetonhistorianJerroldSeigel,inhislateteens,Marxmayhavehadpneumoniaorpleurisy,theeffectsofwhichledtohisbeingexemptedfromPrussianmilitaryservice.InlaterlifewhilstworkingonDasKapital(whichhenevercompleted),[194]Marxsufferedfromatrioofafflictions.Aliverailment,probablyhereditary,wasaggravatedbyoverwork,abaddiet,andlackofsleep.Inflammationoftheeyeswasinducedbytoomuchworkatnight.Athirdaffliction,eruptionofcarbunclesorboils,"wasprobablybroughtonbygeneralphysicaldebilitytowhichthevariousfeaturesofMarx'sstyleoflife –alcohol,tobacco,poordiet,andfailuretosleep –allcontributed.EngelsoftenexhortedMarxtoalterthisdangerousregime".InSeigel'sthesis,whatlaybehindthispunishingsacrificeofhishealthmayhavebeenguiltaboutself-involvementandegoism,originallyinducedinKarlMarxbyhisfather.[195] In2007,aretrodiagnosisofMarx'sskindiseasewasmadebydermatologistSamShusterofNewcastleUniversityandforShuster,themostprobableexplanationwasthatMarxsufferednotfromliverproblems,butfromhidradenitissuppurativa,arecurringinfectiveconditionarisingfromblockageofapocrineductsopeningintohairfollicles.Thiscondition,whichwasnotdescribedintheEnglishmedicalliteratureuntil1933(hencewouldnothavebeenknowntoMarx'sphysicians),canproducejointpain(whichcouldbemisdiagnosedasrheumaticdisorder)andpainfuleyeconditions.Toarriveathisretrodiagnosis,Shusterconsideredtheprimarymaterial:theMarxcorrespondencepublishedinthe50volumesoftheMarx/EngelsCollectedWorks.There,"althoughtheskinlesionswerecalled'furuncles','boils'and'carbuncles'byMarx,hiswife,andhisphysicians,theyweretoopersistent,recurrent,destructiveandsite-specificforthatdiagnosis".Thesitesofthepersistent'carbuncles'werenotedrepeatedlyinthearmpits,groins,perianal,genital(penisandscrotum)andsuprapubicregionsandinnerthighs,"favouredsitesofhidradenitissuppurativa".ProfessorShusterclaimedthediagnosis"cannowbemadedefinitively".[196] Shusterwentontoconsiderthepotentialpsychosocialeffectsofthedisease,notingthattheskinisanorganofcommunicationandthathidradenitissuppurativaproducesmuchpsychologicaldistress,includingloathinganddisgustanddepressionofself-image,mood,andwell-being,feelingsforwhichShusterfound"muchevidence"intheMarxcorrespondence.ProfessorShusterwentontoaskhimselfwhetherthementaleffectsofthediseaseaffectedMarx'sworkandevenhelpedhimtodevelophistheoryofalienation.[197] Death TombofKarlMarx,EastHighgateCemetery,London FollowingthedeathofhiswifeJennyinDecember1881,Marxdevelopedacatarrhthatkepthiminillhealthforthelast15monthsofhislife.IteventuallybroughtonthebronchitisandpleurisythatkilledhiminLondonon14March1883,whenhediedastatelesspersonatage64.[198]FamilyandfriendsinLondonburiedhisbodyinHighgateCemetery(East),London,on17March1883inanareareservedforagnosticsandatheists(GeorgeEliot'sgraveisnearby).AccordingtoFrancisWheentherewerebetweennineandelevenmournersathisfuneral,[199][200]howeverresearchfromcontemporarysourcesidentifiesthirteennamedindividualsattendingthefuneral.Theywere,FriedrichEngels,EleanorMarx,EdwardAveling,PaulLafargue,CharlesLonguet,HeleneDemuth,WilhelmLiebknecht,GottliebLemke,FrederickLessner,GLochner,SirRayLankester,CarlSchorlemmerandErnestRadford.[201]Acontemporarynewspaperaccountclaimsthat25to30relativesandfriendsattendedthefuneral.[202]AwriterinTheGraphicnotedthat'Byastrangeblunder...hisdeathwasnotannouncedfortwodays,andthenashavingtakenplaceatParis.ThenextdaythecorrectioncamefromParis;andwhenhisfriendsandfollowershastenedtohishouseinHaverstockHill,tolearnthetimeandplaceofburial,theylearnedthathewasalreadyinthecoldground.Butforthissecresy[sic]andhaste,agreatpopulardemonstrationwouldundoubtedlyhavebeenheldoverhisgrave'.[203] Severalofhisclosestfriendsspokeathisfuneral,includingWilhelmLiebknechtandFriedrichEngels.Engels'speechincludedthepassage:Onthe14th ofMarch,ataquartertothreeintheafternoon,thegreatestlivingthinkerceasedtothink.Hehadbeenleftaloneforscarcelytwominutes,andwhenwecamebackwefoundhiminhisarmchair,peacefullygonetosleep –butforever.[204] Marx'ssurvivingdaughtersEleanorandLaura,aswellasCharlesLonguetandPaulLafargue,Marx'stwoFrenchsocialistsons-in-law,werealsoinattendance.[200]Hehadbeenpredeceasedbyhiswifeandhiseldestdaughter,thelatterdyingafewmonthsearlierinJanuary1883.Liebknecht,afounderandleaderoftheGermanSocialDemocraticParty,gaveaspeechinGermanandLonguet,aprominentfigureintheFrenchworking-classmovement,madeashortstatementinFrench.[200]Twotelegramsfromworkers'partiesinFranceandSpain[which?]werealsoreadout.[200]TogetherwithEngels'sspeech,thisconstitutedtheentireprogrammeofthefuneral.[200]Non-relativesattendingthefuneralincludedthreecommunistassociatesofMarx:FriedrichLessner,imprisonedforthreeyearsaftertheCologneCommunistTrialof1852;G.Lochner,whomEngelsdescribedas"anoldmemberoftheCommunistLeague";andCarlSchorlemmer,aprofessorofchemistryinManchester,amemberoftheRoyalSocietyandacommunistactivistinvolvedinthe1848Badenrevolution.[200]AnotherattendeeofthefuneralwasRayLankester,aBritishzoologistwhowouldlaterbecomeaprominentacademic.[200] Marxleftapersonalestatevaluedforprobateat£250(equivalentto£26,788in2021[205]).[206]Uponhisowndeathin1895,EngelsleftMarx'stwosurvivingdaughtersa"significantportion"ofhisconsiderableestate(valuedin2011atUS$4.8 million).[187] MarxandhisfamilywerereburiedonanewsitenearbyinNovember1954.Thetombatthenewsite,unveiledon14March1956,[207]bearsthecarvedmessage:"WorkersofAllLandsUnite",thefinallineofTheCommunistManifesto;and,fromthe11th"ThesisonFeuerbach"(aseditedbyEngels),"Thephilosophershaveonlyinterpretedtheworldinvariousways—thepointhoweveristochangeit".[208]TheCommunistPartyofGreatBritain(CPGB)hadthemonumentwithaportraitbustbyLaurenceBradshawerectedandMarx'soriginaltombhadonlyhumbleadornment.[208]BlackcivilrightsleaderandCPGBactivistClaudiaJoneswaslaterburiedbesideKarlMarx'stomb. TheMarxisthistorianEricHobsbawmremarked:"OnecannotsayMarxdiedafailure"becausealthoughhehadnotachievedalargefollowingofdisciplesinBritain,hiswritingshadalreadybeguntomakeanimpactontheleft-wingmovementsinGermanyandRussia.Within25yearsofhisdeath,thecontinentalEuropeansocialistpartiesthatacknowledgedMarx'sinfluenceontheirpoliticswereeachgainingbetween15and47percentinthosecountrieswithrepresentativedemocraticelections.[209] Thought PartofaseriesonMarxism Theoreticalworks EconomicandPhilosophicManuscriptsof1844 ThesesonFeuerbach TheGermanIdeology WageLabourandCapital TheCommunistManifesto TheEighteenthBrumaireofLouisBonaparte GrundrissederKritikderPolitischenÖkonomie AContributiontotheCritiqueofPoliticalEconomy DasKapital CritiqueoftheGothaProgramme DialecticsofNature Philosophy Economicdeterminism Historicalmaterialism Marx'sdialectic Marx'smethod Philosophyofnature Critiqueofpoliticaleconomy Capital(accumulation) Crisistheory Commodity Marxianeconomics Concreteandabstractlabor Factorsofproduction Fallingprofit-ratetendency Meansofproduction Modeofproduction Asiatic Capitalist Socialist Productiveforces Scientificsocialism Surplusproduct Sociallynecessarylabourtime Value-form Wagelabour Sociology Alienation Baseandsuperstructure Bourgeoisie Class Classconsciousness Classstruggle Classlesssociety Commodityfetishism Communistsociety Critiqueofpoliticaleconomy Culturalhegemony Democracy Dictatorshipoftheproletariat Exploitation Freeassociation Generalintellect Humannature Ideology Immiseration Imperialism Lumpenproletariat Metabolicrift Proletariat Privateproperty Relationsofproduction Reification Statetheory Socialmetabolism Workingclass History AnarchismandMarxism PhilosophyintheSovietUnion Primitiveaccumulation Proletarianrevolution Proletarianinternationalism Worldrevolution YoungMarx Aspects Aesthetics Archaeology Criminology Culturalanalysis Feminism Filmtheory Geography Historiography Literarycriticism Marxismandreligion Classicalvariants Hegelian Humanist NeueMarx-Lektüre Western PraxisSchool Orthodoxvariants Instrumental Impossibilism Leninism Bolshevism Left Marxism–Leninism Trotskyism Neo-Trotskyism Orthodox Pabloism Posadism Thirdcamp Bordigism Nkrumaism Rightcommunism Luxemburgism Menshevism