Ukraine - Wikipedia

Ukraine is a country in Eastern Europe. It is the second-largest European country after Russia, covering approximately 600,000 square kilometres (230,000 sq ... Ukraine FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch CountryinEasternEurope Forotheruses,seeUkraine(disambiguation). UkraineУкраїна (Ukrainian) Flag Coatofarms Anthem: ДержавнийГімнУкраїниDerzhavnyiHimnUkrainy"StateAnthemofUkraine"ShowglobeShowmapofEuropeLocationof Ukraine (green)Occupied/annexedterritoriespriortothe2022Russianinvasion(lightgreen)CapitalandlargestcityKyiv49°N32°E/49°N32°E/49;32Coordinates:49°N32°E/49°N32°E/49;32OfficiallanguageandnationallanguageUkrainian[1]Ethnic groups(2001)[2]77.8%Ukrainians17.3%Russians4.9%OthersReligion(2018)[3]87.3%Christianity11.0%Noreligion0.8%Others0.9%UnansweredDemonym(s)UkrainianGovernmentUnitarysemi-presidentialrepublic• PresidentVolodymyrZelenskyy• PrimeMinisterDenysShmyhal• ChairmanoftheVerkhovnaRadaRuslanStefanchuk LegislatureVerkhovnaRadaFormation• KievanRus'879• KingdomofRuthenia1199• GrandDuchyofLithuania1362• CossackHetmanate18August1649• UkrainianPeople'sRepublic10June1917• DeclarationofindependenceoftheUkrainianPeople'sRepublic22January1918• WestUkrainianPeople'sRepublic1November1918• ActofUnity22January1919• DeclarationofindependencefromSovietUnion24August1991• Independencereferendum1December1991• Currentconstitution28June1996 Area• Total603,628[4] km2(233,062 sq mi)(45th)• Water (%)3.8[5]Population• January2022estimate41,167,336[6](excludingCrimea)(36th)• 2001 census48,457,102[2]• Density73.8/km2(191.1/sq mi)(115th)GDP (PPP)2021 estimate• Total$588billion[7]• Percapita$14,330[7]GDP (nominal)2021 estimate• Total$198billion[7]• Percapita$4,830[7]Gini (2020) 25.6[8]lowHDI (2019) 0.779[9]high · 74thCurrencyHryvnia(₴)(UAH)TimezoneUTC+2[10](EET)• Summer (DST)UTC+3(EEST)DrivingsiderightCallingcode+380ISO3166codeUAInternetTLD.ua.укрWebsiteukraine.ua Ukraine(Ukrainian:Україна,romanized: Ukraïna,pronounced [ʊkrɐˈjinɐ](listen))isacountryinEasternEurope.Itisthesecond-largestEuropeancountryafterRussia,[11]coveringapproximately600,000squarekilometres(230,000 sq mi),[a]andhasapopulationofaround40millionpeople.[12][13][b]ItisborderedbyRussiatotheeastandnortheast;[c]byBelarustothenorth;byPoland,Slovakia,andHungarytothewest;andbyRomaniaandMoldova[d]tothesouthwest;withacoastlinealongtheBlackSeaandtheSeaofAzovtothesouthandsoutheast,respectively.KyivisUkraine'scapitalandlargestcity.Thecountry'slanguageisUkrainian,andmanypeoplearealsofluentinRussian.[14] DuringtheMiddleAges,theareawasakeycentreofEastSlaviccultureunderthestateofKievanRus',whichemergedinthe9thcenturyandwasdestroyedbyaMongolinvasioninthe13thcentury.AftertheMongolinvasion,theKingdomofRutheniaoftheXIII-XIVcenturiesbecamethesuccessorofKievanRus'onthesideofmodernUkraine,[15]whichwaslaterabsorbedbytheGrandDuchyofLithuaniaandtheKingdomofPoland.TheGrandDuchyofLithuaniabecamethedefactosuccessorofthetraditionsofKievanRus'.RuthenianlandswithintheGrandDuchyofLithuaniaenjoyedwideautonomy.[16]Overthenext600years,theareawascontested,divided,andruledbyavarietyofexternalpowers,includingthePolish–LithuanianCommonwealth,theAustrianEmpire,theOttomanEmpire,andtheTsardomofRussia.TheCossackHetmanateemergedincentralUkraineinthe17thcentury,butwaspartitionedbetweenRussiaandPoland,andultimatelyabsorbedbytheRussianEmpire.AftertheRussianRevolutionaUkrainiannationalmovementre-emerged,andformedtheUkrainianPeople'sRepublicin1917.Thisshort-livedstatewasforciblyreconstitutedbytheBolsheviksintotheUkrainianSovietSocialistRepublic,whichbecameafoundingmemberoftheSovietUnionin1922.Inthe1930smillionsofUkrainianswerekilledbytheHolodomor,aman-madefamineoftheStalinistera. FollowingthecollapseoftheSovietUnionin1991,Ukraineregainedindependenceanddeclareditselfneutral;[17]formingalimitedmilitarypartnershipwiththepost-SovietCommonwealthofIndependentStates,whilealsojoiningthePartnershipforPeacewithNATOin1994.In2013aseriesofmassdemonstrations,knownastheEuromaidan,eruptedacrossUkraine,eventuallyescalatingintotheRevolutionofDignityin2014,whichledtotheestablishmentofanewgovernmentandpro-Russianunrest.Duringthisperiod,unmarkedRussiantroopsinvadedtheCrimeanPeninsula,whichwaslaterannexedbyRussia;andpro-RussiaunrestinUkraine'sDonbasculminatedinRussia-backedseparatistsseizingterritorythroughouttheregion,sparkingtheWarinDonbas.ThisseriesofeventsmarkedthebeginningoftheongoingRusso-UkrainianWar,andinamajorescalationoftheconflictinFebruary2022,Russialaunchedafull-scaleinvasionofUkraine.SincetheoutbreakofwarwithRussiain2014,Ukrainehascontinuedtoseekclosereconomic,political,andmilitarytieswiththeWesternworld,includingwiththeUnitedStates,EuropeanUnion,andNATO.[18] Ukraineisaunitaryrepublicunderasemi-presidentialsystemandadevelopingcountry,ranking74thontheHumanDevelopmentIndex.Despitehavingafree-marketeconomy,UkraineremainsamongthepoorestcountriesinEuropebynominalGDPpercapita,[19]especiallyintheeast[20]duetowar.[21]However,duetoitsextensivefertileland,pre-warUkrainewasoneofthelargestgrainexportersintheworld.[22][23]ItisafoundingmemberoftheUnitedNations,aswellasamemberoftheCouncilofEurope,theWorldTradeOrganization,theOSCE,andiscurrentlyintheprocessofjoiningtheEuropeanUnion. Contents 1Etymologyandorthography 2History 2.1Earlyhistory 2.2GoldenAgeofKyiv 2.3Foreigndomination 2.4CossackHetmanate 2.519thandearly20thcentury 2.6Inter-warUkraine 2.7WorldWarII 2.8Post–WorldWarII 2.9Independence 2.10OrangeRevolution 2.11EuromaidanandtheRevolutionofDignity 2.122014Russianarmedinterventionsandinvasion 2.132022RussianinvasionofUkraine 3Geography 3.1Climate 3.2Biodiversity 3.3Urbanareas 4Politics 4.1Constitution 4.2President,parliamentandgovernment 4.3Courtsandlawenforcement 4.4Foreignrelations 4.5Armedforces 4.6Administrativedivisions 5Economy 5.1Agriculture 5.2Transport 5.3Energy 5.4Informationtechnology 6Demographics 6.1Language 6.2Diaspora 6.3Religion 6.4Health 6.5Education 6.6Regionaldifferences 7Culture 7.1Literature 7.2Architecture 7.3Weavingandembroidery 7.4Music 7.5Media 7.6Sport 7.7Cuisine 8Seealso 9Notes 10References 11Printsources 11.1Referencebooks 11.2Recent(since1991) 11.3History 11.3.1WorldWarII 12Externallinks Etymologyandorthography Mainarticle:NameofUkraine ThenameofUkraineprobablycomesfromtheoldSlavictermfor"borderland",[24]asdoesthewordkrajina. IntheEnglish-speakingworldduringmostofthe20thcentury,Ukraine(whetherindependentornot)wasreferredtoas"theUkraine".