International Olympic Committee - Wikipedia

The International Olympic Committee is a non-governmental sports organisation based in Lausanne, Switzerland. It is constituted in the form of an ... InternationalOlympicCommittee FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Non-governmentalsportsorganisation "IOC"redirectshere.Forotheruses,seeIOC(disambiguation). Thisarticlemayrequirecopyeditingforgrammar,style,cohesion,tone,orspelling.Youcanassistbyeditingit.(August2022)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) Coordinates:46°31′5″N6°35′49″E/46.51806°N6.59694°E/46.51806;6.59694 InternationalOlympicCommitteeComitéinternationalolympique  (French)Formation23 June1894;128yearsago (1894-06-23)FounderPierredeCoubertinTypeSportsfederation(AssociationorganizedunderthelawsoftheSwissConfederation)HeadquartersLausanne,SwitzerlandMembership104activemembers,45honorarymembers,1honourmember(UnitedStates),206individualNationalOlympicCommitteesOfficiallanguageFrench(referencelanguage),English,andthehostcountry'slanguagewhennecessaryPresidentThomasBach[1]VicePresidentsNgSerMiang[1]JohnCoatesNicoleHoevertszJuanAntonioSamaranchDirectorGeneralChristopheDeKepperWebsiteolympics.com/IOCMotto:Citius,Altius,Fortius–Communiter(Latin:Faster,Higher,Stronger–Together) TheInternationalOlympicCommittee(IOC;French:Comitéinternationalolympique,CIO)isanon-governmentalsportsorganisationbasedinLausanne,Switzerland.ItisconstitutedintheformofanassociationundertheSwissCivilCode(articles60–79).FoundedbyPierredeCoubertinandDemetriosVikelasin1894,itistheauthorityresponsiblefororganisingthemodern(Summer,Winter,andYouth)OlympicGames.[2] TheIOCisthegoverningbodyoftheNationalOlympicCommittees(NOCs)andoftheworldwide"OlympicMovement",theIOC'stermforallentitiesandindividualsinvolvedintheOlympicGames.Asof2020,thereare206NOCsofficiallyrecognisedbytheIOC.ThecurrentpresidentoftheIOCisThomasBach. ThestatedmissionoftheIOCistopromotetheOlympicsthroughouttheworldandtoleadtheOlympicMovement:[3] Toencourageandsupporttheorganization,development,andcoordinationofsportandsportscompetitions; ToensuretheregularcelebrationoftheOlympicGames; Tocooperatewiththecompetentpublicorprivateorganizationsandauthoritiesintheendeavortoplacesportattheserviceofhumanityandtherebytopromotepeace; ToactagainstanyformofdiscriminationaffectingtheOlympicMovement; Toencourageandsupportthepromotionofwomeninsportatalllevelsandinallstructureswithaviewtoimplementingtheprincipleofequalityofmenandwomen Beginningin1995,theIOChasworkedtoaddressenvironmentalhealthconcernsresultingfromthehostingoftheOlympicgames.Since2002,theIOChasbeeninvolvedinseveralhigh-profilecontroversiesincludingtakinggifts,itsDMCAtakedownrequestofthe2008Tibetanprotestvideos,Russiandopingscandals,anditssupportoftheBeijing2022WinterOlympicsdespiteChina'shumanrightsviolationsdocumentedintheXinjiangPapers. Contents 1OathoftheIOC 2History 3Organization 3.1IOCSession 3.2Subsidiaries 4IOCmembers 4.1Cessationofmembership 4.2SportsfederationsrecognisedbyIOC 5Honours 6Olympicmarketing 6.1Revenue 6.2OrganizingCommitteesfortheOlympicGames 6.3NationalOlympicCommittees 6.4InternationalOlympicSportsFederations 6.5Otherorganisations 7Environmentalconcerns 7.1IOCapproaches 7.2Venueconstructioneffectsonair 7.3Venueconstructioneffectsonsoil 7.4Venueconstructioneffectsonwater 8Controversies 8.1Amateurismandprofessionalism 8.2BidControversies 8.2.11976WinterOlympics(Denver,Colorado) 8.2.2Biddingprocessforthe2002WinterOlympics 8.2.32016and2020SummerOlympics 8.2.42022WinterOlympicsbidscandalinNorway 8.3Sexverificationcontroversies 8.4Recentcontroversies:2006–present 8.4.1Nagano1998andtheOlympicFamilyhospitality 8.4.22008SummerOlympicGamesbiddingprocess 8.4.32010ShameOnYouAwards 8.4.4London2012andtheMunichmassacre 8.4.5PossibleremovalofwrestlingfromtheOlympicprogram 8.5Russiandopingscandal 8.5.12018plebisciteinTaiwan 8.5.22022WinterOlympicGamesbiddingprocess 8.5.3PengShuaiforceddisappearance 9CurrentIOCExecutiveBoard 10IOCCommissions 11TheOlympicPartnerprogramme 12Seealso 13References 14Furtherreading OathoftheIOC[edit] "GrantedthehonourofbecomingamemberoftheInternationalOlympicCommitteeanddeclaringmyselfawareofmyresponsibilitiesinsuchacapacity,IundertaketoservetheOlympicMovementtotheverybestofmyability;torespectandensuretherespectofalltheprovisionsoftheOlympicCharterandthedecisionsoftheInternationalOlympicCommitteewhichIconsiderasnotthesubjecttoappealonmypart;tocomplywiththecodeofethicstokeepmyselffreefromanypoliticalorcommercialinfluenceandfromanyracialorreligiousconsideration;tofightagainstallotherformsofdiscrimination;andtopromoteinallcircumstancestheinterestsoftheInternationalOlympicCommitteeandthoseoftheOlympicMovement." History[edit] CurrentIOCheadquartersinLausanne,Switzerland. ThemainentranceoftheformerheadquartersoftheInternationalOlympicCommitteeinLausanne TheIOCwascreatedbyPierredeCoubertin,on23June1894withDemetriosVikelasasitsfirstpresident.AsofFebruary2022,itsmembershipconsistsof105activemembers,45honorarymembers,andonehonormember(HenryKissinger).[4]TheIOCisthesupremeauthorityoftheworldwidemodernOlympicMovement. TheIOCorganizesthemodernOlympicGamesandYouthOlympicGames(YOG),heldinsummerandwinter,everyfouryears.ThefirstSummerOlympicswasheldinAthens,Greece,in1896;thefirstWinterOlympicswasinChamonix,France,in1924.ThefirstSummerYOGwasinSingaporein2010andthefirstWinterYOGinInnsbruckwasin2012. Until1992,bothSummerandWinterOlympicswereheldinthesameyear.Afterthatyear,however,theIOCshiftedtheWinterOlympicstotheevenyearsbetweenSummerGames,tohelpspacetheplanningofthetwoeventsfromoneanother,andimprovethefinancialbalanceoftheIOC,whichreceivesaproportionallygreaterincomeinOlympicyears. In2009,theUNGeneralAssemblygrantedtheIOCPermanentObserverstatus.ThedecisionenablestheIOCtobedirectlyinvolvedintheUNAgendaandtoattendUNGeneralAssemblymeetingswhereitcantakethefloor.In1993,theGeneralAssemblyapprovedaResolutiontofurthersolidifyIOC–UNcooperationbyrevivingtheOlympicTruce.[5] TheIOCreceivedapprovalinNovember2015toconstructanewheadquartersinVidy,Lausanne.Thecostoftheprojectwasestimatedtostandat$156m.[6]TheIOCannouncedon11February2019that"OlympicHouse"wouldbeinauguratedon23June2019tocoincidewithits125thanniversary.[7]TheOlympicMuseumremainsinOuchy,Lausanne.[8] Organization[edit] Seealso:PresidentoftheInternationalOlympicCommitteeandOlympicCongress IOCSession[edit] Seealso:ListofIOCmeetings TheIOCSessionisthegeneralmeetingofthemembersoftheIOC,heldonceayearinwhicheachmemberhasonevote.ItistheIOC'ssupremeorgananditsdecisionsarefinal. ExtraordinarySessionsmaybeconvenedbythePresidentoruponthewrittenrequestofatleastonethirdofthemembers. Amongothers,thepowersoftheSessionare: ToadoptoramendtheOlympicCharter. ToelectthemembersoftheIOC,theHonoraryPresidentandthehonorarymembers. ToelectthePresident,thevice-presidentsandallothermembersoftheIOCExecutiveBoard. ToelectthehostcityoftheOlympicGames. Subsidiaries[edit] OlympicFoundation(Lausanne,Switzerland) IOCTelevisionandMarketingServicesS.A.