Transcranial magnetic stimulation - Wikipedia

Treatment Transcranialmagneticstimulation FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Formofbrainstimulationusingmagneticfields TranscranialmagneticstimulationTranscranialmagneticstimulation(schematicdiagram)SpecialtyPsychiatry,neurologyMeSHD050781[editonWikidata] Transcranialmagneticstimulation(TMS)isanoninvasiveformofbrainstimulationinwhichachangingmagneticfieldisusedtocauseelectriccurrentataspecificareaofthebrainthroughelectromagneticinduction.Anelectricpulsegenerator,orstimulator,isconnectedtoamagneticcoil,whichinturnisconnectedtothescalp.Thestimulatorgeneratesachangingelectriccurrentwithinthecoilwhichinducesamagneticfield;thisfieldthencausesasecondinductanceofinvertedelectricchargewithinthebrainitself.[1]: 3 [2] TMShasshowndiagnosticandtherapeuticpotentialinthecentralnervoussystemwithawidevarietyofdiseasestatesinneurologyandmentalhealth,withresearchstillevolving.[3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10] AdverseeffectsofTMSarerareandincludefaintingandseizure.[11]Otherpotentialissuesincludediscomfort,pain,hypomania,cognitivechange,hearingloss,andinadvertentcurrentinductioninimplanteddevicessuchaspacemakersordefibrillators.[11] Contents 1Medicaluses 1.1Diagnosis 1.2Treatment 2Adverseeffects 3Procedure 4Physics 4.1Frequencyandduration 4.2Coiltypes 5History 6Research 6.1Studyblinding 6.2Animalmodellimitations 7Treatmentsforthegeneralpublic 7.1Regulatoryapprovals 7.1.1Neurosurgeryplanning 7.1.2Depression 7.1.3Migraine 7.1.4Otherneurologicalareas 7.2Coveragebyhealthservicesandinsurers 7.2.1UnitedKingdom 7.2.2UnitedStates:Commercialhealthinsurance 7.2.3UnitedStates:Medicare 7.3Costs 7.4Providers 8Seealso 9References Medicaluses[edit] Amagneticcoilispositionedonthepatient'shead.[12] TMSisnon-invasiveanddoesnotrequiresurgeryorelectrodeimplantation.Itsusecanbedividedintodiagnosticandtherapeuticapplications.Effectsvarybasedonfrequencyandintensityofthemagneticpulsesaswellasthelengthoftreatment,whichdictatesthetotalnumberofpulsesgiven.[13]TMStreatmentsareapprovedbytheFDAintheUSandbyNICEintheUKforthetreatmentofdepressionandarepredominantlyprovidedbyprivateclinics.TMSstimulatescorticaltissuewithoutthepainsensationsproducedintranscranialelectricalstimulation.[14] Diagnosis[edit] TMScanbeusedclinicallytomeasureactivityandfunctionofspecificbraincircuitsinhumans,mostcommonlywithsingleorpairedmagneticpulses.[3]Themostwidelyaccepteduseisinmeasuringtheconnectionbetweentheprimarymotorcortexofthecentralnervoussystemandtheperipheralnervoussystemtoevaluatedamagerelatedtopastorprogressiveneurologicinsult.[3][15][16][17] Treatment[edit] RepetitivehighfrequencyTMS(rTMS)hasshowndiagnosticandtherapeuticpotentialwiththecentralnervoussysteminavarietyofdiseasestates,particularlyinthefieldsofneurologyandmentalhealth.[3][4][5][7][8][9][10] Adverseeffects[edit] AlthoughTMSisgenerallyregardedassafe,risksareincreasedfortherapeuticrTMScomparedtosingleorpaireddiagnosticTMS.[18]Adverseeffectsgenerallyincreasewithhigherfrequencystimulation.[11] ThegreatestimmediateriskfromTMSisfainting,thoughthisisuncommon.Seizureshavebeenreported,butarerare.[11][19][20]Otheradverseeffectsincludeshorttermdiscomfort,pain,briefepisodesofhypomania,cognitivechange,hearingloss,impairedworkingmemory,andtheinductionofelectricalcurrentsinimplanteddevicessuchascardiacpacemakers.[11] Procedure[edit] Duringtheprocedure,amagneticcoilispositionedattheheadofthepersonreceivingthetreatmentusinganatomicallandmarksontheskull,inparticulartheinionandnasion.