[25]Thisisbecausethewordukrainameans"borderland"[26]sothedefinitearticlewouldbenaturalintheEnglishlanguage;thisissimilarto"Nederlanden",whichmeans"lowlands"andisrenderedinEnglishas"theNetherlands".[27]However,sinceUkraine'sdeclarationofindependencein1991,thisusagehasbecomepoliticisedandisnowrarer,andstyleguidesadviseagainstitsuse.[28][29]USambassadorWilliamTaylorsaidthatusing"theUkraine"impliesdisregardforUkrainiansovereignty.[30]TheofficialUkrainianpositionisthat"theUkraine"isincorrect,bothgrammaticallyandpolitically.[31] History Mainarticle:HistoryofUkraine Earlyhistory AgoldScythianneckpiece,fromaroyalkurganinPokrov(4thcenturyBC). SettlementbymodernhumansinUkraineanditsvicinitydatesbackto32,000BC,withevidenceoftheGravettiancultureintheCrimeanMountains.[32][33]By4,500BC,theNeolithicCucuteni–TrypilliaculturewasflourishinginwideareasofmodernUkraine,includingTrypilliaandtheentireDnieper-Dniesterregion.Ukraineisalsoconsideredtobethelikelylocationofthefirstdomesticationofthehorse.[34][35][36][37]DuringtheIronAge,thelandwasinhabitedbyCimmerians,Scythians,andSarmatians.[38]Between700 BCand200 BCitwaspartoftheScythiankingdom.[39] Fromthe6th centuryBC,Greek,Roman,andByzantinecolonieswereestablishedonthenorth-easternshoreoftheBlackSea,suchasatTyras,Olbia,andChersonesus.Thesethrivedintothe6th centuryAD.TheGothsstayedinthearea,butcameundertheswayoftheHunsfromthe370s.Inthe7th century,theterritorythatisnoweasternUkrainewasthecentreofOldGreatBulgaria.Attheendofthecentury,themajorityofBulgartribesmigratedindifferentdirections,andtheKhazarstookovermuchoftheland.[40] Inthe5thand6thcenturies,theEarlySlavic,AntespeoplelivedinUkraine.TheAntesweretheancestorsofUkrainians:WhiteCroats,Severians,EasternPolans,Drevlyans,Dulebes,Ulichians,andTiverians.Migrationsfromtheterritoriesofpresent-dayUkrainethroughouttheBalkansestablishedmanySouthSlavicnations.Northernmigrations,reachingalmosttoLakeIlmen,ledtotheemergenceoftheIlmenSlavs,Krivichs,andRadimichs,thegroupsancestraltotheRussians.FollowinganAvarraidin602andthecollapseoftheAntesUnion,mostofthesepeoplessurvivedasseparatetribesuntilthebeginningofthesecondmillennium.[41][needquotationtoverify] GoldenAgeofKyiv Mainarticles:KievanRus'andKingdomofRuthenia ThefurthestextentofKievanRus',1054–1132. TheestablishmentoftheKievanRus'remainsobscureanduncertain;thereareatleastthreeversionsdependingoninterpretationsofthechronicles.[42]Ingeneral,thestateincludedmuchofpresent-dayUkraine,BelarusandRussia.[43]AccordingtothePrimaryChronicletheRus'eliteandrulersinitiallyconsistedofVarangiansfromScandinavia.[44]In882,thepaganPrinceOleg(Oleh)conqueredKyivfromAskoldandDirandproclaimeditasthecapitaloftheRus'.[45]However,itisalsobelievedthattheEastSlavictribesalongthesouthernpartsoftheDnieperRiverwerealreadyintheprocessofformingastateindependently.[46] Duringthe10thand11th centuries,KievanRus'becamethelargestandmostpowerfulstateinEurope.[47]TheVarangianslaterassimilatedintotheSlavicpopulationandbecamepartofthefirstRus'dynasty,theRurikdynasty.[43]KievanRus'wascomposedofseveralprincipalitiesruledbytheinterrelatedRurikidkniazes("princes"),whooftenfoughteachotherforpossessionofKyiv.[48] TheGoldenAgeofKievanRus'beganwiththereignofVladimirtheGreat(980–1015),whoturnedRus'towardByzantineChristianity.Duringthereignofhisson,YaroslavtheWise(1019–1054),KievanRus'reachedthezenithofitsculturaldevelopmentandmilitarypower.[43]Thestatesoonfragmentedastherelativeimportanceofregionalpowersroseagain.AfterafinalresurgenceundertheruleofVladimirIIMonomakh(1113–1125)andhissonMstislav(1125–1132),KievanRus'finallydisintegratedintoseparateprincipalitiesfollowingMstislav'sdeath.[49] The13th-centuryMongolinvasiondevastatedKievanRus'andKyivwascompletelydestroyedin1240.[50]Ontoday'sUkrainianterritory,theprincipalitiesofHalychandVolodymyr-Volynskyiarose,andweremergedintothestateofGalicia–Volhynia.[51]DanielofGalicia,sonofRomantheGreat,re-unitedmuchofsouth-westernRus',includingVolhynia,GaliciaandtheancientcapitalofKyiv.HewassubsequentlycrownedbythepapalarchbishopasthefirstkingofthenewlycreatedKingdomofRutheniain1253.[52] Foreigndomination Seealso:GrandDuchyofLithuania,CrownoftheKingdomofPoland,CrimeanKhanate,OttomanEmpire,Polish–LithuanianCommonwealth,andRussianEmpire ThePolish–LithuanianCommonwealthatitsmaximumextentin1619.PolandandthePolishCrownexercisedpowerovermuchofUkrainesince1569andrejectedtheUkrainiancallforautonomy. In1349,RutheniaceasedtoexistasanindependententityintheaftermathoftheGalicia–VolhyniaWars,withitslandspartitionedbetweentheKingdomofPolandandtheGrandDuchyofLithuania.[53]Fromthemid-13thcenturytothelate1400stheRepublicofGenoafoundednumerouscoloniesintheBlackSearegionofmodernUkraineandtransformedtheseintolargecommercialcentersheadedbytheconsul,arepresentativeoftheRepublic.[54]In1430,theregionofPodoliawasincorporatedintoPolandandUkrainebecameincreasinglysettledbyPolishcolonisers.[55]In1441,GenghisidprinceHaciIGirayfoundedtheCrimeanKhanateontheCrimeanPeninsulaandthesurroundingsteppes;[56]theKhanateorchestratedTatarslaveraidsandtookanestimatedtwomillionRuthenianslaves.[57][58] In1569theUnionofLublinestablishedthePolish–LithuanianCommonwealth,andmostoftheformerRuthenianlandsweretransferredfromLithuaniatotheCrownoftheKingdomofPoland,becomingdejurePolishterritory.UnderthepressuresofPolonisation,manylandedgentryofRutheniaconvertedtoCatholicismandjoinedthecirclesofthePolishnobility.[59] DeprivedofnativeprotectorsamongRusnobility,thepeasantsandtownspeoplebeganturningforprotectiontotheemergingZaporozhianCossacks.Inthemid-17th century,aCossackmilitaryquasi-state,theZaporozhianHost,wasformedbyDnieperCossacksandRuthenianpeasants.