(Lausanne,Switzerland) TheOlympicPartnerProgramme(Lausanne,Switzerland) OlympicBroadcastingServicesS.A.(Lausanne,Switzerland) OlympicBroadcastingServicesS.L.(Madrid,Spain) OlympicChannelServicesS.A.(Lausanne,Switzerland) OlympicChannelServicesS.L.(Madrid,Spain) OlympicFoundationforCultureandHeritage(Lausanne,Switzerland) IOCHeritageManagement OlympicStudiesCentre OlympicMuseum InternationalProgrammesforArts,CultureandEducation OlympicSolidarity(Lausanne,Switzerland) IOCmembers[edit] Furtherinformation:ListofmembersoftheInternationalOlympicCommittee ThefirstIOC,atthe1896AthensGames Formostofitsexistence,theIOCwascontrolledbymemberswhowereselectedbyothermembers.CountriesthathadhostedtheGameswereallowedtwomembers.Whennamed,theydidnotbecometherepresentativesoftheirrespectivecountriestotheIOC,butrathertheopposite,IOCmembersintheirrespectivecountries. Cessationofmembership[edit] ThemembershipofIOCmembersceasesinthefollowingcircumstances:[9] Resignation:anyIOCmembermayceasetheirmembershipatanytimebydeliveringawrittenresignationtothePresident. Nonre-election:anyIOCmemberceasestobeamemberwithoutfurtherformalityiftheyarenotre-elected. Agelimit:anyIOCmemberceasestobeamemberattheendofthecalendaryearduringwhichtheyreachtheageof70or80.Anymemberwhojoinedinthe1900sceasestobeamemberatage80andanymemberwhojoinedinthe2000sceasestobeamemberatage70. FailuretoattendSessionsortakeactivepartinIOCworkfortwoconsecutiveyears. Transferofdomicileorofmaincenterofintereststoacountryotherthanthecountrywhichwastheirsatthetimeoftheirelection. MemberselectedasactiveathletesceasetobeamemberuponceasingtobeamemberoftheIOCAthletes'Commission. PresidentsandindividualsholdinganexecutiveorseniorleadershippositionwithinNOCs,worldorcontinentalassociationsofNOCs,IFsorassociationsofIFs,orotherorganisationsrecognisedbytheIOCceasetobeamemberuponceasingtoexercisethefunctiontheywereexercisingatthetimeoftheirelection. Expulsion:anIOCmembermaybeexpelledbydecisionoftheSessionifsuchmemberhasbetrayedtheiroathoriftheSessionconsidersthatsuchmemberhasneglectedorknowinglyjeopardisedtheinterestsoftheIOCoractedinawaywhichisunworthyoftheIOC. SportsfederationsrecognisedbyIOC[edit] Therearecurrently82internationalsportsfederations(IFs)recognisedbytheIOC.[10]Theseare: The33membersofAssociationofSummerOlympicInternationalFederations(ASOIF)[11] The7membersofAssociationofInternationalOlympicWinterSportsFederations(AIOWF)[12] The42membersofAssociationofIOCRecognisedInternationalSportsFederations(ARISF)[13] Honours[edit] InadditiontotheOlympicmedalsforcompetitors,theIOCawardsanumberofotherhonours. ThePierredeCoubertinmedalisawardedtoathleteswhodemonstrateaspecialspiritofsportsmanshipinOlympicevents[14] TheOlympicCupisawardedtoinstitutionsorassociationswitharecordofmeritandintegrityinactivelydevelopingtheOlympicMovement[15] TheOlympicOrderisawardedtoindividualsforexceptionallydistinguishedcontributionstotheOlympicMovement;supersededtheOlympicCertificate[16] TheOlympicLaurelisawardedtoindividualsforpromotingeducation,culture,development,andpeacethroughsport[17] TheOlympictownstatushasbeengiventosometownsthathavebeenparticularlyimportantfortheOlympicMovement Olympicmarketing[edit] 1985GermanDemocraticRepublicstamp Duringthefirsthalfofthe20thcenturytheIOCranonasmallbudget.[18][19]AspresidentoftheIOCfrom1952to1972,AveryBrundagerejectedallattemptstolinktheOlympicswithcommercialinterest.[20]BrundagebelievedthelobbyofcorporateinterestswouldundulyimpacttheIOC'sdecision-making.[20]Brundage'sresistancetothisrevenuestreammeanttheIOCleftorganisingcommitteestonegotiatetheirownsponsorshipcontractsandusetheOlympicsymbols.[20] WhenBrundageretiredtheIOChadUS$2 millioninassets;eightyearslatertheIOCcoffershadswelledtoUS$45 million.[20]ThiswasprimarilyduetoashiftinideologytowardexpansionoftheGamesthroughcorporatesponsorshipandthesaleoftelevisionrights.[20]WhenJuanAntonioSamaranchwaselectedIOCpresidentin1980hisdesirewastomaketheIOCfinanciallyindependent.[19]SamaranchappointedCanadianIOCmemberRichardPoundtoleadtheinitiativeasChairmanofthe"NewSourcesofFinanceCommission". In1982theIOCdraftedInternationalSportandLeisure,aSwisssportsmarketingcompany,todevelopaglobalmarketingprogrammefortheOlympicMovement.ISLsuccessfullydevelopedtheprogrammebutwasreplacedbyMeridianManagement,acompanypartlyownedbytheIOCintheearly1990s.In1989,oneofthestaffmembersatISLMarketing,MichaelPayne,movedtotheIOCandbecametheorganisation'sfirstmarketingdirector.ISLandthenMeridian,continuedintheestablishedroleastheIOC'ssalesandmarketingagentsuntil2002.[21][22]IncollaborationwithISLMarketingandMeridianManagement,Paynemademajorcontributionstothecreationofamultibillion-dollarsponsorshipmarketingprogrammefortheorganisationwhich,alongwithimprovementsinTVmarketingandimprovedfinancialmanagement,helpedtorestoretheIOC'sfinancialviability.[23][24][25] Revenue[edit] TheOlympicMovementgeneratesrevenuethroughfivemajorprogrammes. Broadcastpartnerships,managedbytheIOC. Commercialsponsorship,organisedthroughtheIOC'sworldwideTOPprogramme. Domesticsponsorship,managedbytheOrganisingCommitteesfortheOlympicGames(OCOGs). Ticketing. Licensingprogrammeswithinthehostcountry. TheOCOGshaveresponsibilityforthedomesticsponsorship,ticketingandlicensingprogrammes,underthedirectionoftheIOC.TheOlympicMovementgeneratedatotalofmorethanUS$4 billion(€2.5 billion)inrevenueduringtheOlympicquadrenniumfrom2001to2004. Revenuedistribution TheIOCdistributessomeoftheOlympicmarketingrevenuetoorganisationsthroughouttheOlympicMovementtosupportthestagingoftheOlympicGamesandtopromotetheworldwidedevelopmentofsport.TheIOCretainsapproximately10%oftheOlympicmarketingrevenuefortheoperationalandadministrativecostsofgoverningtheOlympicMovement.[26]Forthe2013-2016period,theIOChadrevenuesofaboutUS$5.0billion,ofwhich73%werefrombroadcastingrightsand18%werefromTheOlympicPartners.TheRio2016organisingcommitteereceivedUS$1.5billionandtheSochi2014organisingcommitteereceived833million.NationalOlympiccommitteesandinternationalfederationsreceivedUS$739millioneach.