Marxism–Leninism Anti-revisionism Castroism Guevarism HoChiMinhThought Hoxhaism Husakism Juche Kadarism Khrushchevism Maoism Marxism–Leninism–Maoism GonzaloThought Maoism-ThirdWorldism PrachandaPath SocialismwithChinesecharacteristics Dengism ScientificOutlookonDevelopment ThreeRepresents XiJinpingThought Stalinism Titoism Leftcommunistvariants Autonomism Bordigism Communization Councilcommunism LeftBolshevism Situationism Libertarianvariants Autonomism Councilcommunism DeLeonism Lettrism Mao-Spontex Neo-Marxism Analytical Freudian FrankfurtSchool Open Structural Situationism Othervariants BudapestSchool Centrist Austromarxism Democraticsocialism Eurocommunism Feminist Neo-Gramscianism Political Post-Marxism Revisionist Shachtmanism People KarlMarx Engels Bebel Bernstein DeLeon Kautsky EleanorMarx Debs Hardie Plekhanov Zetkin Gorky Connolly Lenin Luxemburg Liebknecht Kollontai Pannekoek Bukharin Stalin Trotsky Borochov Lukács Korsch Ho Gramsci Benjamin Mao Horkheimer Ibárruri Reich Aragon Brecht Marcuse Fromm Lefebvre Adorno Mariátegui Sartre Rubel Beauvoir Allende Dunayevskaya Mills Hobsbawm Althusser Pasolini Zinn Miliband Parenti Bauman Guevara Castro Debord Fanon Harvey Wolff Sankara Žižek Losurdo Wood Relatedtopics Criticaltheory CriticismofMarxism Communism Historyofcommunism Left-wingpolitics NewLeft OldLeft Socialdemocracy Socialanarchism Anarcho-communism Socialism Libertarian Revolutionary Utopian Workers'Council RelatedcategoriesKarlMarx Outline  Communismportal  Philosophyportal  Socialismportalvte Influences Mainarticle:InfluencesonKarlMarx Marx'sthoughtdemonstratesinfluencesfrommanythinkersincluding,butnotlimitedto: GeorgWilhelmFriedrichHegel'sphilosophy[210] Theclassicalpoliticaleconomy(economics)ofAdamSmithandDavidRicardo,[211]aswellasJeanCharlesLéonarddeSismondi'scritiqueoflaissez-faireeconomicsandanalysisoftheprecariousstateoftheproletariat[212] Frenchsocialistthought,[211]inparticularthethoughtofJean-JacquesRousseau,HenrideSaint-Simon,Pierre-JosephProudhonandCharlesFourier[213][214] EarlierGermanphilosophicalmaterialismamongtheYoungHegelians,particularlythatofLudwigFeuerbachandBrunoBauer,[68]aswellastheFrenchmaterialismofthelate18thcentury,includingDiderot,ClaudeAdrienHelvétiusandd'Holbach TheworkingclassanalysisbyFriedrichEngels,[64]aswellastheearlydescriptionsofclassprovidedbyFrenchliberalsandSaint-SimonianssuchasFrançoisGuizotandAugustinThierry Marx'sJudaiclegacyhasbeenidentifiedasformativetobothhismoraloutlook[215]andhismaterialistphilosophy.[216] Marx'sviewofhistory,whichcametobecalledhistoricalmaterialism(controversiallyadaptedasthephilosophyofdialecticalmaterialismbyEngelsandLenin),certainlyshowstheinfluenceofHegel'sclaimthatoneshouldviewreality(andhistory)dialectically.[210]However,Hegelhadthoughtinidealistterms,puttingideasintheforefront,whereasMarxsoughttorewritedialecticsinmaterialistterms,arguingfortheprimacyofmatteroveridea.[78][210]WhereHegelsawthe"spirit"asdrivinghistory,Marxsawthisasanunnecessarymystification,obscuringtherealityofhumanityanditsphysicalactionsshapingtheworld.[210]HewrotethatHegelianismstoodthemovementofrealityonitshead,andthatoneneededtosetituponitsfeet.[210]Despitehisdislikeofmysticalterms,MarxusedGothiclanguageinseveralofhisworks:inTheCommunistManifestoheproclaims"AspectreishauntingEurope –thespectreofcommunism.AllthepowersofoldEuropehaveenteredintoaholyalliancetoexorcisethisspectre",andinTheCapitalhereferstocapitalas"necromancythatsurroundstheproductsoflabour".[217] ThoughinspiredbyFrenchsocialistandsociologicalthought,[211]Marxcriticisedutopiansocialists,arguingthattheirfavouredsmall-scalesocialisticcommunitieswouldbeboundtomarginalisationandpovertyandthatonlyalarge-scalechangeintheeconomicsystemcanbringaboutrealchange.[214] TheotherimportantcontributionstoMarx'srevisionofHegelianismcamefromEngels'sbook,TheConditionoftheWorkingClassinEnglandin1844,whichledMarxtoconceiveofthehistoricaldialecticintermsofclassconflictandtoseethemodernworkingclassasthemostprogressiveforceforrevolution,[64]aswellasfromthesocialdemocratFriedrichWilhelmSchulz,whoinDieBewegungderProduktiondescribedthemovementofsocietyas"flowingfromthecontradictionbetweentheforcesofproductionandthemodeofproduction."[218][219] Marxbelievedthathecouldstudyhistoryandsocietyscientificallyanddiscerntendenciesofhistoryandtheresultingoutcomeofsocialconflicts.SomefollowersofMarx,therefore,concludedthatacommunistrevolutionwouldinevitablyoccur.However,Marxfamouslyassertedintheeleventhofhis"ThesesonFeuerbach"that"philosophershaveonlyinterpretedtheworld,invariousways;thepointhoweveristochangeit"andheclearlydedicatedhimselftotryingtoaltertheworld.[5][208] Marx'stheoriesinspiredseveraltheoriesanddisciplinesoffutureincluding,butnotlimitedto: Contemporarycritiqueofpoliticaleconomy KondratievwaveandKuznetsswing TheoryofUnderconsumption Creativedestruction Crisistheory QuantitativeEconomicHistory World-systemstheory Philosophyandsocialthought Marx'spolemicwithotherthinkersoftenoccurredthroughcritiqueandthushehasbeencalled"thefirstgreatuserofcriticalmethodinsocialsciences".[210][211]Hecriticisedspeculativephilosophy,equatingmetaphysicswithideology.[220]Byadoptingthisapproach,Marxattemptedtoseparatekeyfindingsfromideologicalbiases.[211]Thissethimapartfrommanycontemporaryphilosophers.[5] Humannature Furtherinformation:Marx'stheoryofhumannature ThephilosophersG.W.F.HegelandLudwigFeuerbach,whoseideasondialecticsheavilyinfluencedMarx LikeTocqueville,whodescribedafacelessandbureaucraticdespotismwithnoidentifiabledespot,[221]MarxalsobrokewithclassicalthinkerswhospokeofasingletyrantandwithMontesquieu,whodiscussedthenatureofthesingledespot.Instead,Marxsetouttoanalyse"thedespotismofcapital".[222]Fundamentally,Marxassumedthathumanhistoryinvolvestransforminghumannature,whichencompassesbothhumanbeingsandmaterialobjects.[223]Humansrecognisethattheypossessbothactualandpotentialselves.[224][225]ForbothMarxandHegel,self-developmentbeginswithanexperienceofinternalalienationstemmingfromthisrecognition,followedbyarealisationthattheactualself,asasubjectiveagent,rendersitspotentialcounterpartanobjecttobeapprehended.[225]Marxfurtherarguesthatbymouldingnature[226]indesiredways[227]thesubjecttakestheobjectasitsownandthuspermitstheindividualtobeactualisedasfullyhuman.ForMarx,thehumannature –Gattungswesen,orspecies-being –existsasafunctionofhumanlabour.[224][225][227]FundamentaltoMarx'sideaofmeaningfullabouristhepropositionthatforasubjecttocometotermswithitsalienatedobjectitmustfirstexertinfluenceuponliteral,materialobjectsinthesubject'sworld.[228]MarxacknowledgesthatHegel"graspsthenatureofworkandcomprehendsobjectiveman,authenticbecauseactual,astheresultofhisownwork",[229]butcharacterisesHegelianself-developmentasunduly"spiritual"andabstract.[230]MarxthusdepartsfromHegelbyinsistingthat"thefactthatmanisacorporeal,actual,sentient,objectivebeingwithnaturalcapacitiesmeansthathehasactual,sensuousobjectsforhisnatureasobjectsofhislife-expression,orthathecanonlyexpresshislifeinactualsensuousobjects".[228]Consequently,MarxrevisesHegelian"work"intomaterial"labour"andinthecontextofhumancapacitytotransformnaturetheterm"labourpower".[78] Labour,classstruggleandfalseconsciousness Furtherinformation:Alienation(Marxism),Classstruggle,andCapitalistmodeofproduction(Marxisttheory) Thehistoryofallhithertoexistingsocietyisthehistoryofclassstruggles.— KarlMarx,TheCommunistManifesto[231] AmonumentdedicatedtoMarxandEngelsinShanghai,China Marxhadaspecialconcernwithhowpeoplerelatetotheirownlabourpower.[232]Hewroteextensivelyaboutthisintermsoftheproblemofalienation.[233]Aswiththedialectic,MarxbeganwithaHegeliannotionofalienationbutdevelopedamorematerialistconception.[232]Capitalismmediatessocialrelationshipsofproduction(suchasamongworkersorbetweenworkersandcapitalists)throughcommodities,includinglabour,thatareboughtandsoldonthemarket.[232]ForMarx,thepossibilitythatonemaygiveupownershipofone'sownlabour –one'scapacitytotransformtheworld –istantamounttobeingalienatedfromone'sownnatureanditisaspiritualloss.