[60]Polandexercisedlittlerealcontroloverthispopulation,butfoundtheCossackstobeusefulagainsttheTurksandTatars,[61]andattimesthetwowerealliesinmilitarycampaigns.[62]However,thecontinuedharshenserfmentofRuthenianpeasantrybyPolishoverlordsandthesuppressionoftheOrthodoxChurchalienatedtheCossacks.[61]TheCossacksdidnotshyfromtakinguparmsagainstthosetheyperceivedasenemiesandoccupiers,includingthePolishCatholicstatewithitslocalrepresentatives.[63] CossackHetmanate Mainarticle:CossackHetmanate HetmanBohdanKhmelnytskyestablishedanindependentCossackstateafterthe1648uprisingagainstPoland. In1648,BohdanKhmelnytskyledthelargestoftheCossackuprisingsagainsttheCommonwealthandthePolishking.[64]AfterKhmelnytskymadeanentryintoKyivin1648,wherehewashailedliberatorofthepeoplefromPolishcaptivity,hefoundedtheCossackHetmanate,whichexisteduntil1764(somesourcesclaimuntil1782).[65]AfterKhmelnytskysufferedacrushingdefeatattheBattleofBerestechkoin1651,heturnedtotheRussiantsarforhelp.In1654,KhmelnytskywassubjecttothePereyaslavCouncil,formingamilitaryandpoliticalalliancewithRussiathatacknowledgedloyaltytotheRussianmonarch. Intheperiod1657–1686came"TheRuin",adevastating30-yearwaramongstRussia,Poland,theCrimeanKhanate,theOttomanEmpire,andCossacksforcontroloftheCossackHetmanate.Thewarsescalatedinintensitywithhundredsofthousandsofdeaths.The"TreatyofPerpetualPeace"betweenRussiaandPolandin1686dividedthelandsoftheCossackHetmanatebetweenthem,reducingtheportionoverwhichPolandhadclaimedsovereignty.In1686,theMetropolitanateofKyivwasannexedbytheMoscowPatriarchatethroughasynodalletteroftheEcumenicalPatriarchofConstantinopleDionysiusIV,thusplacingtheMetropolitanateofKyivundertheauthorityofMoscow. In1709,CossackHetmanIvanMazepa(1639–1709)defectedtoSwedenagainstRussiaintheGreatNorthernWar(1700–1721).[66]EventuallyTsarPeterrecognizedthattoconsolidateandmodernizeRussia'spoliticalandeconomicpoweritwasnecessarytodoawaywiththeCossackHetmanateaswellastheUkrainianandCossackaspirationstoautonomy.[66]MazepadiedinexileafterfleeingfromtheBattleofPoltava(1709),inwhichtheSwedesandtheirCossackalliessufferedacatastrophicdefeat.[66] Russia'svictoryoverCharlesXIIofSwedenandhisallyIvanMazepaattheBattleofPoltava(1709)destroyedCossackautonomy. In1768,theCossacksledyetanotheranti-Polishuprising,calledKoliivshchyna,killingtensofthousandsofPolesandJewswhosettledUkraineinthepreviouscenturies.[67]ReligiouswarfarealsobrokeoutbetweentwoUkrainiangroups.IncreasingconflictbetweentheRuthenianUniateChurchandOrthodoxparishesalongthenewlyreinforcedPolish-RussianborderontheDniepereventuallyledtotheuprising.FaithalsoreflectedtheopposingPolish(WesternCatholic)andRussian(EasternOrthodox)politicalallegiances.[68] Intheyears1764–1781,CatherinetheGreatincorporatedmuchofCentralUkraineintotheRussianEmpirewhentheCossackHetmanateandtheZaporozhianSichwereabolished.AftertheannexationofCrimeabyRussiain1783,thenewlyacquiredlands,nowcalledNovorossiyawereopeneduptosettlementbyRussians.[69]ThetsaristautocracyestablishedapolicyofRussification,suppressingtheuseoftheUkrainianlanguageandcurtailingtheUkrainiannationalidentity.[70]Thewesternpartofpresent-dayUkrainewassubsequentlysplitbetweenRussiaandHabsburg-ruledAustriaafterthefallofthePolish–LithuanianCommonwealthin1795. 19thandearly20thcentury Mainarticles:SouthwesternKrai,KharkovGovernorate,andChernigovGovernorate Furtherinformation:UkraineduringWorldWarI,UkraineaftertheRussianRevolution,UkrainianWarofIndependence,andUkrainian–SovietWar PolishtroopsenterKyivinMay1920duringthePolish–SovietWar.FollowingthePeaceofRigasignedon18March1921,Polandtookcontrolofmodern-daywesternUkrainewhileSovietstookcontrolofeasternandcentralUkraine. Beginninginthe19thcentury,therewasmigrationfromUkrainetodistantareasoftheRussianEmpire.Accordingtothe1897census,therewere223,000ethnicUkrainiansinSiberiaand102,000inCentralAsia.[71]Anadditional1.6millionemigratedtotheeastinthetenyearsaftertheopeningoftheTrans-SiberianRailwayin1906.[72]FarEasternareaswithanethnicUkrainianpopulationbecameknownasGreenUkraine.[73] The19thcenturysawtheriseofUkrainiannationalism,particularlyinAustrianGaliciaundertherelativelylenientruleoftheHabsburgs.[74]Withgrowingurbanizationandmodernization,andaculturaltrendtowardromanticnationalism,aUkrainianintelligentsiacommittedtonationalrebirthandsocialjusticeemerged.Theserf-turned-national-poetTarasShevchenko(1814–1861)andthepoliticaltheoristMykhailoDrahomanov(1841–1895)ledthegrowingnationalistmovement.[75][76] UkrainiansenteredWorldWarIonthesideofboththeCentralPowers,underAustria,andtheTripleEntente,underRussia.Around3.5millionUkrainiansfoughtwiththeImperialRussianArmy,while250,000foughtfortheAustro-HungarianArmy.[77]DuringtheRussianRevolutionandWarofIndependence,theshort-livedandsocialist-leaningUkrainianPeople'sRepublic(UPR)wasproclaimedon23June1917withMykhailoHrushevskyatitshead.Thepro-Sovietfactions(Bolsheviks,someMensheviks,LeftSRsandothers)foundedtheUkrainianPeople'sRepublicofSovietsandlatertheUkrainianSovietRepublic,successivelyestablishedontheterritoriesoftheformerRussianEmpire;whiletheWestUkrainianPeople'sRepublicandtheHutsulRepublicemergedbrieflyintheUkrainianlandsofformerAustro-Hungarianterritory.[78]Meanwhile,theGermanEmpiredesiredtoestablishitsownclientstateintheregionandassuchattemptedtoousttheUPRmilitarily,replacingitwiththeconservativeandmonarchistUkrainianStateledbyPavloSkoropadskyi.AllofthesefactionssoughttoforgethefutureofUkraineandatvarioustimesfoughtbothalongsideandagainsttheRed,White,BlackandGreenarmiesthatformedbothnativelyandfromtheotherformerpartsoftheRussianEmpire,aswellasagainstPolandinthewesternprovinces.TheresultoftheconflictwasapartialvictoryfortheSecondPolishRepublic,whichannexedtheWesternUkrainianprovinces,aswellasalarger-scalevictoryforthepro-Sovietforces,whichsucceededindislodgingtheremainingfactionsandestablishingtheUkrainianSovietSocialistRepublic(SovietUkraine).Meanwhile,modern-dayBukovinawasoccupiedbyRomaniaandCarpathianRutheniawasadmittedtoCzechoslovakiaasanautonomy.