[12]Thecoilisthenconnectedtoapulsegenerator,orstimulator,thatdeliverselectriccurrenttothecoil.[2] Physics[edit] TMS–ButterflyCoils TMSuseselectromagneticinductiontogenerateanelectriccurrentacrossthescalpandskull.[21][22]Aplastic-enclosedcoilofwireisheldnexttotheskullandwhenactivated,producesamagneticfieldorientedorthogonaltotheplaneofthecoil.Themagneticfieldcanthenbedirectedtoinduceaninvertedelectriccurrentinthebrainthatactivatesnearbynervecellsinamannersimilartoacurrentappliedsuperficiallyatthecorticalsurface.[23] ThemagneticfieldisaboutthesamestrengthasanMRI,andthepulsegenerallyreachesnomorethan5centimetersintothebrain,unlessusingamodifiedcoilandtechniquefordeeperstimulation.[22] FromtheBiot–Savartlaw, B = μ 0 4 π I ∫ C d l × r ^ r 2 {\displaystyle\mathbf{B}={\frac{\mu_{0}}{4\pi}}I\int_{C}{\frac{d\mathbf{l}\times\mathbf{\hat{r}}}{r^{2}}}} ithasbeenshownthatacurrentthroughawiregeneratesamagneticfieldaroundthatwire.Transcranialmagneticstimulationisachievedbyquicklydischargingcurrentfromalargecapacitorintoacoiltoproducepulsedmagneticfieldsbetween2and3Teslainstrength.[24]Directingthemagneticfieldpulseatatargetedareainthebraincausesalocalizedelectricalcurrentwhichcantheneitherdepolarizeorhyperpolarizeneuronsatthatsite.Themagneticfluxgeneratedbythecurrentcausesitsownelectricfield,asexplainedbytheMaxwell-Faradayequation, ∇ × E = − ∂ B ∂ t {\displaystyle\nabla\times\mathbf{E}=-{\frac{\partial\mathbf{B}}{\partialt}}} . Thiselectricfieldcausesachangeintransmembranecurrentsresultingindepolarizationorhyperpolarizationofneurons,causingthemtobemoreorlessexcitable,respectively.[24] DeepTMScanreachupto6 cmintothebraintostimulatedeeperlayersofthemotorcortex,suchasthatwhichcontrolslegmotion.Thepathofthiscurrentcanbedifficulttomodelbecausethebrainisirregularlyshapedwithvariableinternaldensityandwatercontent,leadingtoanonuniformmagneticfieldstrengthandconductionthroughoutitstissues.[25] Frequencyandduration[edit] TheeffectsofTMScanbedividedbasedonfrequency,durationandintensity(amplitude)ofstimulation:[26] SingleorpairedpulseTMScausesneuronsintheneocortexunderthesiteofstimulationtodepolarizeanddischargeanactionpotential.Ifusedintheprimarymotorcortex,itproducesmuscleactivityreferredtoasamotorevokedpotential(MEP)whichcanberecordedonelectromyography.Ifusedontheoccipitalcortex,'phosphenes'(flashesoflight)mightbeperceivedbythesubject.Inmostotherareasofthecortex,thereisnoconsciouseffect,butbehaviourmaybealtered(e.g.,slowerreactiontimeonacognitivetask),orchangesinbrainactivitymaybedetectedusingdiagnosticequipment.[27] RepetitiveTMSproduceslonger-lastingeffectswhichpersistpasttheperiodofstimulation.rTMScanincreaseordecreasetheexcitabilityofthecorticospinaltractdependingontheintensityofstimulation,coilorientation,andfrequency.LowfrequencyrTMSwithastimulusfrequencylessthan1 Hzisbelievedtoinhibitcorticalfiringwhileastimulusfrequencygreaterthan1 Hz,orhighfrequency,isbelievedtoprovokeit.[28]Thoughitsmechanismisnotclear,ithasbeensuggestedasbeingduetoachangeinsynapticefficacyrelatedtolong-termpotentiation(LTP)andlong-termdepression(LTD).[29] Coiltypes[edit] Mostdevicesuseacoilshapedlikeafigure-eighttodeliverashallowmagneticfieldthataffectsmoresuperficialneuronsinthebrain.