[232]Marxdescribedthislossascommodityfetishism,inwhichthethingsthatpeopleproduce,commodities,appeartohavealifeandmovementoftheirowntowhichhumansandtheirbehaviourmerelyadapt.[234] CommodityfetishismprovidesanexampleofwhatEngelscalled"falseconsciousness",[235]whichrelatescloselytotheunderstandingofideology.By"ideology",MarxandEngelsmeantideasthatreflecttheinterestsofaparticularclassataparticulartimeinhistory,butwhichcontemporariesseeasuniversalandeternal.[236]MarxandEngels'spointwasnotonlythatsuchbeliefsareatbesthalf-truths,astheyserveanimportantpoliticalfunction.Putanotherway,thecontrolthatoneclassexercisesoverthemeansofproductionincludenotonlytheproductionoffoodormanufacturedgoodsbutalsotheproductionofideas(thisprovidesonepossibleexplanationforwhymembersofasubordinateclassmayholdideascontrarytotheirowninterests).[78][237]AnexampleofthissortofanalysisisMarx'sunderstandingofreligion,summedupinapassagefromthepreface[238]tohis1843ContributiontotheCritiqueofHegel'sPhilosophyofRight:Religioussufferingis,atoneandthesametime,theexpressionofrealsufferingandaprotestagainstrealsuffering.Religionisthesighoftheoppressedcreature,theheartofaheartlessworld,andthesoulofsoullessconditions.Itistheopiumofthepeople.Theabolitionofreligionastheillusoryhappinessofthepeopleisthedemandfortheirrealhappiness.Tocallonthemtogiveuptheirillusionsabouttheirconditionistocallonthemtogiveupaconditionthatrequiresillusions.[239] WhereashisGymnasiumseniorthesisattheGymnasiumzuTrier [de]arguedthatreligionhadasitsprimarysocialaimthepromotionofsolidarity,hereMarxseesthesocialfunctionofreligionintermsofhighlighting/preservingpoliticalandeconomicstatusquoandinequality.[240] Marxwasanoutspokenopponentofchildlabour,[241]sayingthatBritishindustries"couldbutlivebysuckingblood,andchildren'sbloodtoo",andthatU.S.capitalwasfinancedbythe"capitalizedbloodofchildren".[217][242] Critiqueofpoliticaleconomy,historyandsociety Furtherinformation:CritiqueofpoliticaleconomyandMarxianeconomics ButyouCommunistswouldintroducecommunityofwomen,screamsthewholebourgeoisieinchorus. Thebourgeoisseesinhiswifeamereinstrumentofproduction.Hehearsthatthemeansofproductionaretobeexploitedincommon,and,naturally,cancometonootherconclusionthanthatthelotofbeingcommontoallwilllikewisefalltothewomen.Hehasnotevenasuspicionthattherealpointaimedatistodoawaywiththestatusofwomenasmeremeanofproduction. — KarlMarx,TheCommunistManifesto[243] Marx'sthoughtsonlabouranditsfunctioninreproducingcapitalwererelatedtotheprimacyhegavetosocialrelationsindeterminingthesociety'spast,presentandfuture.[210][244][245](Criticshavecalledthiseconomicdeterminism.)Labouristhepreconditionfortheexistenceof,andaccumulationofcapital,whichbothshapethesocialsystem.[245]ForMarx,socialchangewasdrivenbyconflictbetweenopposinginterests,bypartiessituatedinthehistoricalsituationoftheirmodeofproduction.[172]Thisbecametheinspirationforthebodyofworksknownastheconflicttheory.[244]Inhisevolutionarymodelofhistory,hearguedthathumanhistorybeganwithfree,productiveandcreativeactivitiesthatwasovertimecoercedanddehumanised,atrendmostapparentundercapitalism.[210]Marxnotedthatthiswasnotanintentionalprocess,butratherduetotheimmanentlogicofthecurrentmodeofproductionwhichdemandsmorehumanlabour(abstractlabour)toreproducethesocialrelationshipsofcapital.[171][173] Theorganisationofsocietydependsonmeansofproduction.Themeansofproductionareallthingsrequiredtoproducematerialgoods,suchasland,naturalresources,andtechnologybutnothumanlabour.Therelationsofproductionarethesocialrelationshipspeopleenterintoastheyacquireandusethemeansofproduction.[244]Together,thesecomposethemodeofproductionandMarxdistinguishedhistoricalerasintermsofmodesofproduction.Marxdifferentiatedbetweenbaseandsuperstructure,wherethebase(orsubstructure)istheeconomicsystemandsuperstructureistheculturalandpoliticalsystem.[244]Marxregardedthismismatchbetweeneconomicbaseandsocialsuperstructureasamajorsourceofsocialdisruptionandconflict.[244] DespiteMarx'sstressonthecritiqueofcapitalismanddiscussionofthenewcommunistsocietythatshouldreplaceit,hisexplicitcritiqueisguarded,ashesawitasanimprovedsocietycomparedtothepastones(slaveryandfeudalism).[78]Marxneverclearlydiscussesissuesofmoralityandjustice,butscholarsagreethathisworkcontainedimplicitdiscussionofthoseconcepts.[78] MemorialtoKarlMarxinMoscow,whoseinscriptionreads:"Proletariansofallcountries,unite!MuralbyDiegoRiverashowingKarlMarx,intheNationalPalaceinMexicoCity Marx'sviewofcapitalismwastwo-sided.[78][149]Ononehand,inthe19thcentury'sdeepestcritiqueofthedehumanisingaspectsofthissystemhenotedthatdefiningfeaturesofcapitalismincludealienation,exploitationandrecurring,cyclicaldepressionsleadingtomassunemployment.Ontheotherhand,hecharacterisedcapitalismas"revolutionising,industrialisinganduniversalisingqualitiesofdevelopment,growthandprogressivity"(bywhichMarxmeantindustrialisation,urbanisation,technologicalprogress,increasedproductivityandgrowth,rationalityandscientificrevolution)thatareresponsibleforprogress,atincontrasttoearlierformsofsocieties.[78][149][210]Marxconsideredthecapitalistclasstobeoneofthemostrevolutionaryinhistorybecauseitconstantlyimprovedthemeansofproduction,moresothananyotherclassinhistoryandwasresponsiblefortheoverthrowoffeudalism.[214][246]Capitalismcanstimulateconsiderablegrowthbecausethecapitalisthasanincentivetoreinvestprofitsinnewtechnologiesandcapitalequipment.[232] AccordingtoMarx,capitaliststakeadvantageofthedifferencebetweenthelabourmarketandthemarketforwhatevercommoditythecapitalistcanproduce.Marxobservedthatinpracticallyeverysuccessfulindustry,inputunit-costsarelowerthanoutputunit-prices.Marxcalledthedifference"surplusvalue"andarguedthatitwasbasedonsurpluslabour,thedifferencebetweenwhatitcoststokeepworkersalive,andwhattheycanproduce.[78]AlthoughMarxdescribescapitalistsasvampiressuckingworker'sblood,[210]henotesthatdrawingprofitis"bynomeansaninjustice"sinceMarx,accordingtoAllenWood"excludesanytrans-epochalstandpointfromwhichonecancomment"onthemoralsofsuchparticulararrangements.[78]Marxalsonotedthateventhecapitaliststhemselvescannotgoagainstthesystem.[214]Theproblemisthe"cancerouscell"ofcapital,understoodnotaspropertyorequipment,butthesocialrelationsbetweenworkersandowners,(thesellingandpurchasingoflabourpower) –thesocietalsystem,orrathermodeofproduction,ingeneral.[214] Atthesametime,Marxstressedthatcapitalismwasunstableandpronetoperiodiccrises.[92]Hesuggestedthatovertimecapitalistswouldinvestmoreandmoreinnewtechnologiesandlessandlessinlabour.[78]SinceMarxbelievedthatprofitderivedfromsurplusvalueappropriatedfromlabour,heconcludedthattherateofprofitwouldfallastheeconomygrows.[247]Marxbelievedthatincreasinglyseverecriseswouldpunctuatethiscycleofgrowthandcollapse.[247]Moreover,hebelievedthatinthelong-term,thisprocesswouldenrichandempowerthecapitalistclassandimpoverishtheproletariat.[247][214]InsectiononeofTheCommunistManifesto,Marxdescribesfeudalism,capitalismandtheroleinternalsocialcontradictionsplayinthehistoricalprocess: Weseethen:themeansofproductionandofexchange,onwhosefoundationthebourgeoisiebuiltitselfup,weregeneratedinfeudalsociety.Atacertainstageinthedevelopmentofthesemeansofproductionandofexchange,theconditionsunderwhichfeudalsocietyproducedandexchanged ...thefeudalrelationsofpropertybecamenolongercompatiblewiththealreadydevelopedproductiveforces;theybecamesomanyfetters.Theyhadtobeburstasunder;theywereburstasunder.Intotheirplacesteppedfreecompetition,accompaniedbyasocialandpoliticalconstitutionadaptedinit,andtheeconomicandpoliticalswayofthebourgeoisclass.Asimilarmovementisgoingonbeforeourowneyes ...Theproductiveforcesatthedisposalofsocietynolongertendtofurtherthedevelopmentoftheconditionsofbourgeoisproperty;onthecontrary,theyhavebecometoopowerfulfortheseconditions,bywhichtheyarefettered,andsosoonastheyovercomethesefetters,theybringorderintothewholeofbourgeoissociety,endangertheexistenceofbourgeoisproperty.