[79] Thisconflict,apartofthebroaderRussianCivilWar,devastatedthewholeoftheformerRussianEmpireincludingeasternandcentralUkraine.Thefightingleftover1.5millionpeopledeadandhundredsofthousandshomelessintheformerRussianEmpire'sterritory.SovietUkrainealsofacedtheRussianfamineof1921(primarilyaffectingtheRussianVolga-Uralregion).[80][81] Inter-warUkraine Seealso:Holodomor AstarvedmanonthestreetsofKharkiv,1933.CollectivizationofcropsandtheirconfiscationbySovietauthoritiesledtoamajorfamineinSovietUkraineknownastheHolodomor. InPoland,thePolishgovernmentopenlypropagatedanti-UkrainiansentimentandrestrictedrightsofpeoplewhodeclaredUkrainiannationalityandbelongedtotheEasternOrthodoxChurch.[82][83]Inconsequence,anundergroundUkrainiannationalistandmilitantmovementaroseinthe1920sand1930s,whichgraduallytransformedintotheUkrainianMilitaryOrganizationandlatertheOrganisationofUkrainianNationalists(OUN). Meanwhile,therecentlyconstitutedSovietUkrainebecameoneofthefoundingrepublicsoftheUnionofSovietSocialistRepublics,morecommonlyknownastheSovietUnionorUSSR. Duringthe1920s,[84]undertheUkrainisationpolicypursuedbythenationalCommunistleadershipofMykolaSkrypnyk,SovietleadershipencouragedanationalrenaissanceinUkrainiancultureandlanguage.UkrainisationwaspartoftheSoviet-widepolicyofKorenisation(literallyindigenisation),whichwasintendedtopromotetheadvancementofnativepeoples,theirlanguageandcultureintothegovernanceoftheirrespectiverepublics. Aroundthesametime,SovietleaderVladimirLenininstitutedtheNewEconomicPolicy(NEP),whichintroducedmarketrelationsalongsideprivateownershipofsomesmallandmedium-sizedproductiveenterprises;effectivelycreatingaformofmarketsocialism,whichLeninintendedasapolicytoreconstructthepost-warSovietUnionthathadbeendevastatedbybothWWIandlaterthecivilwar.TheNEPwassuccessfulatrestoringtheformerlywar-tornnationtopre-WWIlevelsofproductionandagriculturaloutputbythemid-1920s;muchofthelatterbeingbasedinUkraine.[85]ThesepoliciesattractedmanyprominentformerUPRfigures,includingformerUPRleaderHrushevsky,toreturntoSovietUkraine,wheretheywereaccepted.There,theyparticipatedintheadvancementofUkrainianscienceandculture.[86]However,thisperiodwascutshortasJosephStalinmanagedtosecuretheleadershipoftheUSSRfollowingLenin'sdeath.Afterdoingso,StalindidawaywiththeNEPinwhatbecameknownastheGreatBreak.Startingfromthelate1920sandnowwithacentrallyplannedeconomy,SovietUkrainetookpartinanindustrialisationschemewhichquadrupleditsindustrialoutputduringthe1930s. However,asaconsequenceofStalin'snewpolicy,theUkrainianpeasantrysufferedfromtheprogrammeofcollectivizationofagriculturalcrops.Collectivizationwaspartofthefirstfive-yearplanandwasenforcedbyregulartroopsandthesecretpoliceknownasCheka.Thosewhoresistedwerearrestedanddeportedtogulagsandworkcamps.Asmembersofthecollectivefarmsweresometimesnotallowedtoreceiveanygrainuntilunrealisticquotasweremet,millionsstarvedtodeathinafamineknownastheHolodomororthe"GreatFamine",whichwasrecognizedbysomecountriesasanactofgenocideperpetratedbyJosephStalinandotherSovietnotables.[87]Largelythesamegroupswereresponsibleforthemasskillingoperationsduringthecivilwar,collectivization,andlatertheGreatTerror,whichwasdesignedtopurgetheinfluenceofStalin'sopponentsprimarilywithintheranksofhisownparty,suchasLeonTrotsky'sinternationalistLeftOppositionandNikolaiBukharin'spro-NEPRightOpposition.[88] WorldWarII Seealso:EasternFront(WorldWarII),ReichskommissariatUkraine,andTheHolocaustinUkraine TheterritorialevolutionoftheUkrainianSSR,1922–1954 FollowingtheInvasionofPolandinSeptember1939,GermanandSoviettroopsdividedtheterritoryofPoland.Thus,EasternGaliciaandVolhyniawiththeirUkrainianpopulationbecamepartofUkraine.Forthefirsttimeinhistory,thenationwasunited.[89][90] In1940,theSovietsannexedBessarabiaandnorthernBukovina.TheUkrainianSSRincorporatedthenorthernandsoutherndistrictsofBessarabia,NorthernBukovina,andtheHertsaregion.ButitcededthewesternpartoftheMoldavianAutonomousSovietSocialistRepublictothenewlycreatedMoldavianSovietSocialistRepublic.TheseterritorialgainsoftheUSSRwereinternationallyrecognizedbytheParispeacetreatiesof1947.[citationneeded] MarshalTimoshenko(bornintheBudjakregion)commandednumerousfrontsthroughoutthewar,includingtheSouthwesternFronteastofKyivin1941. GermanarmiesinvadedtheSovietUnionon22June1941,initiatingnearlyfouryearsoftotalwar.TheAxisinitiallyadvancedagainstdesperatebutunsuccessfuleffortsoftheRedArmy.IntheencirclementbattleofKyiv,thecitywasacclaimedasa"HeroCity",becauseofitsfierceresistance.Morethan600,000Sovietsoldiers(orone-quarteroftheSovietWesternFront)werekilledortakencaptivethere,withmanysufferingseveremistreatment.[91][92] AlthoughthemajorityofUkrainiansfoughtinoralongsidetheRedArmyandSovietresistance,[93]inWesternUkraineanindependentUkrainianInsurgentArmymovementarose(UPA,1942).ItwascreatedasthearmedforcesoftheundergroundOrganizationofUkrainianNationalists(OUN).[94][95] Bothorganizations,theOUNandtheUPA,supportedthegoalofanindependentUkrainianstateontheterritorywithaUkrainianethnicmajority.AlthoughthisbroughtconflictwithNaziGermany,attimestheMelnykwingoftheOUNalliedwiththeNaziforces.Frommid-1943untiltheendofthewartheUPAcarriedoutmassacresofethnicPolesintheVolhyniaandEasternGaliciaregions,killingaround100,000Polishcivilians,[96]whichbroughtreprisals.[97] TheseorganizedmassacreswereanattemptbytheOUNtocreateahomogeneousUkrainianstatewithoutaPolishminoritylivingwithinitsborders,andtopreventthepost-warPolishstatefromassertingitssovereigntyoverareasthathadbeenpartofpre-warPoland.[98]Afterthewar,theUPAcontinuedtofighttheUSSRuntilthe1950s.[99][100]Atthesametime,theUkrainianLiberationArmy,anothernationalistmovement,foughtalongsidetheNazis.[101] KyivsufferedsignificantdamageduringWorldWarII,andwasoccupiedbytheGermansfrom19September1941until6November1943. Intotal,thenumberofethnicUkrainianswhofoughtintheranksoftheSovietArmyisestimatedfrom4.5 million[93]to7 million.[102][c]Thepro-SovietpartisanguerrillaresistanceinUkraineisestimatedat47,800fromthestartofoccupationto500,000atitspeakin1944,withabout50%beingethnicUkrainians.[103]Generally,theUkrainianInsurgentArmy'sfiguresareunreliable,withfiguresranginganywherefrom15,000toasmanyas100,000fighters.