[30]Differencesinmagneticcoildesignareconsideredwhencomparingresults,withimportantelementsincludingthetypeofmaterial,geometryandspecificcharacteristicsoftheassociatedmagneticpulse. Thecorematerialmaybeeitheramagneticallyinertsubstrate('aircore'),orasolid,ferromagneticallyactivematerial('solidcore').Solidcoresresultinmoreefficienttransferofelectricalenergytoamagneticfieldandreduceenergylosstoheat,andsocanbeoperatedwiththehighervolumeoftherapyprotocolswithoutinterruptionduetooverheating.Varyingthegeometricshapeofthecoilitselfcancausevariationsinfocality,shape,anddepthofpenetration.Differencesincoilmaterialanditspowersupplyalsoaffectmagneticpulsewidthandduration.[31] Anumberofdifferenttypesofcoilsexist,eachofwhichproducedifferentmagneticfields.TheroundcoilistheoriginalusedinTMS.Later,thefigure-eight(butterfly)coilwasdevelopedtoprovideamorefocalpatternofactivationinthebrain,andthefour-leafcoilforfocalstimulationofperipheralnerves.Thedouble-conecoilconformsmoretotheshapeofthehead.[32]TheHesed(H-core),circularcrownanddoubleconecoilsallowmorewidespreadactivationandadeepermagneticpenetration.Theyaresupposedtoimpactdeeperareasinthemotorcortexandcerebellumcontrollingthelegsandpelvicfloor,forexample,thoughtheincreaseddepthcomesatthecostofalessfocusedmagneticpulse.[11] History[edit] LuigiGalvani(1737–1798)undertookresearchontheeffectsofelectricityonthebodyinthelate-eighteenthcenturyandlaidthefoundationsforthefieldofelectrophysiology.[33]Inthe1830sMichaelFaraday(1791–1867)discoveredthatanelectricalcurrenthadacorrespondingmagneticfield,andthatchangingonecouldinduceitscounterpart.[34] Worktodirectlystimulatethehumanbrainwithelectricitystartedinthelate1800s,andbythe1930stheItalianphysiciansCerlettiandBinihaddevelopedelectroconvulsivetherapy(ECT).[33]ECTbecamewidelyusedtotreatmentalillness,andultimatelyoverused,asitbegantobeseenasapanacea.Thisledtoabacklashinthe1970s.[33] In1980MertonandMortonsuccessfullyusedtranscranialelectricalstimulation(TES)tostimulatethemotorcortex.However,thisprocesswasveryuncomfortable,andsubsequentlyAnthonyT.BarkerbegantosearchforanalternativetoTES.[35]Hebeganexploringtheuseofmagneticfieldstoalterelectricalsignalingwithinthebrain,andthefirststableTMSdevicesweredevelopedin1985.[33][34]Theywereoriginallyintended[bywhom?]asdiagnosticandresearchdevices,withevaluationoftheirtherapeuticpotentialbeingalaterdevelopment.[33][34]TheUnitedStates'FDAfirstapprovedTMSdevicesinOctober2008.[33] Research[edit] TMShasshownpotentialtherapeuticeffectonneurologicconditionssuchasAlzheimer'sdisease,[4]amyotrophiclateralsclerosis,[4][36]persistentvegetativestates,[4]epilepsy,[4][37]strokerelateddisability,[4][11][16][17][38][39]tinnitus,[4][40]multiplesclerosis,[4]schizophrenia,[4][10]andtraumaticbraininjury.[41] WithParkinson'sdisease,earlyresultssuggestthatlowfrequencystimulationmayhaveaneffectonmedicationassociateddyskinesia,andthathighfrequencystimulationimprovesmotorfunction.[42]Themosteffectivetreatmentprotocolsappeartoinvolvehighfrequencystimulationofthemotorcortex,particularlyonthedominantside,[43]butwithmorevariableresultsfortreatmentofthedorsolateralprefrontalcortex.[44]Itislesseffectivethanelectroconvulsivetherapyformotorsymptoms,thoughbothappeartohaveutility.[45][46][47]Cerebellarstimulationhasalsoshownpotentialforthetreatmentoflevodopaassociateddyskinesia.[48] Inpsychiatry,ithasshownpotentialwithanxietydisorders,includingpanicdisorder[49]andobsessive–compulsivedisorder(OCD).[4]ThemostpromisingareastotargetforOCDappeartobetheorbitofrontalcortexandthesupplementarymotorarea.[50]Olderprotocolsthattargetedtheprefrontaldorsalcortexwerelesssuccessful.[51]Ithasalsobeenstudiedwithautism,[52]substanceabuse,[4]addiction,[4][53]andpost-traumaticstressdisorder(PTSD).