[26] OrganizingCommitteesfortheOlympicGames[edit] TheIOCprovidesTOPprogrammecontributionsandOlympicbroadcastrevenuetotheOCOGstosupportthestagingoftheSummerOlympicGamesandtheWinterOlympicGames: TOPprogrammerevenuetoOCOGs:thetwoOCOGsofeachOlympicquadrenniumgenerallyshareapproximately50%ofTOPprogrammerevenueandvalue-in-kindcontributions,withapproximately30%providedtothesummerOCOGand20%providedtothewinterOCOG. BroadcastrevenuetoOCOGs:theIOCcontributes49%oftheOlympicbroadcastrevenueforeachGamestotheOCOG.Duringthe2001–2004Olympicquadrennium,theSaltLake2002OrganizingCommitteereceivedUS$443 million,€395millioninbroadcastrevenuefromtheIOC,andtheAthens2004OrganizingCommitteereceivedUS$732 million,€690million. DomesticprogrammerevenuetoOCOGs:theOCOGsgeneratesubstantialrevenuefromthedomesticmarketingprogrammesthattheymanagewithinthehostcountry,includingdomesticsponsorship,ticketingandlicensing. NationalOlympicCommittees[edit] Furtherinformation:NationalOlympicCommittee TheNOCsreceivefinancialsupportforthetraininganddevelopmentofOlympicteams,OlympicathletesandOlympichopefuls.TheIOCdistributesTOPprogrammerevenuetoeachoftheNOCsthroughouttheworld.TheIOCalsocontributesOlympicbroadcastrevenuetoOlympicSolidarity,anIOCorganisationthatprovidesfinancialsupporttoNOCswiththegreatestneed.ThecontinuedsuccessoftheTOPprogrammeandOlympicbroadcastagreementshasenabledtheIOCtoprovideincreasedsupportfortheNOCswitheachOlympicquadrennium.TheIOCprovidedapproximatelyUS$318.5 milliontoNOCsforthe2001–2004quadrennium. InternationalOlympicSportsFederations[edit] TheIOCisthelargestsinglerevenuesourceforthemajorityofIFs,withitscontributionsofOlympicbroadcastrevenuethatassisttheIFsinthedevelopmentoftheirrespectivesportsworldwide.TheIOCprovidesfinancialsupportfromOlympicbroadcastrevenuetothe28IFsofOlympicsummersportsandthesevenIFsofOlympicwintersportsafterthecompletionoftheSummerOlympicsandtheWinterOlympics.ThecontinuallyincreasingvalueofOlympicbroadcastpartnershiphasenabledtheIOCtodeliversubstantiallyincreasedfinancialsupporttotheIFswitheachsuccessiveGames.ThesevenwintersportsIFssharedUS$85.8 million,€75millioninSaltLake2002broadcastrevenue.Thecontributiontothe28summersportsIFsfromAthens2004broadcastrevenuehasnotyetbeendetermined,butthecontributionisexpectedtomarkasignificantincreaseovertheUS$190 million,€150millionthattheIOCprovidedtothesummerIFsfollowingSydney2000. Otherorganisations[edit] TheIOCcontributesOlympicmarketingrevenuetotheprogrammesofvariousrecognisedinternationalsportsorganisations,includingtheInternationalParalympicCommittee(IPC),andtheWorldAnti-DopingAgency(WADA). Environmentalconcerns[edit] TheIOCrecognisesthattheOlympicGamesdemandsubstantialenvironmentalresources,activities,andconstructionprojectsthatcouldbedetrimentaltoahostcity'senvironment.[27]In1995,IOCPresidentJuanAntonioSamaranchstated,"theInternationalOlympicCommitteeisresolvedtoensurethattheenvironmentbecomesthethirddimensionoftheorganizationoftheOlympicGames,thefirstandsecondbeingsportandculture."[28]Actingonthisstatement,in1996theIOCaddedthe"environment"asathirdpillartoitsvisionfortheOlympicGames.[29]TheIOCrequirescitiesbiddingtohosttheOlympicstoprovideacomprehensivestrategytoprotecttheenvironmentinpreparationforhosting,andfollowingtheconclusionoftheGames.[30]Thisinitiativewasmostnotablyacteduponin2000,whenthe"GreenOlympics"effortwasdevelopedbytheBeijingOrganizingCommitteefortheBeijingOlympicGames.TheBeijing2008SummerOlympicsefforttohostenvironmentallyfriendlygamesresultedinover160projectsmeetingthegoalof"green"gamesthroughimprovedairqualityandwaterquality,implementationofsustainableenergysources,improvedwastemanagement,andenvironmentaleducation.Theseprojectsincludedindustrialplantrelocationorclosure,furnacereplacement,introductionofnewemissionstandards,andmorestricttrafficcontrol.[31]Mostofthesemeasureswereadoptedonatemporarybasis,andalthoughrealimprovementswererealized(particularlyinairquality),mostoftheseimprovementshaddisappearedoneyearfollowingtheGames.Althoughtheseimprovementswereshortlived,IOC'sinclusionofenvironmentalpoliciesinevaluatingandselectinghostcitiesdemonstratesacorporateresponsibilitythatmaybebuiltuponinyearstocome.Detailedframeworksforenvironmentalsustainabilityhavebeenreleasedforthe2018WinterOlympics,and2020SummerOlympicsinPyeongChang,SouthKorea,andTokyo,Japan,respectively.[32][33] IOCapproaches[edit] TheIOChasfourmajorapproachestoaddressingenvironmentalhealthconcernsduringtheconstructionandcompetitionsoftheOlympicGames.First,theIOCSustainabilityandLegacyCommissionfocusesonhowtheIOCcanimprovethestrategiesandpoliciesassociatedwithenvironmentalhealththroughouttheprocessofcitieshostingtheOlympicGames.[34]Secondly,everycandidatecitymustprovideinformationtotheIOConenvironmentalhealthissueslikeairqualityandenvironmentalimpactassessments.Thirdly,everyhostcityisgiventheoptiontodeclare"pledges"toaddressspecificorgeneralenvironmentalhealthconcernsofhostingtheOlympicGame.Fourthly,theIOChaseveryhostcitycollaboratewiththeUnitedNationstoworktowardsaddressingenvironmentalhealthobjectives.[35]Ultimately,theIOCusesthesefourapproachesinanattempttominimizethenegativeenvironmentalhealthconcernsofahostcity. Venueconstructioneffectsonair[edit] CitieshostingtheOlympicGameshavetwoprimaryconcerns:trafficcongestionandairpollution,bothofwhichcanresultincompromisedairqualityduringandafterOlympicvenueconstruction.[36]ResearchattheBeijingOlympicGamesidentifiedparticulatematter–measuredintermsofPM10(theamountofaerodynamicdiameterofparticle≤10μminagivenamountofair)–asatopprioritythatshouldbetakenintoconsideration.[37][38]Theparticulatematterintheair,alongwithotherairbornepollutants,causebothserioushealthproblems,suchasasthma,andcontributetothedeteriorationofurbanecosystems.BlackCarbonisreleasedintotheairfromincompletecombustionofcarbonaceousfluidscontributingtoglobalclimatechangeandhumanhealtheffects.Additionally,secondarypollutantslikeCO,NOx,SO2,benzene,toluene,ethylbenzene,andxylenes(BTEX)arealsoreleasedduringthevenueconstruction,resultinginharmfuleffectstotheenvironment.[39]Measuresaretakentomeasureparticulatesintheair. VariousairqualityimprovementmeasuresareundertakenbeforeandaftertheOlympicGames.Researchstudiesdemonstratethattheprimarymethodtoreduceconcentrationsofairpollutantsistrafficcontrol,includingbarringheavyvehiclesfromtheroads.FortheBeijingOlympics,vehiclesnotmeetingtheEuro1emissionstandardswerealsobannedfromtheroads,andtheodd-evenrulewasimplementedintheBeijingadministrativearea.SeveralairqualityimprovementmeasuresimplementedbytheBeijinggovernmentincludedreplacingcoalwithnaturalgas,suspendingconstructionand/orimposingstrictdustcontrolonconstructionsites,closingorrelocatingthepollutingindustrialplants,buildinglongsubwaylines,usingcleanerfluidinpowerplants,andreducingtheactivitybysomeofthepollutingfactories.There,levelsofprimaryandsecondarypollutantswerereduced,andgoodairqualitywasrecordedduringtheBeijingOlympicsonmostofthedays. Venueconstructioneffectsonsoil[edit] SoilcontaminationcanoccurduringtheprocessofconstructingtheOlympicvenues.Inthecaseofthe2006WinterOlympicGamesinTorino,Italy,negativeenvironmentalimpactswereobserved,includingimpactsonsoil.BeforetheGames,researchersstudiedfourareaswhichtheGameswouldlikelyaffect:afloodplain,ahighway,themotorwayconnectingthecitytoLyon,France,andalandfill.TheyperformedanextensiveanalysisinthetypesofchemicalsfoundinthesoilsintheseareasbothbeforeandaftertheGames.Theirfindingsrevealedanincreaseinthenumberofmetalsinthetopsoilspost-Games,andindicatedthatsoilwascapableofnegating,or"buffering,"theeffectsofmanyheavymetals.However,theirfindingsalsorevealedthatthiswasnotthecaseforallmetals,andthatmercury,lead,andarsenicmayhavebeentransferredintothefoodchainonamassivescale.