[104][105] MostoftheUkrainianSSRwasorganisedwithintheReichskommissariatUkraine,withtheintentionofexploitingitsresourcesandeventualGermansettlement.SomewesternUkrainians,whohadonlyjoinedtheSovietUnionin1939,hailedtheGermansasliberators.BrutalGermanruleeventuallyturnedtheirsupportersagainsttheNaziadministrators,whomadelittleattempttoexploitdissatisfactionwithStalinistpolicies.[106]Instead,theNazispreservedthecollective-farmsystem,carriedoutgenocidalpoliciesagainstJews,deportedmillionsofpeopletoworkinGermany,andbeganadepopulationprogramtoprepareforGermancolonisation.[106]TheyblockadedthetransportoffoodontheKyivRiver.[107] ThevastmajorityofthefightinginWorldWarIItookplaceontheEasternFront.[108]Bysomeestimates,93%ofallGermancasualtiestookplacethere.[109]ThetotallossesinflictedupontheUkrainianpopulationduringthewarareestimatedat6million,[110][111]includinganestimatedoneandahalfmillionJewskilledbytheEinsatzgruppen,[112]sometimeswiththehelpoflocalcollaborators.Oftheestimated8.6millionSoviettrooplosses,[113][114][115]1.4 millionwereethnicUkrainians.[113][115][c][d]VictoryDayiscelebratedasoneoftenUkrainiannationalholidays.[116]ThelossesoftheUkrainianpeopleinthewaramountedto40–44%ofthetotallossesoftheUSSR.[117] Post–WorldWarII Furtherinformation:UkrainianSovietSocialistRepublic,HistoryoftheSovietUnion(1953–1964),HistoryoftheSovietUnion(1964–1982),andHistoryoftheSovietUnion(1982–1991) TwofutureleadersoftheSovietUnion,NikitaKhrushchev(left,pre-warCPSUchiefinUkraine)andLeonidBrezhnev(anengineerfromKamianske) Therepublicwasheavilydamagedbythewar,anditrequiredsignificanteffortstorecover.Morethan700citiesandtownsand28,000villagesweredestroyed.[118]Thesituationwasworsenedbyafaminein1946–1947,whichwascausedbyadroughtandthewartimedestructionofinfrastructure.Thedeathtollofthisfaminevaries,witheventhelowestestimateinthetensofthousands.[111]In1945,theUkrainianSSRbecameoneofthefoundingmembersoftheUnitedNationsorganization(UN),[119]partofaspecialagreementattheYaltaConference.[120]ThiseffectivelymeantthatSovietUkraine,alongsideSovietBelarus,wereadmittedandallowedtovoteseparatelyasindependentnationswithintheUN,despitebeingconstituentrepublicsofastatethatwasalreadyamemberandhadvotingrights(theSovietUnion).[121]Moreover,UkraineoncemoreexpandeditsbordersasitannexedZakarpattia. Post-warethniccleansingoccurredinthenewlyexpandedSovietUnion.Asof1January1953,UkrainiansweresecondonlytoRussiansamongadult"specialdeportees",comprising20%ofthetotal.[122]Inaddition,over450,000ethnicGermansfromUkraineandmorethan200,000CrimeanTatarswerevictimsofforceddeportations.[122] FollowingthedeathofStalinin1953,NikitaKhrushchevbecamethenewleaderoftheUSSR.HavingservedasFirstSecretaryoftheCommunistPartyofUkrainianSSRin1938–1949,Khrushchevwasintimatelyfamiliarwiththerepublic;aftertakingpowerunion-wide,hebegantoemphasize"thefriendship"betweentheUkrainianandRussiannations.In1954,the300thanniversaryoftheTreatyofPereyaslavwaswidelycelebrated.KhrushchevdenouncedhispredecessorandbeganthepoliciesofDe-StalinizationandtheKhrushchevThaw.DuringhistermasheadoftheSovietUnion,CrimeawastransferredfromtheRussianSFSRtotheUkrainianSSR.[123]ThisrepresentedthefinalextensionofUkrainianterritoryandformedthebasisfortheinternationallyrecognizedbordersofUkrainetothisday. By1950,therepublichadfullysurpassedpre-warlevelsofindustryandproduction.[124]SovietUkrainesoonbecameaEuropeanleaderinindustrialproduction[125]andanimportantcentreoftheSovietarmsindustryandhigh-techresearch.Suchanimportantroleresultedinamajorinfluenceofthelocalelite.ManymembersoftheSovietleadershipcamefromUkraine,mostnotablyLeonidBrezhnev.HelateroustedKhrushchevandbecametheSovietleaderfrom1964to1982. On26April1986,areactorintheChernobylNuclearPowerPlantexploded,resultingintheChernobyldisaster,theworstnuclearreactoraccidentinhistory.[126]Atthetimeoftheaccident,7millionpeoplelivedinthecontaminatedterritories,including2.2millioninUkraine.[127] Aftertheaccident,thenewcityofSlavutychwasbuiltoutsidetheexclusionzonetohouseandsupporttheemployeesoftheplant,whichwasdecommissionedin2000.AreportpreparedbytheInternationalAtomicEnergyAgencyandWorldHealthOrganizationattributed56directdeathstotheaccidentandestimatedthattheremayhavebeen4,000extracancerdeaths.[128] Independence Seealso:ModernhistoryofUkraine On21January1990,over300,000Ukrainians[129]organizedahumanchainforUkrainianindependencebetweenKyivandLviv,inmemoryofthe1919unificationoftheUkrainianPeople'sRepublicandtheWestUkrainianNationalRepublic.Citizenscameouttothestreetsandhighways,forminglivechainsbyholdinghandsinsupportofunity. On16July1990,thenewlyelectedSupremeSovietoftheUkrainianSovietSocialistRepublicadoptedtheDeclarationofStateSovereigntyofUkraine.[130]Thisestablishedtheprinciplesoftheself-determination,democracy,independence,andthepriorityofUkrainianlawoverSovietlaw.Amonthearlier,asimilardeclarationwasadoptedbytheparliamentoftheRussianSFSR.ThisstartedaperiodofconfrontationwiththecentralSovietauthorities.On2–17October1990,theRevolutiononGranitetookplaceinUkraine,themainpurposeoftheactionbeingtopreventthesigningofanewuniontreatyoftheUSSR.ThedemandsofthestudentsweresatisfiedbysigningaresolutionoftheVerkhovnaRada,whichguaranteedtheirimplementation.[131] InAugust1991,afactionamongtheCommunistleadersoftheSovietUnionattemptedacouptoremoveMikhailGorbachevandtorestoretheCommunistparty'spower.Afteritfailed,theUkrainianparliamentadoptedtheActofIndependenceon24August1991.[132]UkrainianPresidentLeonidKravchukandPresidentoftheRussianFederationBorisYeltsinsignedtheBelavezhaAccords,dissolvingtheSovietUnion,on8December1991. Areferendumandthefirstpresidentialelectionstookplaceon1December1991.Morethan92%[133]oftheelectorateexpressedtheirsupportfortheActofIndependence,andtheyelectedthechairmanoftheparliament,LeonidKravchuk,asthefirstpresidentofUkraine.AtthemeetinginBrest,Belaruson8December,followedbytheAlmaAtameetingon21December,theleadersofBelarus,RussiaandUkraineformallydissolvedtheSovietUnionandformedtheCommonwealthofIndependentStates(CIS).