[4]Fortreatment-resistantmajordepressivedisorder,high-frequency(HF)rTMSoftheleftdorsolateralprefrontalcortex(DLPFC)appearseffectiveandlow-frequency(LF)rTMSoftherightDLPFChasprobableefficacy.[4][5][7][8][9]ResearchontheefficacyofrTMSinnon-treatment-resistantdepressionislimited.[54] TMScanalsobeusedtomapfunctionalconnectivitybetweenthecerebellumandotherareasofthebrain.[55] Studyblinding[edit] MimickingthephysicaldiscomfortofrTMSwithplacebotodiscernitstrueeffectisachallengingissueinresearch.[4][11][56][57]ItisdifficulttoestablishaconvincingplaceboforTMSduringcontrolledtrialsinconsciousindividualsduetotheneckpain,headacheandtwitchinginthescalporupperfaceassociatedwiththeintervention.[4][11]Inaddition,placebomanipulationscanaffectbrainsugarmetabolismandMEPs,whichmayconfoundresults.[58]Thisproblemisexacerbatedwhenusingsubjectivemeasuresofimprovement.[11]PlaceboresponsesintrialsofrTMSinmajordepressionarenegativelyassociatedwithrefractorinesstotreatment.[59] A2011reviewfoundthatmoststudiesdidnotreportunblinding.Intheminoritythatdid,participantsinrealandshamrTMSgroupswerenotsignificantlydifferentintheirabilitytocorrectlyguesstheirtherapy,thoughtherewasatrendforparticipantsintherealgrouptomoreoftenguesscorrectly.[60] Animalmodellimitations[edit] TMSresearchinanimalstudiesislimitedduetoitsearlyUSFoodandDrugAdministrationapprovalfortreatment-resistantdepression,limitingdevelopmentofanimalspecificmagneticcoils.[61] Treatmentsforthegeneralpublic[edit] Regulatoryapprovals[edit] Neurosurgeryplanning[edit] NexstimobtainedUnitedStatesFederalFood,Drug,andCosmeticAct§Section510(k)clearancefortheassessmentoftheprimarymotorcortexforpre-proceduralplanninginDecember2009[62]andforneurosurgicalplanninginJune2011.[63] Depression[edit] In2008,theUSFoodandDrugAdministrationauthorizedtheuseofrTMSasatreatmentfordepressionthathasnotimprovedwithothermeasures.[64][65]AnumberofdeepTMShavereceivedFDA510kclearancetomarketforuseinadultswithtreatmentresistantmajordepressivedisorders.[66][67][68][69][70]TheRoyalAustralianandNewZealandCollegeofPsychiatristshasendorsedrTMSfortreatmentresistantmajordepressivedisorder(MDD).[71] Migraine[edit] Theuseofsingle-pulseTMSwasapprovedbytheFDAfortreatmentofmigrainesinDecember2013.[72]ItisapprovedasaClassIImedicaldeviceunderthe"denovopathway".[73][74] Otherneurologicalareas[edit] IntheEuropeanEconomicArea,variousversionsofDeepTMSH-coilshaveCEmarkingforAlzheimer'sdisease,[75]autism,[75]bipolardisorder,[76]epilepsy,[77]chronicpain,[76]majordepressivedisorder,[76]Parkinson'sdisease,[43][78]post-traumaticstressdisorder(PTSD),[76]schizophrenia(negativesymptoms)[76]andtoaidsmokingcessation.[75]Onereviewfoundtentativebenefitforcognitiveenhancementinhealthypeople.[79] InAugust2018,theUSFoodandDrugAdministrationauthorizedtheuseofTMSinthetreatmentofobsessive–compulsivedisorder(OCD).[80] Coveragebyhealthservicesandinsurers[edit] UnitedKingdom[edit] TheUnitedKingdom'sNationalInstituteforHealthandCareExcellence(NICE)issuesguidancetotheNationalHealthService(NHS)inEngland,Wales,ScotlandandNorthernIreland(UK).NICEguidancedoesnotcoverwhetherornottheNHSshouldfundaprocedure.LocalNHSbodies(primarycaretrustsandhospitaltrusts)makedecisionsaboutfundingafterconsideringtheclinicaleffectivenessoftheprocedureandwhethertheprocedurerepresentsvalueformoneyfortheNHS.[81] NICEevaluatedTMSforseveredepression(IPG242)in2007,andsubsequentlyconsideredTMSforreassessmentinJanuary2011butdidnotchangeitsevaluation.[82]TheInstitutefoundthatTMSissafe,butthereisinsufficientevidenceforitsefficacy.