[40] OneofthepromisesmadetoLondonerswhentheywontherighttohostthe2012OlympicGameswasthattheOlympicParkwouldbea"blueprintforsustainableliving."However,residentsoftheallotmentsofManorRoadwererelocated,duetothebuildingoftheOlympicstadium,andwouldlaterdisagreethattheOlympicshadhadanypositiveeffectontheirlives.Allotmentswereoriginallyintendedtoprovidelow-incomeresidentswithaplotoflandonwhichtogrowtheirownfood.ManyofthesesiteswerelostasaresultoftheOlympicvenueconstruction,mostnotablytheManorRoadsite.Residentswerepromisedthattheallotmentswouldbereturned,andtheyeventuallywere.However,thesoilqualitywouldneverbethesame.Further,allotmentresidentswereexposedtoradioactivewasteforfivemonthspriortomoving,duringtheexcavationofthesitefortheGames.Otherlocalresidents,constructionworkers,andonsitearcheologistsfacedsimilarexposuresandrisks.[41] Incontrast,theSydneyOlympicGamesof2000providedanopportunitytoimproveahighlycontaminatedareaknownastheHomebushBaysite.AstudycommissionedbytheNewSouthWalesGovernmentOlympicCoordinationAuthority,whichwasresponsiblefortheGames'sitepreparation,lookedatsoilcontaminationpriortotheGames.Theworkassessedsoilsthathadbeenpreviouslyimpactedbywasteandidentifiedareasthatcouldposearisktotheenvironment.Soilmetalconcentrationswerefoundtobehighenoughtopotentiallycontaminategroundwater.Afterriskareaswereidentified,aremediationstrategywasdeveloped.Contaminatedsoilwasconsolidatedintofourcontainmentareaswithinthesite,whichlefttheremainingareasavailableforrecreationaluse.Also,thecontainedwastematerialsnolongerposedathreattosurroundingaquifers.Sydney'swinningOlympicbidprovidedacatalysttoundertakethe"greenest"singleurbanremediationeverattemptedinAustralia.[42] Venueconstructioneffectsonwater[edit] TheOlympicGamescanaffectwaterqualityinthesurroundingregioninseveralways,includingwaterrunoffandthetransferofpollutingsubstancesfromtheairtowatersourcesthroughrainfall.Harmfulparticulatescomefrombothnaturalsubstances(suchasplantmattercrushedbyhighervolumesofpedestrianandvehicletraffic)andman-madesubstances(suchasexhaustfromvehiclesorindustry).Contaminantsfromthesetwocategoriesleadtoelevatedamountsoftoxinsinstreetdust.Streetdustreacheswatersourcesthroughrunoff,facilitatingthetransferoftoxinstoenvironmentsandcommunitiesthatrelyonthesewatersources.[36]Onemethodofmeasuringtherunoffcontaminationofwatersourcesinvolvesmagnetism.Magnetismmeasurementsystemsallowspecialiststomeasurethedifferencesinmineralmagneticparametersinsamplesofwater,air,andvegetation.AnothermethodusedtoassesstheamountandeffectsofwaterpollutantsistomeasuretheamountofPM2.5inrainfall.MeasuringPM2.5(theamountofaerodynamicdiameterofparticle≤2.5μminagivenamountofair)isacommonmetricforassessingairquality.ComparingPM2.5levelsbetweenairandrainfallsamplesallowsscientiststodeterminetheamountofairpollutionbeingtransferredtowatersources.[43]In2013,researchersinBeijingfoundasignificantrelationshipbetweentheamountofPM2.5concentrationsintheairandinrainfall.Studiesshowedthatrainfallhadtransferredalargeportionofthesepollutantsfromtheairtowatersources.[44] Controversies[edit] OlympicGames Maintopics Bids Boycotts Ceremonies Charter Hostcities IFs IOC Medal Medaltables Medalists NOCs Olympism PierredeCoubertinmedal Scandalsandcontroversies Sports Symbols Television Torchrelays Venues Womenparticipation Games Summer Winter Youth African Asian European Pacific Pan-American Ancient Intercalated vte Amateurismandprofessionalism[edit] Mainarticle:OlympicGames§ Amateurismandprofessionalism PierredeCoubertin,founderoftheIOC,wasinfluencedbytheethosofthearistocracyasexemplifiedintheEnglishpublicschools.[45]Thepublicschoolssubscribedtothebeliefthatsportformedanimportantpartofeducationandtherewasaprevailingconceptoffairnessinwhichpracticingortrainingwasconsideredcheating.[45]Asclassstructureevolvedthroughthe20thcentury,thedefinitionoftheamateurathleteasanaristocraticgentlemanbecameoutdated.[45]Theadventofthestate-sponsored"full-timeamateurathlete"oftheEasternBloccountriesfurthererodedtheideologyofthepureamateur,asitputtheself-financedamateursoftheWesterncountriesatadisadvantage.TheSovietUnionenteredteamsofathleteswhowereallnominallystudents,soldiers,orworkinginaprofession,butmanyofwhomwereinrealitypaidbythestatetotrainonafull-timebasis.[46]Nevertheless,theIOCheldtothetraditionalrulesregardingamateurism.[47] Neartheendofthe1960s,theCanadianAmateurHockeyAssociation(CAHA)felttheiramateurplayerscouldnolongerbecompetitiveagainsttheSovietteam'sfull-timeathletesandtheotherconstantlyimprovingEuropeanteams.TheypushedfortheabilitytouseplayersfromprofessionalleaguesbutmetoppositionfromtheIIHFandIOC.AttheIIHFCongressin1969,theIIHFdecidedtoallowCanadatouseninenon-NHLprofessionalhockeyplayers[48]atthe1970WorldChampionshipsinMontrealandWinnipeg,Manitoba,Canada.[49]ThedecisionwasreversedinJanuary1970afterBrundagesaidthaticehockey'sstatusasanOlympicsportwouldbeinjeopardyifthechangewasmade.[48]Inresponse,Canadawithdrewfrominternationalicehockeycompetitionandofficialsstatedthattheywouldnotreturnuntil"opencompetition"wasinstituted.[48][50] Beginninginthe1970s,amateurismrequirementsweregraduallyphasedoutoftheOlympicCharter.Afterthe1988Games,theIOCdecidedtomakeallprofessionalathleteseligiblefortheOlympics,subjecttotheapprovaloftheIFs.[51] BidControversies[edit] 1976WinterOlympics(Denver,Colorado)[edit] Mainarticle:Bidsforthe1976WinterOlympics TheGameswereoriginallyawardedtoDenveron12May1970,butariseincostsledtoColoradovoters'rejectionon7November1972,bya3to2margin,ofa$5 millionbondissuetofinancetheGameswithpublicfunds.[52][53] Denverofficiallywithdrewon15November,andtheIOCthenofferedtheGamestoWhistler,BritishColumbia,Canada,buttheytoodeclined,owingtoachangeofgovernmentfollowingelections.WhistlerwouldgoontobeassociatedwithneighbouringVancouver'ssuccessfulbidforthe2010Games. SaltLakeCity,Utah,a1972WinterOlympicsfinalcandidatewhowouldeventuallyhostthe2002WinterOlympics,offereditselfasapotentialhostafterthewithdrawalofDenver.TheIOC,stillreelingfromtheDenverrejection,declinedtheofferfromSaltLakeCityand,on5February1973,selectedInnsbrucktohostthe1976WinterOlympics,thesamecitythathadhostedtheGamestwelveyearsearlier. Biddingprocessforthe2002WinterOlympics[edit] Mainarticle:2002WinterOlympicbidscandal Ascandalbrokeon10December1998,whenSwissIOCmemberMarcHodler,headofthecoordinationcommitteeoverseeingtheorganisationofthe2002Games,announcedthatseveralmembersoftheIOChadreceivedgiftsfrommembersoftheSaltLakeCity2002bidCommitteeinexchangeforvotesforthebidwhoendedaseventualwinner.Soonfourindependentinvestigationswereunderway:bytheIOC,theUnitedStatesOlympicCommittee(USOC),theSLOC,andtheUnitedStatesDepartmentofJustice.Beforeanyoftheinvestigationscouldgetunderway,TomWelchandDavidJohnson,theco-headsoftheSLOC,bothresignedtheirposts.Manyotherssoonfollowed.TheDepartmentofJusticefiledchargesagainstthetwo:fifteencountsofbriberyandfraud. Asaresultoftheinvestigation,tenmembersoftheIOCwereexpelledandanothertenweresanctioned.[54]Stricterruleswereadoptedforfuturebids,andcapswereputintoplaceastohowmuchIOCmemberscouldacceptfrombidcities.Additionally,newtermandagelimitswereputintoplaceforIOCmembershipandaAthlete'sComissionwascreatedandfifteenformerOlympicathletesgainedprovisionalmembershipstatus. 2016and2020SummerOlympics[edit] On1March2016,OwenGibsonofTheGuardianreportedthatFrenchfinancialprosecutorsinvestigatingcorruptioninworldathleticshadexpandedtheirremittoincludethebiddingandvotingprocessesforthe2016SummerOlympicsand2020SummerOlympics.