[134]On26December1991theCouncilofRepublicsoftheUSSRSupremeCounciladoptedthedeclaration"InregardstocreationoftheCommonwealthofIndependentStates"whichdejuredissolvedtheSovietUnion,andtheSovietflagwasloweredovertheKremlin.[135]TheVerkhovnaRadaofUkrainedidnotratifytheaccession,soUkrainehasneverbeenamemberoftheCIS.[136] UkrainewasinitiallyviewedashavingfavourableeconomicconditionsincomparisontotheotherregionsoftheSovietUnion.[137]However,thecountryexperienceddeepereconomicslowdownthansomeoftheotherformerSovietRepublics.Duringtherecession,between1991and1999,Ukrainelost60%ofitsGDP[138][139]andsufferedfive-digitinflationrates.[140]Dissatisfiedwiththeeconomicconditions,aswellastheamountsofcrimeandcorruptioninUkraine,Ukrainiansprotestedandorganizedstrikes.[141] TheUkrainianeconomystabilizedbytheendofthe1990s.Anewcurrency,thehryvnia,wasintroducedin1996.After2000,thecountryenjoyedsteadyrealeconomicgrowthaveragingaboutseven percentannually.[142][143]AnewConstitutionofUkraine,underthesecondPresidentLeonidKuchmain1996,turnedUkraineintoasemi-presidentialrepublicandestablishedastablepoliticalsystem.Kuchmawas,however,criticisedbyopponentsforcorruption,electoralfraud,discouragingfreespeechandconcentratingtoomuchpowerinhisoffice.[144]Ukrainealsopursuedfullnucleardisarmament,givingupthethirdlargestnuclearweaponsstockpileintheworldanddismantlingorremovingallstrategicbombersonitsterritoryinexchangeforvariousassurances(mainarticle:NuclearweaponsandUkraine).[145] OrangeRevolution Mainarticle:OrangeRevolution ProtestersatIndependenceSquareonthefirstdayoftheOrangeRevolution In2004,ViktorYanukovych,thenprimeminister,wasdeclaredthewinnerofthepresidentialelections,whichtheSupremeCourtofUkrainelaterruledhadbeenlargelyrigged.[146]Theresultscausedapublicoutcryinsupportoftheoppositioncandidate,ViktorYushchenko,whochallengedtheoutcome.Duringthetumultuousmonthsoftherevolution,candidateYushchenkosuddenlybecamegravelyill,andwassoonfoundbymultipleindependentphysiciangroupstohavebeenpoisonedbyTCDDdioxin.[147][148]YushchenkostronglysuspectedRussianinvolvementinhispoisoning.[149]AllofthiseventuallyresultedinthepeacefulOrangeRevolution,whichbroughtYushchenkoandYuliaTymoshenkotopower,whilecastingYanukovychinopposition.[150] Yanukovychreturnedtopowerin2006asprimeministerintheAllianceofNationalUnity,[151]untilsnapelectionsinSeptember2007madeTymoshenkoprimeministeragain.[152]Amidthe2008–09UkrainianfinancialcrisistheUkrainianeconomyshrankby15%.[153]DisputeswithRussiabrieflystoppedallgassuppliestoUkrainein2006andagainin2009,leadingtogasshortagesinothercountries.[154][155]YanukovychwaselectedPresidentin2010with48%ofthevote.[156] EuromaidanandtheRevolutionofDignity Mainarticles:EuromaidanandRevolutionofDignity Forachronologicalguide,seeTimelineoftheEuromaidan. Pro-EUdemonstrationinKyiv,27November2013,duringtheEuromaidanprotests TheEuromaidan(Ukrainian:Євромайдан,literally"Eurosquare")protestsstartedinNovember2013afterthepresident,ViktorYanukovych,beganmovingawayfromanassociationagreementthathadbeenintheworkswiththeEuropeanUnionandinsteadchosetoestablishclosertieswiththeRussianFederation.[157][158][159]SomeUkrainianstooktothestreetstoshowtheirsupportforclosertieswithEurope.[160] Meanwhile,inthepredominantlyRussian-speakingeast,alargeportionofthepopulationopposedtheEuromaidanprotests,insteadsupportingtheYanukovychgovernment.[161]Overtime,EuromaidancametodescribeawaveofdemonstrationsandcivilunrestinUkraine,[162]thescopeofwhichevolvedtoincludecallsfortheresignationofPresidentYanukovychandhisgovernment.[163] Violenceescalatedafter16January2014whenthegovernmentacceptednewAnti-ProtestLaws.Violentanti-governmentdemonstratorsoccupiedbuildingsinthecentreofKyiv,includingtheJusticeMinistrybuilding,andriotsfrom18to20Februaryleft98dead,withapproximatelyfifteenthousandinjuredand100missing.[164][165][166][167][168][169]On21February,PresidentYanukovychsignedacompromisedealwithoppositionleadersthatpromisedconstitutionalchangestorestorecertainpowerstoParliamentandcalledforearlyelectionstobeheldbyDecember.[170] However,MembersofParliamentvotedon22Februarytoremovethepresidentandsetanelectionfor25Maytoselecthisreplacement,amovedescribedbyRussiaandUSacademicJohnMearsheimerasacoup.[171][172][173][174]Theousting[175]ofYanukovychpromptedVladimirPutintobeginpreparationstoannexCrimeaon23February2014.[176][177]PetroPoroshenko,runningonapro-EuropeanUnionplatform,wonwithoverfiftypercentofthevote,thereforenotrequiringarun-offelection.[178][179][180]Uponhiselection,PoroshenkoannouncedthathisimmediateprioritieswouldbetotakeactiononthecivilunrestinEasternUkraineandmendtieswiththeRussianFederation.[178][179][180]InOctober2014Parliamentelections,thepartyPetroPoroshenkoBlocwon132ofthe423contestedseats.[181] 2014Russianarmedinterventionsandinvasion Mainarticle:Russo-UkrainianWar Furtherinformation:AnnexationofCrimeabytheRussianFederation,2014pro-RussianunrestinUkraine,andWarinDonbas(2014–2022) Thissectionmaycontainanexcessiveamountofintricatedetailthatmayinterestonlyaparticularaudience.PleasehelpbyremovingexcessivedetailthatmaybeagainstWikipedia'sinclusionpolicy.(April2022)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) Crimea,whichRussiaannexedin2014,isshowninpink.PinkintheDonbasarearepresentsareasheldbytheDPR/LPRseparatistsinSeptember2014(citiesinred). UsingtheRussiannavalbaseatSevastopolascover,PutindirectedRussiantroopsandintelligenceagentstodisarmUkrainianforcesandtakecontrolofCrimea.[182][183][184][185]On16March2014areferendumwasheldintheCrimeaunderRussianoccupation,[186]whichreportedthat97percentoftheCrimeanpopulationwishedtojoinRussia.[187] On18March2014,Russiaandtheself-proclaimedRepublicofCrimeasignedatreatyofaccessionoftheRepublicofCrimeaandSevastopolintheRussianFederation.TheUNGeneralAssemblyimmediatelyrespondedbypassingresolution68/262declaringthatthereferendumwasinvalidandsupportingtheterritorialintegrityofUkraine;onlyRussiavotedagainsttheresolution.However,itwasnotenforceable.[188][189][190][191]AttemptstopassenforceableresolutionsintheU.N.SecurityCouncilwereblockedbyRussianvetoes.