[82] InJanuary2014,NICEreportedtheresultsofanevaluationofTMSfortreatingandpreventingmigraine(IPG477).NICEfoundthatshort-termTMSissafebutthereisinsufficientevidencetoevaluatesafetyforlong-termandfrequentuses.ItfoundthatevidenceontheefficacyofTMSforthetreatmentofmigraineislimitedinquantity,thatevidenceforthepreventionofmigraineislimitedinbothqualityandquantity.[83] Subsequently,in2015,NICEapprovedtheuseofTMSforthetreatmentofdepressionintheUKandIPG542replacedIPG242.[84]NICEsaid"Theevidenceonrepetitivetranscranialmagneticstimulationfordepressionshowsnomajorsafetyconcerns.Theevidenceonitsefficacyintheshort-termisadequate,althoughtheclinicalresponseisvariable.Repetitivetranscranialmagneticstimulationfordepressionmaybeusedwithnormalarrangementsforclinicalgovernanceandaudit." UnitedStates:Commercialhealthinsurance[edit] In2013,severalcommercialhealthinsuranceplansintheUnitedStates,includingAnthem,HealthNet,andBlueCrossBlueShieldofNebraskaandofRhodeIsland,coveredTMSforthetreatmentofdepressionforthefirsttime.[85][86][87][88]Incontrast,UnitedHealthcareissuedamedicalpolicyforTMSin2013thatstatedthereisinsufficientevidencethattheprocedureisbeneficialforhealthoutcomesinpatientswithdepression.UnitedHealthcarenotedthatmethodologicalconcernsraisedaboutthescientificevidencestudyingTMSfordepressionincludesmallsamplesize,lackofavalidatedshamcomparisoninrandomizedcontrolledstudies,andvariableusesofoutcomemeasures.[89]Othercommercialinsuranceplanswhose2013medicalcoveragepoliciesstatedthattheroleofTMSinthetreatmentofdepressionandotherdisordershadnotbeenclearlyestablishedorremainedinvestigationalincludedAetna,CignaandRegence.[90][91][92] UnitedStates:Medicare[edit] PoliciesforMedicarecoveragevaryamonglocaljurisdictionswithintheMedicaresystem,[93]andMedicarecoverageforTMShasvariedamongjurisdictionsandwithtime.Forexample: Inearly2012inNewEngland,MedicarecoveredTMSforthefirsttimeintheUnitedStates.[94][95][96][97]However,thatjurisdictionlaterdecidedtoendcoverageafterOctober,2013.[98] InAugust2012,thejurisdictioncoveringArkansas,Louisiana,Mississippi,Colorado,Texas,Oklahoma,andNewMexicodeterminedthattherewasinsufficientevidencetocoverthetreatment,[99]butthesamejurisdictionsubsequentlydeterminedthatMedicarewouldcoverTMSforthetreatmentofdepressionafterDecember2013.[100] Subsequently,[when?]someotherMedicarejurisdictionsaddedMedicarecoveragefordepression.[citationneeded] Costs[edit] IntheUSin2009,asingleTMSsessionfordepressivedisordersaveragedUS$350.AfullcourseoftreatmentcouldcostbetweenUS$6,000andUS$12,000,dependingonthenumberoftreatments.[101][28] Providers[edit] ManufacturersoftheTMSdevicesinclude[when?]Brainsway,Deymed,MagVenture,Mag&More,Magstim,Nexstim,Neuronetics,Neurosoft,andNeuroStar.[102][103] Current[when?]treatmentprovidersintheUKincludeafewNHSTrustsandaprivateoperator,SmartTMS.[citationneeded]InCyprusFDAapprovedtreatmentsfordepressionandOCDareprovidedbyCyprusrTMS[104]Also,theCyprusUniversityofTechnologyusesrTMSinresearch.[105] Seealso[edit] Corticalstimulationmapping Cranialelectrotherapystimulation Electricalbrainstimulation Electroconvulsivetherapy Lowfieldmagneticstimulation Non-invasivecerebellarstimulation Transcranialalternatingcurrentstimulation Transcranialdirect-currentstimulation Transcranialrandomnoisestimulation Vagusnervestimulation References[edit] ^NICE.January2014Transcranialmagneticstimulationfortreatingandpreventingmigraine ^abMichaelCraigMillerforHarvardHealthPublications.July26,2012Magneticstimulation:anewapproachtotreatingdepression? 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