[55]ThestoryfollowedanearlierreportinJanuarybyGibson,whorevealedthatPapaMassataDiack,thesonofthethen-IAAFpresidentLamineDiack,appearedtoarrangefor"parcels"tobedeliveredtosixIOCmembersin2008whenQatarwasbiddingforthe2016SummerOlympicGames,thoughitfailedtomakeitbeyondtheshortlistingstage.Duesometecnicalquestions.Someweeksafterqatariauthoritiesdeniedtheallegations.[56]Gibsonthenreportedon11May2016thata€1.3m(£1m,$1.5m)paymentfromtheTokyoOlympicCommitteeteamtoanaccountlinkedtoPapaDiackwasmadeduringJapan'ssuccessfulracetohostthe2020SummeeGames.[57]Thefollowingday,Frenchfinancialprosecutorsconfirmedtheywereinvestigatingallegationsof"corruptionandmoneylaundering"ofmorethan$2minsuspiciouspaymentsmadebytheTokyo2020OlympicbidcommitteetoasecretbankaccountlinkedtoPapaDiack.[58]ThestringofexclusivesbyTheGuardianpromptedaresponsefromTsunekazuTakedaoftheTokyo2020bidcommitteeon17May2016,thoughhedeniedanyallegationsofwrongdoing,andrefusedtorevealdetailsofthetransfers.[59]Thecontroversywasreignitedon11January2019afteritemergedTakedahadbeenindictedoncorruptionchargesinFranceoverhisroleinthebidprocess.[60] 2022WinterOlympicsbidscandalinNorway[edit] Mainarticle:Bidsforthe2022WinterOlympics In2014,atthefinalstagesofbidprocess,theNorwegiancapitalOslo,whichwasseenbythespecialistsasthebigfavorite,endedupinasurprisewithdrewfromitsbidforthe2022WinterOlympicandParalympicGames.Followingastringoflocalcontroversiesovertheevent'smasterplan,localofficialswereoutragedbythedemandsmadebytheInternationalOlympicCommitteeonathletesandtheOlympicfamily.Inaddition,therewereallegationsabouttheexpensiveandlavishtreatmentofstakeholders,whichincludedseparatelanesto"becreatedonallroadswhereIOCmemberswilltravel,whicharenottobeusedbyregularpeopleorpublictransportation",exclusivecarsanddriversforallIOCmembersandadjustedtrafficlights.ThedifferentiatedtreatmentbythesponsorsalsoirritatedtheNorwegians.Sinceitiscommonforthemtodelivergiftssuchasexclusiveelectronicdevicesbythesponsors.AnotherthingwasthenecessitytotheimportofseasonalfruitstobeservedontheallvenuesandinsidetheOlympicVillageandtheneedforurbanequipmentandfurniturewiththevisualidentityoftheGamesandofcoursetheexclusivityofsomeothersponsorsaboutotherdurableandnon-durableconsumergoodsandalsothefoodconditionsofthatwillbesoldduringtheGamesatthevenues.[61][62][63]TheIOCalsodemanded"controloveralladvertisingspacethroughoutOsloandthesubsitesduringtheGames,tobeusedexclusivelybyofficialsponsors."[63]ThisleftAlmaty,KazakhstanandtheeventualwinnerBeijing,ChinaastheremainingtwocitiesseekingtohosttheGames. Sexverificationcontroversies[edit] SexverificationisapracticeusedbytheIOCandothersportinginstitutionstoensureparticipantscompeteonlyincategoriesfortheirsex.[64]VerifyingthesexofOlympicparticipantsdatesbacktoancientGreecewhenKallipateiraattemptedtobreakGreeklawbydressingasamantoenterthearenaasatrainer.Aftershewasdiscoveredanewpolicywaserectedwhereintrainers,justasathletes,weremadetoattendnakedinordertobetterassureallweremale.[65]Inmorerecenthistory,sexverificationhastakenmanyforms[66]andbeensubjecttodisputewithinvarioussocietalspheres.[67]Beforemandatorysextesting,Olympicofficialsreliedon“nudeparades”[68]anddoctor'snotes.[67]Successfulwomenathletesperceivedtobemasculineweremostlikelytobetargetedforinspection.[67]In1966,theInternationalOlympicCommittee(IOC)implementedcompulsorysexverificationprocessthatwasstartedatthe1968WinterOlympicswherealotterysystemwasusedtodeterminewhowouldbeinspectedwithaBarrbodytest.[68][67]Thescientificcommunityalsofoundfaultinthispolicyfordifferentreasons.TheuseoftheBarrbodytestwasevaluatedbyfifteengeneticistswhounanimouslyagreeditwasscientificallyinvalid.[66]Bythe1970sthismethodwasreplacedwithPCRtesting,aswellasevaluatingotherfactorsincludingbrainanatomyandbehaviourinordertoverifysex.[64]Followingcontinuedbacklashagainstmandatorysextestingofbothforms,theIOC'sAthletes'Commissionsuccessfullyadvocatedfortheendofthepracticein1999.[66]AlthoughsextestingwasnolongermandatedbyIOCpolicy,womenwhodidnotpresentasfeminineenoughcontinuedtobeinspectedbasedonsuspicionandstartedat2000SummerOlympicsandremainedinuseuntilthe2010WinterOlympics.[66]By2011theIOCcreatedaHyperandrogenismRegulation,whichaimedtostandardizenaturaltestosteronelevelsinwomenathletes.[68]Thistransitioninsextestingwastoassureafairnesswithinfemalecategories.Thiswasduetothebeliefthathighertestosteronelevelsincreasedathleticabilityandgaveunfairadvantagestocertainwomenincludingintersexandtransgendercompetitors.[64][68]Anyfemaleathleteflaggedforsuspicionandwhosetestosteronesurpassedregulationlevels,wasprohibitedfromcompetinguntilmedicaltreatmentbroughttheirhormonelevelswithinthestandardizedamounts.[64][68]Ithasbeenarguedbypress,[69]scholars,[70]andpoliticians[64]thatsomeethnicitiesaredisproportionatelyimpactedbythisregulationandithasbeenalleged[64][69][70]thattheruleendorseshegemonicgendernorms.Mostnotablecasesofcompetitionbansduetosextestingresultsareasfollows:MariaJoséMartínez-Patiño(1985),[71]SanthiSoundarajan(2006),[71]CasterSemenya(2009),[64]AnnetNegesa(2012),[72]andDuteeChand(2014).[68] Somedaysbeforethe2014AsianGames,indianathleteDuteeChandwasbannedfromcompetinginternationallyafterbeingfoundtobeinviolationoftheHyperandrogenismRegulation.[68]FollowingthedecisionofherappealbytheCourtofArbitrationforSport,theIOCsuspendedthepolicyforthe2016SummerOlympicsand2018WinterOlympics.[68]Pressadvocatedforthecontinuedsuspensionofsexverificationpracticesforthe2020SummerOlympics.[72] Recentcontroversies:2006–present[edit] Nagano1998andtheOlympicFamilyhospitality[edit] Eightyearsafterthe1998WinterOlympics,areportorderedbytheNaganoregion'sgovernorsaidtheJapanesecityprovidedmillionsofdollarsinan"illegitimateandexcessivelevelofhospitality"toIOCmembers,includingUS$4.4 millionspentonentertainmentalone.[73]EarlierreportsputthefigureatapproximatelyUS$14million.TheprecisefiguresareunknownsinceNagano,aftertheIOCaskedthattheentertainmentexpendituresnotbemadepublic,astheywasdestroyedthefinancialrecords.[74][75] 2008SummerOlympicGamesbiddingprocess[edit] In2000,internationalhumanrightsgroupsattemptedtopressuretheIOCtorejectBeijing'sbidinprotestofthestateofhumanrightsinthePeople'sRepublicofChina.OneChinesedissidentwhoexpressedsimilarsentimentswasarrestedandsentencedtotwoyearsinprisonforcallingontheIOCtodojustthatatthesametimethatIOCinspectorsweretouringthecity.[76]Afterthecitywontherightstohostthe2008SummerOlympicGamesin2001,groupsliketheAmnestyInternationalexpressedconcernsregardingthefactthatthecountrywastohosttheOlympicGamestolikewiseexpressingconcernsoverthehumanrightssituation.ThesecondprincipleintheFundamentalPrinciplesofOlympism,OlympicCharterstatesthat"ThegoalofOlympismistoplacesportattheserviceoftheharmoniousdevelopmentofman,withaviewtopromotingapeacefulsocietyconcernedwiththepreservationofhumandignity."[77]AmnestyInternationalconsidersthepoliciesandpracticesofthePeople'sRepublicofChinaasfailingtomeetthatprinciple,andurgedtheIOCtopressthecountryauthoritiestoimmediatelyenacthumanrightsreforms.