[3] OutsideafactoryinOldham.Marxbelievedthatindustrialworkers(theproletariat)wouldriseuparoundtheworld. Marxbelievedthatthosestructuralcontradictionswithincapitalismnecessitateitsend,givingwaytosocialism,orapost-capitalistic,communistsociety: ThedevelopmentofModernIndustry,therefore,cutsfromunderitsfeettheveryfoundationonwhichthebourgeoisieproducesandappropriatesproducts.Whatthebourgeoisie,therefore,produces,aboveall,areitsowngrave-diggers.Itsfallandthevictoryoftheproletariatareequallyinevitable.[3] Thankstovariousprocessesoverseenbycapitalism,suchasurbanisation,theworkingclass,theproletariat,shouldgrowinnumbersanddevelopclassconsciousness,intimerealisingthattheycanandmustchangethesystem.[210]Marxbelievedthatiftheproletariatweretoseizethemeansofproduction,theywouldencouragesocialrelationsthatwouldbenefiteveryoneequally,abolishingexploitingclassandintroduceasystemofproductionlessvulnerabletocyclicalcrises.[210]MarxarguedinTheGermanIdeologythatcapitalismwillendthroughtheorganisedactionsofaninternationalworkingclass:Communismisforusnotastateofaffairswhichistobeestablished,anidealtowhichrealitywillhavetoadjustitself.Wecallcommunismtherealmovementwhichabolishesthepresentstateofthings.Theconditionsofthismovementresultfromthepremisesnowinexistence.[248] Inthisnewsociety,thealienationwouldendandhumanswouldbefreetoactwithoutbeingboundbysellingtheirlabour.[247]Itwouldbeademocraticsociety,enfranchisingtheentirepopulation.[214]Insuchautopianworld,therewouldalsobelittleneedforastate,whosegoalwaspreviouslytoenforcethealienation.[247]Marxtheorisedthatbetweencapitalismandtheestablishmentofasocialist/communistsystem,wouldexistaperiodofdictatorshipoftheproletariat –wheretheworkingclassholdspoliticalpowerandforciblysocialisesthemeansofproduction.[214]AshewroteinhisCritiqueoftheGothaProgram,"betweencapitalistandcommunistsocietythereliestheperiodoftherevolutionarytransformationoftheoneintotheother.Correspondingtothisisalsoapoliticaltransitionperiodinwhichthestatecanbenothingbuttherevolutionarydictatorshipoftheproletariat".[249]Whileheallowedforthepossibilityofpeacefultransitioninsomecountrieswithstrongdemocraticinstitutionalstructures(suchasBritain,theUnitedStates,andtheNetherlands),hesuggestedthatinothercountriesinwhichworkerscannot"attaintheirgoalbypeacefulmeans"the"leverofourrevolutionmustbeforce".[250] Internationalrelations KarlMarxMonumentinChemnitz(knownasKarl-Marx-Stadtfrom1953to1990) MarxviewedRussiaasthemaincounter-revolutionarythreattoEuropeanrevolutions.[251]DuringtheCrimeanWar,MarxbackedtheOttomanEmpireanditsalliesBritainandFranceagainstRussia.[251]HewasabsolutelyopposedtoPan-Slavism,viewingitasaninstrumentofRussianforeignpolicy.[251]MarxhadconsideredtheSlavicnationsexceptPolesas'counter-revolutionary'.MarxandEngelspublishedintheNeueRheinischeZeitunginFebruary1849: Tothesentimentalphrasesaboutbrotherhoodwhichwearebeingofferedhereonbehalfofthemostcounter-revolutionarynationsofEurope,wereplythathatredofRussianswasandstillistheprimaryrevolutionarypassionamongGermans;thatsincetherevolution[of1848]hatredofCzechsandCroatshasbeenadded,andthatonlybythemostdetermineduseofterroragainsttheseSlavpeoplescanwe,jointlywiththePolesandMagyars,safeguardtherevolution.Weknowwheretheenemiesoftherevolutionareconcentrated,viz.inRussiaandtheSlavregionsofAustria,andnofinephrases,noallusionstoanundefineddemocraticfutureforthesecountriescandeterusfromtreatingourenemiesasenemies.Thentherewillbeastruggle,an"inexorablelife-and-deathstruggle",againstthoseSlavswhobetraytherevolution;anannihilatingfightandruthlessterror –notintheinterestsofGermany,butintheinterestsoftherevolution!"[252] MarxandEngelssympathisedwiththeNarodnikrevolutionariesofthe1860sand1870s.WhentheRussianrevolutionariesassassinatedTsarAlexanderIIofRussia,Marxexpressedthehopethattheassassinationforeshadowed'theformationofaRussiancommune'.[253]MarxsupportedthePolishuprisingsagainsttsaristRussia.[251]HesaidinaspeechinLondonin1867: InthefirstplacethepolicyofRussiaischangeless...Itsmethods,itstactics,itsmanoeuvresmaychange,butthepolarstarofitspolicy–worlddomination–isafixedstar.Inourtimesonlyacivilisedgovernmentrulingoverbarbarianmassescanhatchoutsuchaplanandexecuteit....ThereisbutonealternativeforEurope.EitherAsiaticbarbarism,underMuscovitedirection,willburstarounditsheadlikeanavalanche,orelseitmustre-establishPoland,thusputtingtwentymillionheroesbetweenitselfandAsiaandgainingabreathingspellfortheaccomplishmentofitssocialregeneration.[254] CPI(M)muralinKerala,India MarxsupportedthecauseofIrishindependence.In1867,hewroteEngels:"IusedtothinktheseparationofIrelandfromEnglandimpossible.Inowthinkitinevitable.TheEnglishworkingclasswillneveraccomplishanythinguntilithasgotridofIreland....EnglishreactioninEnglandhaditsroots...inthesubjugationofIreland."[255] MarxspentsometimeinFrenchAlgeria,whichhadbeeninvadedandmadeaFrenchcolonyin1830,andhadtheopportunitytoobservelifeincolonialNorthAfrica.Hewroteaboutthecolonialjusticesystem,inwhich"aformoftorturehasbeenused(andthishappens'regularly')toextractconfessionsfromtheArabs;naturallyitisdone(liketheEnglishinIndia)bythe'police';thejudgeissupposedtoknownothingatallaboutit."[256]MarxwassurprisedbythearroganceofmanyEuropeansettlersinAlgiersandwroteinaletter:"whenaEuropeancolonistdwellsamongthe'lesserbreeds,'eitherasasettlerorevenonbusiness,hegenerallyregardshimselfasevenmoreinviolablethanhandsomeWilliamI[aPrussianking].Still,whenitcomestobare-facedarroganceandpresumptuousnessvis-à-visthe'lesserbreeds,'theBritishandDutchoutdotheFrench."[256] AccordingtotheStanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy:"Marx'sanalysisofcolonialismasaprogressiveforcebringingmodernizationtoabackwardfeudalsocietysoundslikeatransparentrationalizationforforeigndomination.HisaccountofBritishdomination,however,reflectsthesameambivalencethatheshowstowardscapitalisminEurope.Inbothcases,Marxrecognizestheimmensesufferingbroughtaboutduringthetransitionfromfeudaltobourgeoissocietywhileinsistingthatthetransitionisbothnecessaryandultimatelyprogressive.HearguesthatthepenetrationofforeigncommercewillcauseasocialrevolutioninIndia."[257] MarxdiscussedBritishcolonialruleinIndiaintheNewYorkHeraldTribuneinJune1853: TherecannotremainanydoubtbutthatthemiseryinflictedbytheBritishonHindostan[India]isofanessentiallydifferentandinfinitelymoreintensivekindthanallHindostanhadtosufferbefore.EnglandhasbrokendowntheentireframeworkofIndiansociety,withoutanysymptomsofreconstitutionyetappearing...[however],wemustnotforgetthattheseidyllicvillagecommunities,inoffensivethoughtheymayappear,hadalwaysbeenthesolidfoundationofOrientaldespotism,thattheyrestrainedthehumanmindwithinthesmallestpossiblecompass,makingittheunresistingtoolofsuperstition.[256][258] Legacy Mainarticle:Marxism KarlMarxandFriedrichEngelsmonumentinMarx-EngelsForum,Berlin-Mitte,Germany KarlMarxstatueinTrier,Germany Marx'sideashavehadaprofoundimpactonworldpoliticsandintellectualthought.[5][6][259][260]FollowersofMarxhaveoftendebatedamongthemselvesoverhowtointerpretMarx'swritingsandapplyhisconceptstothemodernworld.[261]ThelegacyofMarx'sthoughthasbecomecontestedbetweennumeroustendencies,eachofwhichseesitselfasMarx'smostaccurateinterpreter.Inthepoliticalrealm,thesetendenciesincludepoliticaltheoriessuchasLeninism,Marxism–Leninism,Trotskyism,Maoism,Luxemburgism,andlibertarianMarxism[261]andOpenMarxism,VariouscurrentshavealsodevelopedinacademicMarxism,oftenunderinfluenceofotherviews,resultinginstructuralistMarxism,historicalmaterialism,phenomenologicalMarxism,analyticalMarxism,andHegelianMarxism.[261] Fromanacademicperspective,Marx'sworkcontributedtothebirthofmodernsociology.Hehasbeencitedasoneofthe19thcentury'sthreemastersofthe"schoolofsuspicion",alongsideFriedrichNietzscheandSigmundFreud,[262]andasoneofthethreeprincipalarchitectsofmodernsocialsciencealongwithÉmileDurkheimandMaxWeber.[263]Incontrasttootherphilosophers,Marxofferedtheoriesthatcouldoftenbetestedwiththescientificmethod.[5]BothMarxandAugusteComtesetouttodevelopscientificallyjustifiedideologiesinthewakeofEuropeansecularisationandnewdevelopmentsinthephilosophiesofhistoryandscience.WorkingintheHegeliantradition,MarxrejectedComteansociologicalpositivisminanattempttodevelopascienceofsociety.