[190][191][192] Separately,intheDonetskandLuhanskprovinces,armedmendeclaringthemselvesaslocalmilitiaandsupportedbypro-Russianprotesters[193]seizedgovernmentbuildings,policeandspecial[clarificationneeded]policestationsinseveralcitiesandheldunrecognisedstatusreferendums.[194]TheinsurgencywasledbyRussianemissariesIgorGirkin[195]andAlexanderBorodai[196]aswellasmilitantsfromRussia,suchasArsenyPavlov.[197]TheyproclaimedtheselfstyledDonetskPeople'sRepublicandLuhanskPeople'sRepublicwhichhavecontrolledabout1⁄3oftheoblastssincethen.[198] TalksinGenevabetweentheEU,Russia,Ukraine,andtheUnitedStatesyieldedaJointDiplomaticStatementreferredtoasthe2014GenevaPact[199]inwhichthepartiesrequestedthatallunlawfulmilitiaslaydowntheirarmsandvacateseizedgovernmentbuildings,andalsoestablishapoliticaldialoguethatcouldleadtomoreautonomyforUkraine'sregions.WhenPetroPoroshenkowonthepresidentialelectionheldon25May2014,hevowedtocontinuethemilitaryoperationsbytheUkrainiangovernmentforcestoendthearmedinsurgency.[200] InAugust2014,abilateralcommissionofleadingscholarsfromtheUnitedStatesandRussiaissuedtheBoistoAgendaoutlininga24-stepplantoresolvethecrisisinUkraine.[201]TheBoistoAgendawasorganizedintofiveimperativecategoriesforaddressingthecrisisrequiringstabilizationidentifiedas:(1)ElementsofanEnduring,VerifiableCeasefire;(2)EconomicRelations;(3)SocialandCulturalIssues;(4)Crimea;and,(5)InternationalStatusofUkraine.[201]Inlate2014,UkraineratifiedtheUkraine–EuropeanUnionAssociationAgreement,whichPoroshenkodescribedasUkraine's"firstbutmostdecisivestep"towardsEUmembership.[202]Poroshenkoalsoset2020asthetargetforEUmembershipapplication.[203] OSCESMMmonitoringthemovementofheavyweaponryineasternUkraine,4March2015 InFebruary2015,afterasummithostedinMinsk,Belarus,Poroshenkonegotiatedaceasefirewiththeseparatisttroops.Theresultingagreements,knownastheMinskProtocol,includedconditionssuchasthewithdrawalofheavyweaponryfromthefrontlineanddecentralisationofrebelregionsbytheendof2015.[204]TheyalsoincludedconditionssuchasUkrainiancontroloftheborderwithRussiain2015andthewithdrawalofallforeigntroopsfromUkrainianterritory.Theceasefirebeganon15February2015.Participantsinthisceasefirealsoagreedtoattendregularmeetingstoensurethattheagreementwasrespected.[205] On1January2016,UkrainejoinedtheDeepandComprehensiveFreeTradeAreawiththeEuropeanUnion,[18]whichaimstomodernizeanddevelopUkraine'seconomy,governanceandruleoflawtoEUstandardsandgraduallyincreaseintegrationwiththeEUInternalmarket.[206]In2017theEuropeanUnionapprovedvisa-freetravelforUkrainiancitizens:entitlingUkrainianstotraveltotheSchengenareafortourism,familyvisitsandbusinessreasons,withtheonlydocumentrequiredbeingavalidbiometricpassport.[207] 2022RussianinvasionofUkraine Mainarticles:Preludetothe2022RussianinvasionofUkraineand2022RussianinvasionofUkraine UkrainewiththeannexedCrimeaatbottomandtwoself-proclaimedseparatistrepublicsinDonbasatright Inthespringof2021,RussiabeganbuildinguptroopstrengthsalongitsborderwithUkraine.[208][209]On22February2022,RussianPresidentVladimirPutinorderedmilitaryforcestoenterthebreakawayUkrainianrepublicsofDonetskandLuhansk,callingtheacta"peacekeepingmission".PutinalsoofficiallyrecognizedDonetskandLuhanskassovereignstates,fullyindependentfromtheUkrainiangovernment.[210][211] Intheearlyhoursof24February2022,Putinannouncedwhathecalleda"specialmilitaryoperation"to"demilitariseanddenazify"Ukraine,launchingalarge-scaleinvasionofthecountry.[212]Laterintheday,theUkrainiangovernmentannouncedthatRussiahadtakencontrolofChernobyl.[213]On28February2022,UkraineaskedforimmediateadmissiontotheEuropeanUnioninresponsetotheinvasion.[214]InitiallyRussiantroopsweretoldthatthe“specialmilitaryoperation”oftheinvasionofUkrainewouldlastforonlyfourorfivedays.[215] OnemonthlateritappearedthatearlyRussianandUSpredictionsforaquickvictoryinUkrainehadbeenbasedonfaultyintelligence.[216][217][218]Atthispointintimeafterthefirstthirtydaysoffightingofthewar,Russiahadnotyetachievedeitherofitstwoprimaryinitialobjectives,thecaptureofUkraine'stwolargestcities,KyivandKharkiv,withUkrainiancounter-offensivespushingbackRussianfrontlinesaroundKyiv.[219][unreliablesource?]Meanwhile,severalnewspaperswerereportingawoefullyunder-trainedRussianarmyandofalackofadequateRussianequipment,food,andweaponry.[220][221] InlateMarchUkrainianforcesbegantoreclaimterritoryintheKyivregionwhichhadpreviouslybeentakenandheldbyRussiantroops.EventuallytheKyivregionalUkrainianforcespushedtheRussianfrontlinesintheKyivvicinityallofthewaybacktotheUkrainianborder.Meanwhile,RussiadeclaredthattheRussian“retreat”intheKyivregionhadbeenapartofitsplanallalong,andthatRussiawouldmerelyberepositioningitstroopsintheUkrainianeast,placingthemtheretoenableanewDonbasareaoffensive.[222] OnApril14,UkrainianforcessanktheRussianflagshipoftheRussianBlackSeaFleet,theMoskvawithamissilestrike.[223]BytheendofApril,onemonthintoRussia'snew“DonbasOffensive,”RussianforceshadnotyetmanagedtoadvancesignificantlyintheDonbasregion,notyethavingfullytakenasinglemajormetropolitanareaintheregionsinceannouncingitsnew“DonbasOffensive."Militaryanalystscontinuetorefertotheprogressofthewarasdevolvingintoa"stalematesituation".[224][225] Geography Mainarticle:GeographyofUkraine SimplifieddepictionofthebiomeslyingnorthoftheBlackSea.ThebrightgreenbeltgirdlingtheBlackSea'ssoutherncoast,extendingwestwards,denotesaregionofsubtropics. TopographicmapofUkraine(withbordersandtowns) Ukraineisthesecond-largestEuropeancountry,afterRussia.Lyingbetweenlatitudes44°and53°N,andlongitudes22°and41°E.,itismostlyintheEastEuropeanPlain.Ukrainecoversanareaof603,628squarekilometres(233,062 sq mi),withacoastlineof2,782kilometres(1,729 mi).[47] ThelandscapeofUkraineconsistsmostlyoffertileplains(orsteppes)andplateaus,crossedbyriverssuchastheDnieper(Dnipro),SeverskyDonets,DniesterandtheSouthernBugastheyflowsouthintotheBlackSeaandthesmallerSeaofAzov.Tothesouthwest,thedeltaoftheDanubeformstheborderwithRomania.Ukraine'svariousregionshavediversegeographicfeaturesrangingfromthehighlandstothelowlands.Thecountry'sonlymountainsaretheCarpathianMountainsinthewest,ofwhichthehighestisHoverlaat2,061metres(6,762 ft),andtheCrimeanMountains,intheextremesouthalongthecoast.