[78] SomedaysbeforetheOpeningCeremonies,inAugust2008,theIOCissuedDMCAtakedownnoticesonTibetanProtestsvideosonYouTube.[79]YouTubeandtheElectronicFrontierFoundation(EFF)bothpushedbackagainsttheIOC,whichthenwithdrewtheircomplaint. 2010ShameOnYouAwards[edit] In2010,theIOCwasnominatedforthePublicEyeAwards.Thisawardseekstopresent"shame-on-you-awardstothenastiestcorporateplayersoftheyear".[80] London2012andtheMunichmassacre[edit] Beforethestartofthe2012SummerOlympicGames,theIOCdecidednottoholdaminuteofsilencetohonorthe11IsraeliOlympianswhowerekilled40yearspriorintheMunichmassacre.JacquesRogge,thethen-IOCPresident,saiditwouldbe"inappropriate"todoso.Speakingofthedecision,IsraeliOlympianShaulLadany,whohadsurvivedtheMunichMassacre,commented:"Idonotunderstand.Idonotunderstand,andIdonotacceptit".[81] PossibleremovalofwrestlingfromtheOlympicprogram[edit] InFebruary2013,theIOCdidnotincludewrestlingasoneofitscoreOlympicsportsfortheSummerOlympicprogrammeforthe2020SummerOlympics,afteraOlympicProgramrevisionandalsothefactthattherewerepoliticalinterferencesintheInternationalFederationandthatthesportdidnotfitintotheconceptofequalopportunitiesformenandwomen.Thisdecisionwaspoorlyreceivedbythesportingandcommunity.AsthesportwaspresentatallSummerGameseditions.[82]Thisdecisionwaslateroverturned,afterareassessmentprocesswascarriedoutanditspermanencewasmaintained.Later,thesportturnedacoresports,statusthatwillremainuntilthe2032SummerOlympics.[83] Russiandopingscandal[edit] Seealso:DopinginRussia,Russiaatthe2016SummerOlympics,McLarenReport,IndependentOlympiansattheOlympicGames,andOlympicAthletesfromRussiaatthe2018WinterOlympics MediaattentionbegangrowinginDecember2014whenGermanbroadcasterARDreportedonstate-sponsoreddopinginRussia,comparingittodopinginEastGermany.InNovember2015,theWorldAnti-DopingAgency(WADA)publishedareportandtheInternationalAssociationofAthleticsFederations(IAAF)suspendedRussiaindefinitelyfromworldtrackandfieldevents.TheUnitedKingdomAnti-DopingagencylaterassistedWADAwithtestinginRussia.InJune2016,theyreportedthattheywereunabletofullycarryouttheirworkandnotedintimidationbyarmedFederalSecurityService(FSB)agents.[84] AfteraRussianformerlabdirectormadeallegationsaboutthe2014WinterOlympicsinSochi,WADAcommissionedanindependentinvestigationledbyRichardMcLaren.McLaren'sinvestigationfoundcorroboratingevidence,concludinginareportpublishedinJuly2016thattheMinistryofSportandtheFSBhadoperateda"state-directedfailsafesystem"usinga"disappearingpositive[test]methodology"(DPM)from"atleastlate2011toAugust2015".[85] Inresponsetothesefindings,WADAannouncedthatRUSADAshouldberegardedasnon-compliantwithrespecttotheWorldAnti-DopingCodeandrecommendedthatRussiabebannedfromcompetingatthe2016SummerOlympics.[86]TheIOCrejectedtherecommendation,statingthataseparatedecisionwouldbemadeforeachathletebytherelevantIFandtheIOC,basedontheathlete'sindividualcircumstances.[87][88]Onedaypriortotheopeningceremony,270athleteswereclearedtocompeteundertheRussianflag,while167wereremovedbecauseofdoping.[89]Incontrast,theentireKuwaititeamwasbannedfromcompetingundertheirownflag(foranon-dopingrelatedmatter).[90][91] TheIOC'sdecisionon24July2016wascriticisedbyathletes[92][93][94][95][96]andwriters.[97][98][99][100][101]ItreceivedsupportfromtheEuropeanOlympicCommittees,whichsaidthatRussiawas"avaluedmember".[94]CamColeofCanada'sNationalPostsaidthattheIOChad"caved,asitalwaysdoes,defaultingtowhatevercompromiseitcouldsafelyadoptwithoutoffendingasuperpower."[101]Expressingdisappointment,amemberoftheIOCAthletes'Commission,HayleyWickenheiser,wrote,"IaskmyselfifwewerenotdealingwithRussiawouldthisdecisiontobananation[have]beenaneasierone?Ifeartheanswerisyes."[95]WritingforDeutscheWelleinGermany,OliviaGerstenbergersaidthatBachhad"flunked"hisfirstserioustest,adding,"Withthisdecision,thecredibilityoftheorganizationisshatteredoncemore,whilethatofstate-sponsoreddopingactuallyreceivesaminorboost."[102]Bild(Germany)describedBachas"Putin'spoodle".[97]PaulHayward,chiefsportswriterofTheDailyTelegraph(UK),remarked,"ThewhiteflagofcapitulationfliesovertheInternationalOlympicCommittee.Russia'sdeeppoliticalreachshouldhavetoldusthiswouldhappen."[98] Leadersofthirteennationalanti-dopingorganisationswrotethattheIOChad"violatedtheathletes'fundamentalrightstoparticipateinGamesthatmeetthestringentrequirementsoftheWorldAnti-DopingCode"and"[demonstratedthat]itlackstheindependencerequiredtokeepcommercialandpoliticalinterestsfrominfluencingthetoughdecisionsnecessarytoprotectcleansport."[103]WADA'sformerchiefinvestigation,JackRobertson,said"Theanti-dopingcodeisnowjustsuggestionstofollowornot"andthat"WADAhandedtheIOCthatexcuse[notenoughtimebeforetheOlympics]bysittingontheallegationsforclosetoayear."[104]McLarenwasdissatisfiedwiththeIOC'shandlingofhisreport,saying"Itwasaboutstate-sponsoreddopingandthemis-recordingofdopingresultsandtheyturnedthefocusintoindividualathletesandwhethertheyshouldcompete.[...]itwasacompleteturningupsidedownofwhatwasinthereportandpassingoverresponsibilitytoallthedifferentinternationalfederations."[105][106] IncontrasttotheIOC,theIPCvotedunanimouslytobantheentireRussianteamfromthe2016SummerParalympics,havingfoundevidencethattheDPMwasalsoinoperationatthe2014WinterParalympics.[107] On5December2017,theIOCannouncedthattheRussianOlympicCommitteehadbeensuspendedeffectiveimmediatelyfromthe2018WinterOlympics.AthleteswhohadnopreviousdrugviolationsandaconsistenthistoryofdrugtestingweretobeallowedtocompeteundertheOlympicFlagasan"OlympicAthletefromRussia"(OAR).[108]Underthetermsofthedecree,RussiangovernmentofficialswerebarredfromtheGames,andneitherthecountry'sflagnoranthemwouldbepresent.TheOlympicFlagandOlympicAnthemwillbeusedinstead,[109]andon20December2017theIOCproposedanalternatelogofortheuniforms.[110]IOCPresidentThomasBachsaidthat"afterfollowingdueprocess[theIOC]hasissuedproportionalsanctionsforthissystematicmanipulationwhileprotectingthecleanathletes."[111]TheNewYorkTimes'RebeccaRuizandTariqPanjareportedthedecisionwas"withoutprecedentinOlympicshistory",[112]whileSeanIngleatTheGuardiannotedtheIOC'sviewthatRussiandopingwasan"unprecedentedattackontheintegrityoftheOlympicGamesandsport".[113]HugoLowellattheinewspaper,meanwhile,reportedthattheIOCnonethelessstoppedshortofatotalbanagainstRussiafromtheGames.[114] On1February2018,theCourtofArbitrationforSport(CAS)foundthattheIOCprovidedinsufficientevidencefor28athletes,andoverturnedtheirIOCsanctions.[115]For11otherathletes,theCASdecidedthattherewassufficientevidencetoupholdtheirSochisanctions,butreducedtheirlifetimebanstoonlythe2018WinterOlympics.[116]TheIOCsaidinastatementthat"theresultoftheCASdecisiondoesnotmeanthatathletesfromthegroupof28willbeinvitedtotheGames.Notbeingsanctioneddoesnotautomaticallyconfertheprivilegeofaninvitation"andthat"this[case]mayhaveaseriousimpactonthefuturefightagainstdoping".TheIOCfounditimportanttonotethattheCASSecretaryGeneral"insistedthattheCASdecisiondoesnotmeanthatthese28athletesareinnocent"andthattheywouldconsideranappealagainstthecourt'sdecision.