[264]KarlLöwithconsideredMarxandSørenKierkegaardtobethetwogreatestHegelianphilosophicalsuccessors.[265]Inmodernsociologicaltheory,Marxistsociologyisrecognisedasoneofthemainclassicalperspectives.IsaiahBerlinconsidersMarxthetruefounderofmodernsociology"insofarasanyonecanclaimthetitle".[266]Beyondsocialscience,hehasalsohadalastinglegacyinphilosophy,literature,theartsandthehumanities.[267][268][269][270] MapofcountriesthatdeclaredthemselvestobesocialiststatesundertheMarxist–LeninistorMaoistdefinitionbetween1979and1983,whichmarkedthegreatestterritorialextentofsocialiststates Socialtheoristsofthe20thand21stcenturieshavepursuedtwomainstrategiesinresponsetoMarx.Onemovehasbeentoreduceittoitsanalyticalcore,knownasanalyticalMarxism.Another,morecommonmovehasbeentodilutetheexplanatoryclaimsofMarx'ssocialtheoryandemphasisethe"relativeautonomy"ofaspectsofsocialandeconomiclifenotdirectlyrelatedtoMarx'scentralnarrativeofinteractionbetweenthedevelopmentofthe"forcesofproduction"andthesuccessionof"modesofproduction".Thishasbeentheneo-MarxisttheorisingadoptedbyhistoriansinspiredbyMarx'ssocialtheorysuchasE.P.ThompsonandEricHobsbawm.IthasalsobeenalineofthinkingpursuedbythinkersandactivistssuchasAntonioGramsciwhohavesoughttounderstandtheopportunitiesandthedifficultiesoftransformativepoliticalpractice,seeninthelightofMarxistsocialtheory.[271][272][273][274]Marx'sideaswouldalsohaveaprofoundinfluenceonsubsequentartistsandarthistory,withavant-gardemovementsacrossliterature,visualart,music,film,andtheatre.[275] Politically,Marx'slegacyismorecomplex.Throughoutthe20thcentury,revolutionsindozensofcountrieslabelledthemselves"Marxist"—mostnotablytheRussianRevolution,whichledtothefoundingoftheSovietUnion.[276]MajorworldleadersincludingVladimirLenin,[276]MaoZedong,[277]FidelCastro,[278]SalvadorAllende,[279]JosipBrozTito,[280]KwameNkrumah,[281]JawaharlalNehru,[282]NelsonMandela,[283]XiJinping,[284]Jean-ClaudeJuncker,[284][285]andThomasSankara[286]haveallcitedMarxasaninfluence.BeyondwhereMarxistrevolutionstookplace,Marx'sideashaveinformedpoliticalpartiesworldwide.[287]IncountriesassociatedwithsomeMarxistclaims,someeventshaveledpoliticalopponentstoblameMarxformillionsofdeaths,[288]butthefidelityofthesevariedrevolutionaries,leaders,andpartiestoMarx'sworkishighlycontestedandhasbeenrejected,[289]includingbymanyMarxists.[290]ItisnowcommontodistinguishbetweenthelegacyandinfluenceofMarxspecifically,andthelegacyandinfluenceofthosewhohaveshapedhisideasforpoliticalpurposes.[291]ArthurLipowdescribesMarxandhiscollaboratorFriedrichEngelsas"thefoundersofmodernrevolutionarydemocraticsocialism."[292] Marxremainsbothrelevantandcontroversial.InMay2018,tomarkthebicentenaryofhisbirth,a4.5mstatueofhimbyleadingChinesesculptorWuWeishananddonatedbytheChinesegovernmentwasunveiledinhisbirthplaceofTrier.Thethen-EuropeanCommissionpresidentJean-ClaudeJunckerdefendedMarx'smemory,sayingthattodayMarx"standsforthingswhichheisnotresponsibleforandwhichhedidn'tcausebecausemanyofthethingshewrotedownwereredraftedintotheopposite".[285][293] In2017,afeaturefilm,titledTheYoungKarlMarx,featuringMarx,hiswifeJennyMarx,andEngels,amongotherrevolutionariesandintellectualspriortotheRevolutionsof1848,receivedgoodreviewsforbothitshistoricalaccuracyanditsbrioindealingwithintellectuallife.[294]AnotherfictionalrepresentationtocoincidewiththebicentenarywasJasonBarker'snovelMarxReturnswhich,despitebeing"[c]urious,funny,perplexing,andirreverent",accordingtophilosopherRayBrassier"castsunexpectedlightonMarx'sthought."[295] Selectedbibliography Seealso:Marx/EngelsCollectedWorks TheDifferenceBetweentheDemocriteanandEpicureanPhilosophyofNature(doctoralthesis),[296]1841 ThePhilosophicalManifestooftheHistoricalSchoolofLaw,1842 CritiqueofHegel'sPhilosophyofRight,1843 OntheJewishQuestion,1843 NotesonJamesMill,1844 EconomicandPhilosophicManuscriptsof1844,1844 TheHolyFamily,1845 ThesesonFeuerbach,1845 TheGermanIdeology,1845 ThePovertyofPhilosophy,1847 WageLabourandCapital,1847 ManifestooftheCommunistParty,1848 TheClassStrugglesinFrance,1850 TheEighteenthBrumaireofLouisNapoleon,1852 Grundrisse(FoundationsofaCritiqueofPoliticalEconomy),1857 AContributiontotheCritiqueofPoliticalEconomy,1859 WritingsontheU.S.CivilWar,1861 TheoriesofSurplusValue,(posthumouslypublishedbyKautsky)3volumes,1862 Value,PriceandProfit,1865 Capital.VolumeI:ACritiqueofPoliticalEconomyTheProcessofProductionofCapital(DasKapital),1867 TheCivilWarinFrance,1871 CritiqueoftheGothaProgram,1875 NotesonAdolphWagner,1883 DasKapital,Volume II(posthumouslypublishedbyEngels),1885 DasKapital,Volume III(posthumouslypublishedbyEngels),1894 Seealso CriticismsofMarxism KarlMarxHouse KarlMarxMonument KarlMarxinfilm Marxianclasstheory Marxianeconomics MarxMemorialLibrary Marx'smethod MarxReloaded MathematicalmanuscriptsofKarlMarx PoliticalEconomy Pre-Marxsocialists TimelineofKarlMarx GiovanniGentile AdamSmith 2807KarlMarx GeorgWilhelmFriedrichHegel References ^"LetterfromKarlMarxacceptingmembershipoftheSociety1862".RoyalSocietyofArts.Archivedfromtheoriginalon16April2018.Retrieved19August2022. ^ab"Classics:KarlMarx".WillametteUniversity.Archivedfromtheoriginalon16April2020.Retrieved31August2020. ^abcMarx,K.andEngels,F.(1848).TheCommunistManifestoArchived2September2009attheWaybackMachine ^Marx,Karl.CritiqueoftheGothaProgram.Archivedfromtheoriginalon27October2007–viaMarxistsInternetArchive. ^abcdeCalhoun2002,pp. 23–24 ^ab"Marxthemillennium's'greatestthinker'".BBCNewsWorldOnline.1October1999.Archivedfromtheoriginalon2September2017.Retrieved23November2010. ^Unger,RobertoMangabeira(2007).FreeTradeReimagined:TheWorldDivisionofLaborandtheMethodofEconomics.Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress. ^Hicks,John(May1974)."CapitalControversies:AncientandModern".TheAmericanEconomicReview.64(2):307.Thegreatesteconomists,SmithorMarxorKeynes,havechangedthecourseofhistory ... ^JosephSchumpeterTenGreatEconomists:FromMarxtoKeynes.Volume26ofUnwinUniversitybooks.Edition4,Taylor&FrancisGroup,1952ISBN 0-415-11078-5,978-0-415-11078-5 ^Little,Daniel."MarxismandMethod".Archivedfromtheoriginalon10December2017.Retrieved10December2017. ^Kim,SungHo(2017)."MaxWeber".InZalta,EdwardN.(ed.).StanfordEncyclopaediaofPhilosophy.MetaphysicsResearchLab,StanfordUniversity.Archivedfromtheoriginalon18March2019.Retrieved10December2017.MaxWeberisknownasaprincipalarchitectofmodernsocialsciencealongwithKarlMarxandEmilDurkheim. ^Nicolaievsky&Maenchen-Helfen1976,p. 7;Wheen2001,pp. 8,12;McLellan2006,p. 1. ^Nicolaievsky&Maenchen-Helfen1976,pp. 4–5;Wheen2001,pp. 7–9,12;McLellan2006,pp. 2–3. ^Carroll,James(2002).Constantine'sSword:TheChurchandtheJews–AHistory.HoughtonMifflinHarcourt.p. 419.ISBN 978-0-547-34888-9.Archivedfromtheoriginalon24September2020.Retrieved2April2018. ^Nicolaievsky&Maenchen-Helfen1976,pp. 4–6;McLellan2006,pp. 2–4. ^McLellan2006,p. 178,Plate1. ^Wheen2001.pp.12–13. ^Nicolaievsky&Maenchen-Helfen1976,pp. 5,8–12;Wheen2001,p. 11;McLellan2006,pp. 5–6. ^Nicolaievsky&Maenchen-Helfen1976,p. 7;Wheen2001,p. 10;McLellan2006,p. 7. ^Wheen2001,chpt.6 ^Nicolaievsky&Maenchen-Helfen1976,p. 12;Wheen2001,p. 13. ^McLellan2006,p. 7. ^KarlMarx:DictionaryofNationalBiography.Volume37.OxfordUniversityPress.2004.pp. 57–58.ISBN 978-0-19-861387-9. ^Nicolaievsky&Maenchen-Helfen1976,pp. 12–15;Wheen2001,p. 13;McLellan2006,pp. 7–11. ^Nicolaievsky&Maenchen-Helfen1976,pp. 15–16;Wheen2001,p. 14;McLellan2006,p. 13. ^Wheen2001,p. 15. ^Nicolaievsky&Maenchen-Helfen1976,p. 20;McLellan2006,p. 14. ^Wheen2001,p. 16;McLellan2006,p. 14 ^abHolmes,Rachel(14October2017)."KarlMarx:thedrinkingyears".TheTimes.Archivedfromtheoriginalon10January2022.Retrieved14October2017.