[117][118]Laterthatmonth,theRussianOlympicCommitteewasreinstatedbytheIOC,despitenumerousfaileddrugtestsbyRussianathletesinthe2018Olympics,[119][120]andtheRussianAnti-DopingAgencywasre-certifiedinSeptember,despitetheRussianofficialsnotacceptingtheMcLarenReport.[121] TheIOCwasharshlycriticizedfortheirhandlingoftheRussiandopingscandal.AfterreinstatingtheRussianOlympiccommitteefollowingthe2018WinterOlympics,JimWalden,attorneyforDr.GrigoryRodchenkov,whomastermindedRussia'sprogramme,calledthemove"weaknessinthefaceofevil."[122] 2018plebisciteinTaiwan[edit] On24November2018,thetaiwanesegovernamentheldareferendumoverachangeinthenamingoftheirNationalOlympicCommittee,from"ChineseTaipei,"anameagreedtoin1981bythePeople'sRepublicofChinaattheNagoyaProtocol,whodeniestheROC'slegitimacy,tosimply"Taiwan",afterthemainislandintheFreeArea.Intheimmediatedayspriortothereferendum,theIOCandthePRCgovernment,issuedathreateningstatement,suggestingthatiftheteamunderwentthenamechange,theIOChadthelegalrighttoexercise,tomakea"suspensionoforforcedwithdrawal,"oftheteamfromthe2020SummerOlympics.[123][124]Inresponsetotheallegationsofelectioninterference,theIOCstated,"TheIOCdoesnotinterferewithlocalproceduresandfullyrespectsfreedomofexpression.However,toavoidanyunnecessaryexpectationsorspeculations,theIOCwishestoreiteratethatthismatterisunderitsjurisdiction.[125]"Subsequently,withasignificantPRCpressure,thereferendumfailedinTaiwanwith45.20%to54.80%. 2022WinterOlympicGamesbiddingprocess[edit] Asithappened14yearsearlier,theentitycameunderpressureagainwhenacceptingtheChinesecapital'scandidacyforthe2022WinterOlympicandParalympicGames.Startingin2014,numeroushumanrightsgroupsandgovernmentscriticisedtheCommitteeforallowingBeijingtobidforthe2022WinterOlympicswhicheventuallythecitywon.SomeweeksbeforetheOpeningCeremoniesatthewakeofthereleaseoftheXinjiangPapers,whichdocumentedtheabusesbytheChinesegovernmentagainsttheUyghurpopulationinXinjiang,inwhatmanygovernmentshavedescribedasagenocide.Manygovernmentofficials,notablythoseintheUnitedStatesandtheGreatBritain,calledforaboycottofthe2022wintergames.TheIOCrespondedtoconcernsbysayingthattheOlympicGamesmustnotbepoliticized.[126]SomeNations,includingtheUnitedStates,diplomaticallyboycottedgames,whichprohibitedadiplomaticdelegationfromrepresentinganationatthegames,ratherthanafullboycottwhichwouldhavealsobarredathletesfromcompeting.InSeptember2021,theIOCsuspendedtheNorthKoreaNationalOlympicCommittee,aftertheyboycottthe2020SummerOlympicsclaiming"COVID-19Concerns".Manyjournalistsandspecialists[who?]havespeculatedthatthissuspensionwasintendedtosendamessagetoothernations,thatiftheyboycottthe2022WinterOlympicsGames,theycouldbesuspendedfromparticipationinfutureeditions. On14October2021,vice-presidentoftheIOC,JohnCoates,announcedthattheIOChadnoplanstochallengetheChinesegovernmentonhumanitarianissues,statingthattheissueswere"notwithintheIOC'sremit".[127] InDecember2021,theUnitedStatesHouseofRepresentativesvotedunanimouslyforaresolutionstatingthattheIOChadviolateditsownhumanrightscommitmentsbycooperatingwiththeChinesegovernment.[128]InJanuary2022,theU.S.HouseofRepresentativestriedtointroduceslegislationtostriptheIOCofitstaxexemptionstatusintheUnitedStates.[129] PengShuaiforceddisappearance[edit] InNovember2021,theIOCwasagaincriticizedbyHumanRightsWatch(HRW)andothersforitsresponsetothe2021disappearanceofPengShuai,followingherpublishingofsexualassaultallegationsagainstformerChinesevicepremierandhigh-rankingmemberoftheChineseCommunistPartyZhangGaoli.[130] TheIOC'sresponsewasinternationalycriticizedascomplicitinassistingtheChinesegovernmenttosilencePeng'ssexualassaultallegations.[131][132]ZhangGaolipreviouslyledtheBeijingbiddingcommitteetohostthe2022WinterOlympics.[133] CurrentIOCExecutiveBoard[edit] Designation Name Country President ThomasBach  Germany VicePresidents NgSerMiang  Singapore JohnCoates  Australia NicoleHoevertsz  Aruba JuanAntonioSamaranchSalisachs  Spain ExecutiveMembers PrinceFeisalAlHussein  Jordan NawalElMoutawakel  Morocco MikaelaCojuangcoJaworski  Philippines GerardoWerthein  Argentina RobinE.Mitchell  Fiji DenisOswald   Switzerland KristinKlosterAasen  Norway EmmaTerho  Finland NenadLalović  Serbia IvoFerriani  Italy DirectorGeneral ChristopheDeKepper  Belgium IOCCommissions[edit] Commission Chairperson Country IOCAthletes'Commission EmmaTerho  Finland IOCAthletes'EntourageCommission SergeyBubka  Ukraine IOCAuditCommittee Pierre-OlivierBeckers-Vieujant  Belgium IOCCommunicationCommission AnantSingh  SouthAfrica IOCFutureHostWinterCommission2030WinterOlympics OctavianMorariu  Romania IOCFutureHostSummerCommission2030SummerYouthOlympics(YOG) KolindaGrabar-Kitarovic  Croatia IOCCoordinationCommissionBrisbane2032 KirstyCoventry  Zimbabwe IOCCoordinationCommissionLosAngeles2028 NicoleHoevertsz  Aruba IOCCoordinationCommissionDakar2026(YOG) KirstyCoventry  Zimbabwe IOCCoordinationCommissionMilano-Cortina2026 SariEssayah  Finland IOCCoordinationCommissionParis2024 Pierre-OlivierBeckers-Vieujant  Belgium IOCCoordinationCommissionGangwon2024(YOG) ZhangHong  China IOCCultureandOlympicHeritageCommission KhunyingPatamaLeeswadtrakul  Thailand IOCDigitalandTechnologyCommission GerardoWerthein  Argentina IOCEthicsCommission BanKi-moon  SouthKorea IOCFinanceCommission NgSerMiang  Singapore IOCMembersElectionCommission Anne,PrincessRoyal  UnitedKingdom IOCLegalAffairsCommission JohnCoates  Australia IOCMarketingCommission JiriKejval  CzechRepublic IOCMedicalandScientificCommission UğurErdener  Turkey IOCOlympicChannelCommission RichardCarrión  PuertoRico IOCOlympicEducationCommission MikaelaCojuangcoJaworski  Philippines IOCOlympicProgrammeCommission KarlStoss  Austria IOCOlympicSolidarityCommission RobinE.Mitchell  Fiji IOCCommissionforPublicAffairsandSocialDevelopmentThroughSport LuisAlbertoMoreno  Colombia IOCSportandActiveSocietyCommission SariEssayah  Finland IOCSustainabilityandLegacyCommission AlbertII,PrinceofMonaco  Monaco IOCWomeninSportCommission LydiaNsekera  Burundi IOCCommunicationsDirector MarkAdams  UnitedKingdom TheOlympicPartnerprogramme[edit] Furtherinformation:ListoftheOlympicPartnersponsorshipprogrammes TheOlympicPartner(TOP)sponsorshipprogrammeincludesthefollowingcommercialsponsorsoftheOlympicGames. Airbnb Allianz AlibabaGroup Atos Bridgestone Coca-Cola Intel MengniuDairy(jointpartnershipwithCoca-Cola) OmegaSA(previouslyTheSwatchGroup,itsparentcompany) Panasonic Procter&Gamble Samsung Toyota VisaInc. Seealso[edit] WikimediaCommonshasmediarelatedtoInternationalOlympicCommittee. AssociationofInternationalOlympicWinterSportsFederations(AIOWF) AssociationofIOCRecognisedInternationalSportsFederations(ARISF) AssociationofSummerOlympicInternationalFederations(ASOIF) InternationalAcademyofSportScienceandTechnology(AISTS) InternationalCommitteeofSportsfortheDeaf(ICSD) InternationalParalympicCommittee(IPC) InternationalUniversitySportsFederation(FISU) GlobalAssociationofInternationalSportsFederations(GAISF) FICTS(FédérationInternationaleCinémaTélévisionSportifs)(OrganisationrecognisedbytheIOC) ListofIOCmeetings OlympicCongress References[edit] ^ab"IOC".InternationalOlympicCommittee.25April2021.