(subscriptionrequired) ^Nicolaievsky&Maenchen-Helfen1976,pp. 21–22;McLellan2006,p. 14. ^Nicolaievsky&Maenchen-Helfen1976,p. 22;Wheen2001,pp. 16–17;McLellan2006,p. 14. ^Fedoseyev1973,p. 23;Nicolaievsky&Maenchen-Helfen1976,pp. 23–30;Wheen2001,pp. 16–21,33;McLellan2006,pp. 15,20. ^Nicolaievsky&Maenchen-Helfen1976,pp. 70–71;Wheen2001,pp. 52–53;McLellan2006,pp. 61–62. ^Nicolaievsky&Maenchen-Helfen1976,p. 31;McLellan2006,p. 15. ^McLellan2006,p. 21 ^Nicolaievsky&Maenchen-Helfen1976,p. 33;McLellan2006,p. 21. ^Nicolaievsky&Maenchen-Helfen1976,pp. 32–34;Wheen2001,pp. 21–22;McLellan2006,pp. 21–22. ^Nicolaievsky&Maenchen-Helfen1976,pp. 34–38;Wheen2001,p. 34;McLellan2006,pp. 25–27. ^Nicolaievsky&Maenchen-Helfen1976,pp. 44,69–70;McLellan2006,pp. 17–18. ^Sperber2013,pp. 55–56. ^Nicolaievsky&Maenchen-Helfen1976,p. 33;McLellan2006,pp. 18–19 ^NewYork:InternationalPublishers,1975,pp.531–632 ^Nicolaievsky&Maenchen-Helfen1976,p. 33;Wheen2001,pp. 25–26. ^Marx'sthesiswasposthumouslypublishedintheCollectedWorksofKarlMarxandFrederickEngels:Volume1(NewYork:InternationalPublishers,1975)pp.25–107. ^Wheen2001,p. 32. ^Nicolaievsky&Maenchen-Helfen1976,p. 45;Wheen2001,p. 33;McLellan2006,pp. 28–29,33. ^Nicolaievsky&Maenchen-Helfen1976,pp. 38–45;Wheen2001,p. 34;McLellan2006,pp. 32–33,37. ^Nicolaievsky&Maenchen-Helfen1976,p. 49;McLellan2006,p. 33. ^Nicolaievsky&Maenchen-Helfen1976,pp. 50–51;Wheen2001,pp. 34–36,42–44;McLellan2006,pp. 35–47. ^Nicolaievsky&Maenchen-Helfen1976,p. 57;Wheen2001,p. 47;McLellan2006,pp. 48–50. ^Nicolaievsky&Maenchen-Helfen1976,pp. 60–61;Wheen2001,pp. 47–48;McLellan2006,pp. 50–51. ^Nicolaievsky&Maenchen-Helfen1976,pp. 68–69,72;Wheen2001,p. 48;McLellan2006,pp. 59–61 ^Nicolaievsky&Maenchen-Helfen1976,pp. 77–79;Wheen2001,pp. 62–66;McLellan2006,pp. 73–74,94. ^Nicolaievsky&Maenchen-Helfen1976,p. 72;Wheen2001,pp. 64–65;McLellan2006,pp. 71–72. ^Marx,Karl(1975)."ContributiontotheCritiqueofHegel'sPhilosophyofLaw".CollectedWorksofKarlMarxandFrederickEngels.Vol. 3.NewYork:InternationalPublishers.p. 3. ^Marx,Karl(1975)."OntheJewishQuestion".CollectedWorksofKarlMarxandFrederickEngels.Vol. 3.NewYork:InternationalPublishers.p. 146. ^McLellan2006,pp. 65–70,74–80. ^Nicolaievsky&Maenchen-Helfen1976,pp. 72,75–76;Wheen2001,p. 65;McLellan2006,pp. 88–90. ^Wheen2001,pp. 66–67,112;McLellan2006,pp. 79–80. ^Wheen2001,p. 90. ^Wheen2001.p.75. ^Mansel,Philip(2001).ParisBetweenEmpires.NewYork:St.MartinPress.p. 390. ^Engels,Friedrich(1975)."TheConditionoftheWorkingClassinEngland".CollectedWorksofKarlMarxandFrederickEngels.Vol. 4.NewYork:InternationalPublishers.pp. 295–596. ^abcT.B.Bottomore(1991).ADictionaryofMarxistthought.Wiley-Blackwell.pp. 108–.ISBN 978-0-631-18082-1.Archivedfromtheoriginalon22June2013.Retrieved5March2011. ^Fedoseyev1973,p. 82. ^Wheen2001.pp.85–86. ^KarlMarx,"TheHolyFamily",containedintheCollectedWorksofKarlMarxandFrederickEngels:Volume4,pp.3–211. ^abSeveralauthorselucidatedthislongneglectedcrucialturninMarx'stheoreticaldevelopment,suchasErnieThomsoninTheDiscoveryoftheMaterialistConceptionofHistoryintheWritingsoftheYoungKarlMarx,Lewiston,NewYork:EdwinMellenPress,2004;forashortaccountseeMaxStirner,adurabledissidentArchived18May2006attheWaybackMachine ^Takenfromthecaptionofapictureofthehouseinagroupofpictureslocatedbetweenpages160and161ofFedoseyev1973. ^Fedoseyev1973,p. 63. ^IsaiahBerlin,KarlMarx:HisLifeandEnvironment(OxfordUniversityPress:London,1963)pp.90–94. ^abFedoseyev1973,p. 62. ^LarisaMiskievich,"Preface"toVolume28oftheCollectedWorksofKarlMarxandFrederickEngels(InternationalPublishers:NewYork,1986)p.xii ^KarlMarx,CollectedWorksofKarlMarxandFrederickEngels:Volume35,Volume36andVolume37(InternationalPublishers:NewYork,1996,1997and1987). ^IsaiahBerlin,KarlMarx:HisLifeandEnvironment,pp.35–61. ^Note54containedonp.598intheCollectedWorksofKarlMarxandFrederickEngels:Volume3. ^KarlMarx,"EconomicandPhilosophicalManuscriptsof1844"CollectedWorksofKarlMarxandFrederickEngels:Volume3(InternationalPublishers:NewYork,1975)pp.229–346. ^abcdefghijklmno"KarlMarx".StanfordEncyclopaediaofPhilosophy.MetaphysicsResearchLab,StanfordUniversity.2017.Archivedfromtheoriginalon8February2012.Retrieved28May2005..FirstpublishedTue26August2003;substantiverevisionMon14June2010.Retrieved4March2011. ^Fedoseyev1973,p. 83. ^KarlMarx,"ThesesonFeuerbach",containedintheCollectedWorksofKarlMarxandFrederickEngels:Volume5(InternationalPublishers:NewYork,1976)pp.3–14. ^KarlMarx,"ThesesonFeuerbach,"containedintheCollectedWorksofKarlMarxandFrederickEngels:Volume5,p.8. ^DougLorimer,inFriedrichEngels(1999).Socialism:utopianandscientific.ResistanceBooks.pp. 34–36.ISBN 978-0-909196-86-8.Archivedfromtheoriginalon17June2013.Retrieved7March2011. ^abcWheen2001.p.90Archived15September2015attheWaybackMachine. ^HeinrichGemkowetal.,FrederickEngels:ABiography(VerlagZeitimBild["NewBookPublishingHouse"]:Dresden,1972)p.101 ^HeinrichGemkow,etal.,FrederickEngels:ABiography,p.102. ^HeinrichGemkow,etal.,FrederickEngels:ABiography(VerlagZeitimBild[NewBookPublishingHouse]:Dresden,1972)p.53 ^HeinrichGemkow,etal.,FrederickEngels:ABiography,p.78. ^abcFedoseyev1973,p. 89. ^Wheen2001.p.92. ^KarlMarxandFrederickEngels,"GermanIdeology"containedintheCollectedWorksofKarlMarxandFrederickEngels:Volume5(InternationalPublishers:NewYork,1976)pp.19–539. ^Fedoseyev1973,pp. 96–97. ^abBaird,ForrestE.;WalterKaufmann(2008).FromPlatotoDerrida.UpperSaddleRiver,NewJersey:PearsonPrenticeHall.ISBN 978-0-13-158591-1. ^Wheen2001.p.93. ^SeeNote71onp.672oftheCollectedWorksofKarlMarxandFrederickEngels:Volume6(InternationalPublishers:NewYork,1976). ^KarlMarx,ThePovertyofPhilosophycontainedintheCollectedWorksofKarlMarxandFrederickEngels:Volume6(InternationalPublishers:NewYork,1976)pp.105–212. ^Wheen2001.p.107. ^Fedoseyev1973,p. 124. ^Note260containedintheCollectedWorksofKarlMarxandFrederickEngels:Volume11(InternationalPublishers:NewYork,1979)pp.671–72. ^Note260containedintheCollectedWorksofKarlMarxandFrederickEngels:Volume11,p.672. ^Fedoseyev1973,pp. 123–125. ^Fedoseyev1973,p. 125. ^FrederickEngels,"PrinciplesofCommunism"containedintheCollectedWorksofKarlMarxandFrederickEngels:Volume6(InternationalPublishers,NewYork,1976)pp.341–57. ^KarlMarxandFrederickEngels,"TheCommunistManifesto"containedintheCollectedWorksofKarlMarxandFrederickEngels:Volume6,pp.477–519. ^Wheen2001.p.115. ^ChrisShilling;PhilipAMellor(2001).TheSociologicalAmbition:ElementaryFormsofSocialandMoralLife.SAGEPublications.p. 114.ISBN 978-0-7619-6549-7.Archivedfromtheoriginalon15September2015.Retrieved27June2015. ^MarxandEngels1848. ^abWheen2001.p.125. ^abMaltsev;YuriN.(1993).RequiemforMarx.LudwigvonMisesInstitute.pp. 93–94.ISBN 978-1-61016-116-9.Archivedfromtheoriginalon22July2011.Retrieved9March2011. ^SaulKussielPadover,KarlMarx,anintimatebiography,McGraw-Hill,1978,p.205 ^abcWheen2001.pp.126–27. ^DavidMcLellan1973KarlMarx:HislifeandThought.NewYork:HarperandRow.pp.189–90 ^Felix,David(1982)."HeuteDeutschland!MarxasProvincialPolitician".CentralEuropeanHistory.15(4):332–50.doi:10.1017/S0008938900010621.JSTOR 4545968.S2CID 145405027. ^Wheen2001.p.128. ^KarlMarxandFrederickEngels,"DemandsoftheCommunistParty"containedintheCollectedWorksofKarlMarxandFrederickEngels:Volume7(InternationalPublishers:NewYork,1977)pp.3–6. ^Wheen2001.p.129. ^Wheen2001.pp.130–32. ^Seigel,p.50 ^abDougLorimer.Introduction.InKarlMarx.TheClassStrugglesinFrance:FromtheFebruaryRevolutiontotheParisCommune.ResistanceBooks.p. 6.ISBN 978-1-876646-19-6.Archivedfromtheoriginalon17June2013.Retrieved9March2011. ^"NeueRheinsicheZeitungNo.145November1848".www.marxists.org.Retrieved5April2022. ^abWheen2001.pp.136–37. ^abcBorisNicolaievsky(2007).KarlMarx–ManandFighter.ReadBooks.pp. 192–.ISBN 978-1-4067-2703-6.Archivedfromtheoriginalon22June2013.Retrieved9March2011. ^SlavkoSplichal(2002).Principlesofpublicityandpressfreedom.Rowman&Littlefield.p. 115.ISBN 978-0-7425-1615-1.Archivedfromtheoriginalon17June2013.Retrieved9March2011. ^abFranzMehring(2003).KarlMarx:TheStoryofHisLife.PsychologyPress.pp. 19–20.ISBN 978-0-415-31333-9.Archivedfromtheoriginalon16June2013.Retrieved9March2011. ^Gross,DavidM.(2014).99TacticsofSuccessfulTaxResistanceCampaigns.PicketLinePress.pp. 76–77.ISBN 978-1-4905-7274-1. ^Wheen2001.pp.137–46. ^Wheen2001.pp.147–48. ^PeterWatson(2010).TheGermanGenius:Europe'sThirdRenaissance,theSecondScientificRevolution,andtheTwentiethCentury.HarperCollins.pp. 250–.ISBN 978-0-06-076022-9.Archivedfromtheoriginalon17June2013.Retrieved9March2011. ^abFedoseyev1973,p. 233. ^Note269containedonp.674intheCollectedWorksofKarlMarxandFrederickEngels:Volume11. ^Wheen2001.pp.151–55. ^PhilHarriss(2006).LondonMarkets,4th.NewHollandPublishers.p. 20.ISBN 978-1-86011-306-2.Archivedfromtheoriginalon20June2013.Retrieved23April2011. ^Note269onp.674oftheCollectedWorksofKarlMarxandFrederickEngels:Volume11. ^Dussel,EnriqueD.(2001).Moseley,FredBaker(ed.).TowardsanUnknownMarx:ACommentaryontheManuscriptsof1861–63.TranslatedbyAngulo,Yolanda.London;NewYork:Routledge.p. xxxiii.ISBN 0-415-21545-5. ^abcdefgh"KarlHeinrichMarx–Biography".Egs.edu.Archivedfromtheoriginalon1September2010.Retrieved9March2011. ^JonathanSperber,KarlMarx:ANineteenth-CenturyLife,p.295. ^abcKluger,Richard(1986).ThePaper:TheLifeandDeathoftheNewYorkHeraldTribune.NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf.ISBN 978-0-394-50877-1. ^Karl,Marx(2007).JamesLedbetter(ed.).DispatchesfortheNewYorkTribune:SelectedJournalismofKarlMarx.PenguinBooks.ISBN 978-0-14-144192-4. ^Fedoseyev1973,p. 274. ^Marx,Karl;Engels,Friedrich(1965)."MarxtoEngels,June14,1853".InRyazanskaya,S.W.(ed.).SelectedCorrespondence.TranslatedbyLasker,I.(2nd ed.).Moscow:ProgressPublishers.pp. 83–86. ^Takenfromapictureonp.327oftheCollectedWorksofKarlMarxandFrederickEngels:Volume11(InternationalPublishers:NewYork,1979). ^KarlMarx,"TheElectionsinEngland–ToriesandWhigs"containedintheCollectedWorksofKarlMarxandFrederickEngels:Volume11(InternationalPublishers:NewYork,1979)pp.327–32. ^"Marx&EngelsCollectedWorks,vol.41".15March2017. ^RichardKluger,ThePaper:TheLifeandDeathoftheNewYorkHeraldTribune(AlfredA.KnopfPublishing,NewYork,1986)p.121. ^McLellan2006,p. 262 ^Note1atp.367containedintheCollectedWorksofKarlMarxandFrederickEngels:Volume19(InternationalPublishers:NewYork,1984). ^KarlMarx,"TheEighteenthBrumaireofLouisNapoleon"containedintheCollectedWorksofKarlMarxandFrederickEngels:Volume11(InternationalPublishers:NewYork,1979)pp.99–197. 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^Marx."EconomicManuscripts:AppendixI:Production,Consumption,Distribution,Exchange".www.marxists.org.Retrieved28March2022.[...]Thesolitaryandisolatedhunterorfisherman,whoservesAdamSmithandRicardoasastartingpoint,isoneoftheunimaginativefantasiesofeighteenth-centuryromancesalaRobinsonCrusoe;anddespitetheassertionsofsocialhistorians,thesebynomeanssignifysimplyareactionagainstover-refinementandreversiontoamisconceivednaturallife.[...]ThisisanillusionandnothingbuttheaestheticillusionofthesmallandbigRobinsonades.Itis,onthecontrary,theanticipationof“bourgeoissociety,”whichbegantoevolveinthesixteenthcenturyandintheeighteenthcenturymadegiantstridestowardsmaturity.Theindividualinthissocietyoffreecompetitionseemstoberidofnaturalties,etc.,whichmadehimanappurtenanceofaparticular,limitedaggregationofhumanbeingsinprevioushistoricalepochs.Theprophetsoftheeighteenthcentury,onwhoseshouldersAdamSmithandRicardowerestillwhollystanding,envisagedthis18th-centuryindividual–aproductofthedissolutionoffeudalsocietyontheonehandandofthenewproductiveforcesevolvedsincethesixteenthcenturyontheother–asanidealwhoseexistencebelongedtothepast.Theysawthisindividualnotasanhistoricalresult,butasthestartingpointofhistory[...]Labourseemstobeaverysimplecategory.Thenotionoflabourinthisuniversalform,aslabouringeneral,isalsoextremelyold.Nevertheless“labour”inthissimplicityiseconomicallyconsideredjustasmodernacategoryastherelationswhichgiverisetothissimpleabstraction. 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Sources Postone,Moishe(1993).Timelabourandsocialdomination.CambridgeUniversityPress.doi:10.1017/CBO9780511570926.ISBN 978-0-511-57092-6. Calhoun,CraigJ.(2002).ClassicalSociologicalTheory.Oxford:Wiley-Blackwell.ISBN 978-0-631-21348-2.Archivedfromtheoriginalon12September2015.Retrieved27June2015. Fedoseyev,PetrNikolaevich(1973).KarlMarx:ABiography.Moscow:ProgressPublishers.OCLC 1365346. Hobsbawm,Eric(2011).HowtoChangetheWorld:TalesofMarxandMarxism.London:Little,Brown.ISBN 978-1-4087-0287-1. McLellan,David(2006).KarlMarx:ABiography(4th ed.).Hampshire:PalgraveMacMillan.ISBN 978-1-4039-9730-2. Nicolaievsky,Boris;Maenchen-Helfen,Otto(1976)[1936].KarlMarx:ManandFighter.trans.GwendaDavidandEricMosbacher.HarmondsworthandNewYork:Pelican.ISBN 978-1-4067-2703-6. Pepperell,Nicole(2010).DisassemblingCapital.RMITuniversity. Pilling,Geoff(1980).Marx'sCapital,PhilosophyandPoliticalEconomy.Routledge&KeaganPaul.ISBN 978-1-138-87410-7. Schwarzschild,Leopold(1986)[1948].TheRedPrussian:LifeandLegendofKarlMarx.PickwickBooksLtd.ISBN 978-0-948859-00-7. Singer,Peter(1980).Marx.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-19-287510-5. Sperber,Jonathan(2013).KarlMarx:ANineteenth-CenturyLife.W.W.Norton&Co.ISBN 978-0-87140-467-1. StedmanJones,Gareth(2016).KarlMarx:GreatnessandIllusion.London:AllenLane.ISBN 978-0-7139-9904-4. Stokes,Philip(2004).Philosophy:100EssentialThinkers.Kettering:IndexBooks.ISBN 978-0-572-02935-7. Vygodsky,Vitaly(1973).TheStoryofaGreatDiscovery:HowKarlMarxwrote"Capital".VerlagDieWirtschaft.Archivedfromtheoriginalon21August2018.Retrieved5March2011. Wheen,Francis(2001).KarlMarx.London:FourthEstate.ISBN 978-1-85702-637-5. Furtherreading Biographies Mainarticle:BiographiesofKarlMarx Barnett,Vincent.Marx(Routledge,2009) Berlin,Isaiah.KarlMarx:HisLifeandEnvironment(OxfordUniversityPress,1963)ISBN 0-19-520052-7 Blumenberg,Werner(2000).KarlMarx:AnIllustratedBiography.trans.DouglasScott.London;NewYork:Verso.ISBN 978-1-85984-254-6. Gemkow,Heinrich.KarlMarx:ABiography.Dresden:VerlagZeitimBild.1968. Heinrich,Michael(2019).KarlMarxandtheBirthofModernSociety:theLifeofMarxandtheDevelopmentofHisWork.VolumeI:1818–1841.NewYork:MonthlyReviewP.ISBN 978-1-58367-735-3. Hobsbawm,E.J.(2004)."Marx,KarlHeinrich".OxfordDictionaryofNationalBiography(online ed.).OxfordUniversityPress.doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/39021.(SubscriptionorUKpubliclibrarymembershiprequired.) Lenin,Vladimir(1967)[1913].KarlMarx:ABriefBiographicalSketchwithanExpositionofMarxism.Peking:ForeignLanguagesPress.Archivedfromtheoriginalon2July2019.Retrieved19February2011. Liedman,Sven-Eric.AWorldtoWin:TheLifeandWorksofKarlMarx.[2015]JeffreyN.Skinner,trans.London:Verso,2018. McLellan,David.KarlMarx:hisLifeandThoughtHarper&Row,1973ISBN 978-0-06-012829-6 Mehring,Franz.KarlMarx:TheStoryofHisLife(Routledge,2003) McLellan,David.MarxbeforeMarxism(1980),Macmillan,ISBN 978-0-333-27882-6 Nomad,Max(1961)[1939]."TheTeacher:KarlMarx,WhoSowedDragon'sTeeth".ApostlesofRevolution.NewYork:CollierBooks.pp. 83–150.LCCN 61018566.OCLC 984463383. Rubel,Maximilien.MarxWithoutMyth:AChronologicalStudyofhisLifeandWork(Blackwell,1975)ISBN 0-631-15780-8 Segrillo,Angelo.TwoCenturiesofKarlMarxBiographies:AnOverview(LEAWorkingPaperSeries,nº4,March2019). Sperber,Jonathan.KarlMarx:ANineteenth-CenturyLife.NewYork:W.W.Norton&Company,2013. StedmanJones,Gareth.KarlMarx:GreatnessandIllusion(AllenLane,2016).ISBN 978-0-7139-9904-4. Walker,FrankThomas.KarlMarx:aBibliographicandPoliticalBiography.(bj.publications),2009. Wheen,Francis.KarlMarx:ALife,(FourthEstate,1999),ISBN 1-85702-637-3 CommentariesonMarx Althusser,Louis.ForMarx.London:Verso,2005. Althusser,LouisandBalibar,Étienne.ReadingCapital.London:Verso,2009. Attali,Jacques.KarlMarxorthethoughtoftheworld.2005 Avineri,Shlomo.TheSocialandPoliticalThoughtofKarlMarx(CambridgeUniversityPress,1968)ISBN 0-521-09619-7 Avineri,Shlomo.KarlMarx:PhilosophyandRevolution(YaleUniversityPress,2019)ISBN 978-0-300-21170-2 Axelos,Kostas.Alienation,Praxis,andTechneintheThoughtofKarlMarx(translatedbyRonaldBruzina,UniversityofTexasPress,1976). Blackledge,Paul.ReflectionsontheMarxistTheoryofHistory(ManchesterUniversityPress,2006) Blackledge,Paul.MarxismandEthics(SUNYPress,2012) Bottomore,Tom,ed.ADictionaryofMarxistThought.Oxford:Blackwell,1998. Callinicos,Alex(2010)[1983].TheRevolutionaryIdeasofKarlMarx.Bloomsbury,London:Bookmarks.ISBN 978-1-905192-68-7. Cleaver,Harry.ReadingCapitalPolitically(AKPress,2000) G.A.Cohen.KarlMarx'sTheoryofHistory:ADefence(PrincetonUniversityPress,1978)ISBN 0-691-07068-7 Collier,Andrew.Marx(Oneworld,2004) Draper,Hal,KarlMarx'sTheoryofRevolution(4volumes)MonthlyReviewPress Duncan,RonaldandWilson,Colin.