[permanentdeadlink] ^RogerBartlett,ChrisGratton,ChristerG.RolfEncyclopediaofInternationalSportsStudies.Routledge,2012,p.678 ^"Chapter2:MissionandRoleoftheIOC"(PDF).OlympicCharter.IOC.8July2011.pp. 14–15.Retrieved29July2012. ^"IOCMembersList".Retrieved3October2021. ^"CooperationwiththeUN".21June2016.Retrieved14September2016. 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^"KipKeinotoreceiveOlympicLaureldistinction"(Pressrelease).Lausanne:InternationalOlympicCommittee.4August2016.Retrieved8August2016.KIPKEINO(KEN)ISTHEFIRSTEVERRECIPIENTOFTHEOLYMPICLAUREL,ADISTINCTIONCREATEDBYTHEINTERNATIONALOLYMPICCOMMITTEE(IOC)TOHONOURANOUTSTANDINGINDIVIDUALFORTHEIRACHIEVEMENTSINEDUCATION,CULTURE,DEVELOPMENTANDPEACETHROUGHSPORT. ^ "IssuesoftheOlympicGames".OlympicPrimer.LA84FoundationofLosAngeles.Archivedfromtheoriginalon25April2009.Retrieved30March2009. ^abBuchanon&Mallon2006,p. ci.sfnerror:notarget:CITEREFBuchanonMallon2006(help) ^abcdeCooper-Chen2005,p. 231.sfnerror:notarget:CITEREFCooper-Chen2005(help) ^"IOCMarketingSupremo:Smile,Beijing".china.org.cn.6August2008.Retrieved23February2011. ^"HowtheIOCtookonNikeinAtlanta".SportsBusinessJournalDaily.SportsBusinessJournal.11July2005.Retrieved23February2011. ^"LondonBid'HasImproved'".SportingLife.Archivedfromtheoriginalon15May2011.Retrieved23February2011. 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Furtherreading[edit] Chappelet,Jean-Loup;BrendaKübler-Mabbott(2008).InternationalOlympicCommitteeandtheOlympicsystem:thegovernanceofworldsport.NewYork:Routledge.ISBN 978-0-415-43167-5. Lenskyj,HelenJefferson(2000).InsidetheOlympicIndustry:Power,PoliticsandActivism.NewYork:SUNY. vteInternationalOlympicCommittee(IOC)Associations AssociationofNationalOlympicCommittees Listofinternationalsportsfederations NationalOlympicCommittee Maintopics Charter Cup Members Order Presidents Sports Symbols Broadcasting OlympicBroadcastingServices OlympicChannel OlympicChannel(AmericanTVchannel) Meetings OlympicCongresses 13th IOCsessions 117th 121st 123rd 125th 127th 128th 129th 130th 131st 132nd 133rd 134th 140th  OlympicGamesportal vteAssociationofNationalOlympicCommittees AfricanGames AsianGames EuropeanGames PanAmericanGames PacificGames WorldBeachGames AfricaANOCA–AssociationofNationalOlympicCommitteesofAfricaAmericasPASO–PanamSportsAsiaOCA–OlympicCouncilofAsiaEuropeEOC–EuropeanOlympicCommitteesOceaniaONOC–OceaniaNationalOlympicCommittees vteInternationalsportsfederationsASOIF(28)SummerOlympicsFederations FINA(aquaticsports) WA(archery) WorldAthletics(athletics) BWF(badminton) FIBA(basketball) IBA(boxing) ICF(canoeing) UCI(cycling) WDSF(dancesport) FEI(equestrian) FIE(fencing) FIFA(football) IGF(golf) FIG(gymnastics) IHF(handball) FIH(fieldhockey) IJF(judo) UIPM(modernpentathlon) FISA(rowing) WR(rugbyunion) WS(sailing) ISSF(shooting) ITTF(tabletennis) WT(taekwondo) ITF(tennis) WT(triathlon) FIVB(volleyball) IWF(weightlifting) UWW(wrestling) AIOWF(7)WinterOlympicsFederations IBU(biathlon) IBSF(bobsleighandskeleton) WCF(curling) IIHF(icehockey) FIL(luge) ISU(skatingsports) FIS(skiingsports) ARISF(42)OthersrecognisedbyIOC FAI(airsports) IFAF(americanfootball) FIA(autoracing) FIB(bandy) WBSC(baseball,softballandBaseball5) FIPV(basquepelota) WCBS(billiardssports) CMSB(boules) IBF(bowling) WBF(bridge) ICU(cheer) FIDE(chess) ICC(cricket) IFF(floorball) WFDF(flyingdisc) IFI(icestocksport) WKF(karate) WAKO(kickboxing) IKF(korfball) FIL(lacrosse) ILSF(lifesaving) FIM(motorcyclesport) UIAA(mountaineering) IFMA(muaythai) WN(netball) IOF(orienteering) FIP(polo) UIM(powerboating) IRF(racquetball) WS(rollersports) FIAS(sambo) ISMF(skimountaineering) IFSC(sportclimbing) WSF(squash) IFS(sumo) ISA(surfing) TWIF(tug-of-war) CMAS(underwatersports) FISU(universitysports) IWWF(waterskiandwakeboard) IWUF(wushu) AIMS(20)OthersinGAISF IAF(aikido) WAF(armwrestling) IFBB(bodybuilding) ICSF(casting) WDF(darts) IDBF(dragonboat) FMJD(draughts) IFA(fistball) IGF(go) JJIF(ju-jitsu) FIK(kendo) WMF(minigolf) IPF(powerlifting) IPSC(practicalshooting) FISav(savate) ISTAF(sepaktakraw) ISFF(sleddog) ISTF(softtennis) CIPS(sportfishing) FITEQ(teqball) GAISFobservermembers(11) WDA(dodgeball) FIFG(footgolf) IJRU(jumprope) IUKL(kettlebelllifting) FISO(obstacle) IPF(padel) IFP(poker) IPSF(poledance) IRF(rafting) IRL(rugbyleague) ITSF(tablefootball/soccer) Others(25) ISBHF(ballhockey) IBA(bodyboarding) PBA(bowls) IBJJF(Brazilianjiu-jitsu) IFBA(broomball) WCF(croquet) IGAA(Gaelicfootballandhurling) WDBF(dodgeball) IKF(kabaddi) IKF(kempo) FISLY(landsailing) IMMAF(mixedmartialarts) WMRA(mountainrunning) ORSI(oceanrowing) IFP(pickleball) IQA(quidditch) IFMAR(radio-controlledracing) IRF(rogaining) WSSF(snowshoerunning) ISF(skyrunning) WSSA(sportstacking) ITHF(tablehockey) ITPF(tentpegging) FIT(touchfootball) ITRA(trailrunning) IAU(ultrarunning) InternationalOlympicCommittee InternationalWorldGamesAssociation GlobalAssociationofInternationalSportsFederations vteOlympicGames Ceremonies peoplewhoopenedtheOlympics keepersoftheOlympicflag Charter Participatingnations SummerOlympics WinterOlympics Hostcities bids venues IOC NOCs countrycodes Medal medaltables medaltableleadersbyyear medalists ties diploma Scandalsandcontroversies colonialism doping Sports Symbols torchrelays PierredeCoubertinmedal Women Deaths WWI WWII Olympicvideogames IncentivesforOlympicmedalists SummerGames 1896Athens 1900Paris 1904St.Louis 1908London 1912Stockholm 1916† 1920Antwerp 1924Paris 1928Amsterdam 1932LosAngeles 1936Berlin 1940‡ 1944‡ 1948London 1952Helsinki 1956Melbourne 1960Rome 1964Tokyo 1968MexicoCity 1972Munich 1976Montreal 1980Moscow 1984LosAngeles 1988Seoul 1992Barcelona 1996Atlanta 2000Sydney 2004Athens 2008Beijing 2012London 2016RiodeJaneiro 2020Tokyo§ 2024Paris 2028LosAngeles 2032Brisbane 2036 WinterGames 1924Chamonix 1928St.Moritz 1932LakePlacid 1936Garmisch-Partenkirchen 1940‡ 1944‡ 1948St.Moritz 1952Oslo 1956Cortinad'Ampezzo 1960SquawValley 1964Innsbruck 1968Grenoble 1972Sapporo 1976Innsbruck 1980LakePlacid 1984Sarajevo 1988Calgary 1992Albertville 1994Lillehammer 1998Nagano 2002SaltLakeCity 2006Turin 2010Vancouver 2014Sochi 2018Pyeongchang 2022Beijing 2026MilanCortina 2030 †CancelledduetoWorldWarI ‡CancelledduetoWorldWarII §Postponedto2021duetotheCOVID-19pandemic AncientOlympicGames IntercalatedGames 1906 ParalympicGames YouthOlympicGames  OlympicGamesportal Portals: Olympics Sports Switzerland AuthoritycontrolGeneral ISNI 1 2 VIAF 1 WorldCat Nationallibraries Norway Spain France(data) Germany Italy Israel UnitedStates Japan CzechRepublic Australia Sweden Vatican Other HistoricalDictionaryofSwitzerland RERO(Switzerland) 1 SUDOC(France) 1 Trove(Australia) 1 Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Olympic_Committee&oldid=1102415216" 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