(editors)MarxRefuted,(Bath,UK,1987)ISBN 0-906798-71-X Eagleton,Terry.WhyMarxWasRight(NewHaven&London:YaleUniversityPress,2011). Fine,Ben.Marx'sCapital.5thed.London:Pluto,2010. Foster,JohnBellamy.Marx'sEcology:MaterialismandNature.NewYork:MonthlyReviewPress,2000. Gould,StephenJay.ADarwinianGentlemanatMarx'sFuneral–E.RayLankester,p. 1,FindArticles.com(1999) Harvey,David.ACompaniontoMarx'sCapital.London:Verso,2010. Harvey,David.TheLimitsofCapital.London:Verso,2006. Henry,Michel.MarxIandMarxII.1976 Holt,JustinP.TheSocialThoughtofKarlMarx.Sage,2015. Iggers,GeorgG."Historiography:FromScientificObjectivitytothePostmodernChallenge."(WesleyanUniversityPress,1997,2005) Kołakowski,Leszek.MainCurrentsofMarxismOxford:ClarendonPress,OUP,1978 Kurz,Robert.ReadMarx:ThemostimportanttextsofKarlMarxforthe21stCentury(2000)ISBN 3-8218-1644-9 Little,Daniel.TheScientificMarx,(UniversityofMinnesotaPress,1986)ISBN 0-8166-1505-5 Mandel,Ernest.MarxistEconomicTheory.NewYork:MonthlyReviewPress,1970. Mandel,Ernest.TheFormationoftheEconomicThoughtofKarlMarx.NewYork:MonthlyReviewPress,1977. Mészáros,István.Marx'sTheoryofAlienation(TheMerlinPress,1970) Miller,RichardW.AnalyzingMarx:Morality,Power,andHistory.Princeton,N.J:PrincetonUniversityPress,1984. Postone,Moishe.Time,Labour,andSocialDomination:AReinterpretationofMarx'sCriticalTheory.Cambridge[England]:CambridgeUniversityPress,1993. Rothbard,Murray.AnAustrianPerspectiveontheHistoryofEconomicThoughtVolume II:ClassicalEconomics(EdwardElgarPublishingLtd.,1995)ISBN 0-945466-48-X Saad-Filho,Alfredo.TheValueofMarx:PoliticalEconomyforContemporaryCapitalism.London:Routledge,2002. Saito,Kohei.KarlMarx'sEcosocialism:Capital,Nature,andtheUnfinishedCritiqueofPoliticalEconomy,MonthlyReviewPress2017. Schmidt,Alfred.TheConceptofNatureinMarx.London:NLB,1971. Seigel,J.E.(1973)."Marx'sEarlyDevelopment:Vocation,RebellionandRealism".TheJournalofInterdisciplinaryHistory.3(3):475–508.doi:10.2307/202551.JSTOR 202551. Seigel,Jerrold.Marx'sfate:theshapeofalife(PrincetonUniversityPress,1978)ISBN 0-271-00935-7 Strathern,Paul."Marxin90Minutes",(IvanR.Dee,2001) Thomas,Paul.KarlMarxandtheAnarchists.London:Routledge&KeganPaul,1980. Uno,Kozo.PrinciplesofPoliticalEconomy.TheoryofaPurelyCapitalistSociety,Brighton,Sussex:Harvester;AtlanticHighlands,N.J.:Humanities,1980. Vianello,F.[1989],"EffectiveDemandandtheRateofProfits:SomeThoughtsonMarx,KaleckiandSraffa",in:Sebastiani,M.(ed.),Kalecki'sRelevanceToday,London,Macmillan,ISBN 978-0-312-02411-6. Wendling,Amy.KarlMarxonTechnologyandAlienation(PalgraveMacmillan,2009) Wheen,Francis.Marx'sDasKapital,(AtlanticBooks,2006)ISBN 1-84354-400-8 Wilson,Edmund.TotheFinlandStation:AStudyintheWritingandActingofHistory,GardenCity,NY:Doubleday,1940 Fictionworks Barker,Jason.MarxReturns,Winchester,UK:ZeroBooks,2018,ISBN 978-1-78535-660-5. Medicalarticles Shuster,Sam(January2008)."ThenatureandconsequenceofKarlMarx'sskindisease".BritishJournalofDermatology.158(1):071106220718011––.doi:10.1111/j.1365-2133.2007.08282.x.PMID 17986303.S2CID 40843002. Externallinks KarlMarxatWikipedia'ssisterprojects MediafromCommonsQuotationsfromWikiquoteTextsfromWikisourceTextbooksfromWikibooksResourcesfromWikiversityDatafromWikidata WorksbyKarlMarxatProjectGutenberg WorksbyoraboutKarlMarxatInternetArchive WorksbyKarlMarxatLibriVox(publicdomainaudiobooks) Zalta,EdwardN.(ed.)."KarlMarx".StanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy. KarlMarxattheMarxistsInternetArchive. MarxandEngels(1973).SelectedWorks.Vol. 1.Moscow:ProgressPublishers. MarxandEngels(1973).SelectedWorks.Vol. 2.Moscow:ProgressPublishers. MarxandEngels(1973).SelectedWorks.Vol. 3.Moscow:ProgressPublishers. MarxandEngels(1982).SelectedCorrespondence(3rdrev. ed.).Moscow:ProgressPublishers. InstituteofMarxism-LeninismoftheCommunistPartyoftheSovietUnion(1989).KarlMarx:aBiography(4th ed.).Moscow:ProgressPublishers. Krader,Lawrence,ed.(1974).TheEthnologicalNotebooksofKarlMarx(PDF)(2nd ed.).Assen:VanGorcum. ArchiveofKarlMarx/FriedrichEngelsPapersattheInternationalInstituteofSocialHistory TheCollectedWorksofMarxandEngels,inEnglishtranslationandin50volumes,arepublishedinLondonbyLawrence&WishartandinNewYorkbyInternationalPublishers.(ThesevolumeswereatonetimeputonlinebytheMarxistsInternetArchive,untiltheoriginalpublishersobjectedoncopyrightgrounds:"Marx/EngelsCollectedWorks".MarxistsInternetArchive.Retrieved3March2018.)Theyareavailableonlineandsearchable,forpurchaseorthroughsubscribinglibraries,inthe"SocialTheoryArchived3March2018attheWaybackMachine"collectionpublishedbyAlexanderStreetPressincollaborationwiththeUniversityofChicago. "Marx",BBCRadio4discussionwithAnthonyGrayling,FrancisWheen&GarethStedmanJones(InOurTime,14July2005) The1887NYTimesreviewofDasKapital NewspaperclippingsaboutKarlMarxinthe20thCenturyPressArchivesoftheZBW vteKarlMarxFamily HeinrichMarx HenriettePressburg JennyvonWestphalen JennyLonguet LauraMarx EleanorMarx LouiseJuta CharlesLonguet PaulLafargue EdwardAveling HeleneDemuth Biographies KarlMarx:TheStoryofHisLife KarlMarx:HisLifeandEnvironment KarlMarx:HisLifeandThought Films DieDeutschen MarxReloaded MissMarx TheYoungKarlMarx Memberships CommunistLeague InternationalWorkingmensAssociation Otherculturaldepictions Assassin'sCreedSyndicate TheLeader KarlMarxinKalbadevi MarxinSoho MarxReturns "ThePhilosophers'FootballMatch" Tomb Statues "WorldForum/CommunistQuiz" YoungMarx Related FriedrichEngels 2807KarlMarx Opiumofthepeople Timeline ArticlesrelatedtoKarlMarx vteWorksbyKarlMarxandFriedrichEngelsMarxDasKapital DasKapital,VolumeI(1867) DasKapital,VolumeII(1885,posthumous) DasKapital,VolumeIII(1894,posthumous) Otherworks ScorpionandFelix(1837) Oulanem(1839) TheDifferenceBetweentheDemocriteanandEpicureanPhilosophyofNature(1841) "ThePhilosophicalManifestooftheHistoricalSchoolofLaw"(1842) CritiqueofHegel'sPhilosophyofRight(1843,published1927) "OntheJewishQuestion"(1843) "NotesonJamesMill"(1844) EconomicandPhilosophicManuscriptsof1844(1844,published1932) "ThesesonFeuerbach"(1845,published1888) ThePovertyofPhilosophy(1847) "WageLabourandCapital"(1847) TheClassStrugglesinFrance,1848–1850(1850) TheEighteenthBrumaireofLouisBonaparte(1852) Grundrisse(1857,published1939) AContributiontotheCritiqueofPoliticalEconomy(1859) TheoriesofSurplusValue(threevolumes,1862) "Value,PriceandProfit"(1865) "TheBelgianMassacres"(1869) "TheCivilWarinFrance"(1871) CritiqueoftheGothaProgramme(1875) MathematicalmanuscriptsofKarlMarx(1968) Marx'snotebooksonthehistoryoftechnology MarxandEngels TheHolyFamily(1844) TheGermanIdeology(1845,published1932) TheCommunistManifesto(1848) TheCivilWarintheUnitedStates(1861) Engels TheConditionoftheWorkingClassinEngland(1845) PrinciplesofCommunism(1847) ThePeasantWarinGermany(1850) "ThePartPlayedbyLabourintheTransitionfromApetoMan"(1876) Anti-Dühring(1878) Socialism:UtopianandScientific(1880) DialecticsofNature(1883) TheOriginoftheFamily,PrivateProperty,andtheState(1884) LudwigFeuerbachandtheEndofClassicalGermanPhilosophy(1886) AContributiontotheHistoryofPrimitiveChristianity(1894) RevolutionandCounter-RevolutioninGermany(1896,posthumous) Collections Marx/EngelsCollectedWorks(1975–2004) Marx-Engels-Gesamtausgabe(1975–today) KarlMarxLibrary(1971–1977) vteCritiqueofpoliticaleconomy18th–19th-century FriedrichEngels KarlMarx ThomasCarlyle JohnRuskin PaulLafargue CarlJonasLoveAlmqvist ErikJohanStagnelius 20th–21st-century JeanBaudrillard GuyDebord MahatmaGandhi AndréGorz MoishePostone ÉtienneBalibar RobertKurz MarkFisher RomanRozdolsky ClausPeterOrtlieb Terminology DismalScience Illth Assumeacanopener Writtenworks Untothislast 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