[226] UkrainealsohasanumberofhighlandregionssuchastheVolyn-PodilliaUpland(inthewest)andtheNear-DniproUpland(ontherightbankofDnieper).Totheeasttherearethesouth-westernspursoftheCentralRussianUplandoverwhichrunstheborderwiththeRussianFederation.NeartheSeaofAzovcanbefoundtheDonetsRidgeandtheNearAzovUpland.Thesnowmeltfromthemountainsfeedstheriversandtheirwaterfalls. SignificantnaturalresourcesinUkraineincludelithium,[227]naturalgas,[228]kaolin,[228]timber[229]andanabundanceofarableland.[230]Ukrainehasmanyenvironmentalissues.[231][232]Someregionslackadequatesuppliesofpotablewater.[233]Airandwaterpollutionaffectsthecountry,aswellasdeforestation,andradiationcontaminationinthenortheaststemmingfromthe1986accidentattheChernobylNuclearPowerPlant.[234] Climate Köppenclimateclassification. Ukrainehasamostlytemperateclimate,exceptforthesoutherncoastofCrimeawhichhasasubtropicalclimate.[235]Theclimateisinfluencedbymoderatelywarm,humidairfromtheAtlanticOcean.[236]Averageannualtemperaturesrangefrom5.5–7 °C(41.9–44.6 °F)inthenorth,to11–13 °C(51.8–55.4 °F)inthesouth.[236]Precipitationishighestinthewestandnorthandlowestintheeastandsoutheast.[236]WesternUkraine,particularlyintheCarpathianMountains,receivesaround120centimetres(47.2 in)ofprecipitationannually,whileCrimeaandthecoastalareasoftheBlackSeareceivearound40centimetres(15.7 in).[236] Wateravailabilityfromthemajorriverbasinsisexpectedtodecreaseduetoclimatechange,especiallyinsummer.Thisposesriskstotheagriculturalsector.[237]Thenegativeimpactsofclimatechangeonagriculturearemostlyfeltinthesouthofthecountry,whichhasasteppeclimate.Inthenorth,somecropsmaybeabletobenefitfromalongergrowingseason.[238]TheWorldBankhasstatedthatUkraineishighlyvulnerabletoclimatechange.[239] Biodiversity Mainarticle:WildlifeofUkraine PineforestnearKlavdievo,BuchaRaion,KyivOblast Ukrainecontainssixterrestrialecoregions:CentralEuropeanmixedforests,CrimeanSubmediterraneanforestcomplex,EastEuropeanforeststeppe,Pannonianmixedforests,Carpathianmontaneconiferforests,andPonticsteppe.[240]Thereissomewhatmoreconiferousthandeciduousforest.[241]ThemostdenselyforestedareaisPolisiainthenorthwest,withpine,oak,andbirch.[241]Thereare45,000speciesofanimal,[242]withapproximately385endangeredspecieslistedintheRedDataBookofUkraine.[243]Internationallyimportantwetlandscoverover7,000squarekilometres(2,700 sq mi),withtheDanubeDeltabeingimportantforconservation.[244][245] Urbanareas Mainarticle:ListofcitiesinUkraine Ukrainehas457cities,ofwhich176aredesignatedasoblast-class,279assmallerraion-classcities,andtwoasspeciallegalstatuscities.Therearealso886urban-typesettlementsand28,552villages.[246]   LargestcitiesortownsinUkraine2021[2] Rank Name Region Pop. Rank Name Region Pop. KyivKharkiv 1 Kyiv Kyiv(city) 2,962,180 11 Luhansk Luhansk 399,559 OdesaDnipro 2 Kharkiv Kharkiv 1,433,886 12 Vinnytsia Vinnytsia 370,601 3 Odesa Odesa 1,015,826 13 Makiivka Donetsk 340,337 4 Dnipro Dnipropetrovsk 980,948 14 Sevastopol Sevastopol(city) 340,297 5 Donetsk Donetsk 905,364 15 Simferopol Crimea 336,330 6 Zaporizhzhia Zaporizhzhia 722,713 16 Chernihiv Chernihiv 285,234 7 Lviv Lviv 721,510 17 Kherson Kherson 283,649 8 KryvyiRih Dnipropetrovsk 612,750 18 Poltava Poltava 283,402 9 Mykolaiv Mykolaiv 476,101 19 Khmelnytskyi Khmelnytskyi 274,582 10 Mariupol Donetsk 431,859 20 Cherkasy Cherkasy 272,651 Politics Mainarticles:PoliticsofUkraine,GovernmentofUkraine,andElectionsinUkraine Furtherinformation:Russo-UkrainianWarand2022RussianinvasionofUkraine Ukraineisarepublicunderasemi-presidentialsystemwithseparatelegislative,executive,andjudicialbranches.[247] Constitution Mainarticle:ConstitutionofUkraine ChartofthepoliticalsystemofUkraine TheConstitutionofUkrainewasadoptedandratifiedatthe5thsessionoftheVerkhovnaRada,theparliamentofUkraine,on28June1996.[248]Theconstitutionwaspassedwith315ayesoutof450votespossible(300ayesminimum).[248]Allotherlawsandothernormative[clarificationneeded]legalactsofUkrainemustconformtotheconstitution.Therighttoamendtheconstitutionthroughaspeciallegislativeprocedureisvestedexclusivelyintheparliament.TheonlybodythatmayinterprettheconstitutionanddeterminewhetherlegislationconformstoitistheConstitutionalCourtofUkraine.Since1996,thepublicholidayConstitutionDayiscelebratedon28June.[249][250]On7February2019,theVerkhovnaRadavotedtoamendtheconstitutiontostateUkraine'sstrategicobjectivesasjoiningtheEuropeanUnionandNATO.[251] President,parliamentandgovernment VolodymyrZelenskyyPresident DenysShmyhalPrimeMinister Thepresidentiselectedbypopularvoteforafive-yeartermandistheformalheadofstate.[252] Ukraine'slegislativebranchincludesthe450-seatunicameralparliament,theVerkhovnaRada.[253]TheparliamentisprimarilyresponsiblefortheformationoftheexecutivebranchandtheCabinetofMinisters,headedbytheprimeminister.[254]Thepresidentretainstheauthoritytonominatetheministersofforeignaffairsandofdefenceforparliamentaryapproval,aswellasthepowertoappointtheprosecutorgeneralandtheheadoftheSecurityService.[255] Laws,actsoftheparliamentandthecabinet,presidentialdecrees,andactsoftheCrimeanparliamentmaybeabrogatedbytheConstitutionalCourt,shouldtheybefoundtoviolatetheconstitution.Othernormativeactsaresubjecttojudicialreview.TheSupremeCourtisthemainbodyinthesystemofcourtsofgeneraljurisdiction. Localself-governmentisofficiallyguaranteed.Localcouncilsandcitymayorsarepopularlyelectedandexercisecontroloverlocalbudgets.Theheadsofregionalanddistrictadministrationsareappointedbythepresidentinaccordancewiththeproposalsoftheprimeminister.[256] Courtsandlawenforcement Mainarticles:JudicialsystemofUkraineandLawenforcementinUkraine KlovskyPalace,hometotheSupremeCourtofUkraine MartiallawwasdeclaredimmediatelytheRussiansinvadedinFebruary2022,[257]andcontinues.[258][259] Thecourtsenjoylegal,financialandconstitutionalfreedomguaranteedbyUkrainianlawsince2002.Judgesarelargelywellprotectedfromdismissal(exceptforgrossmisconduct).Courtjusticesareappointedbypresidentialdecreeforaninitialperiodoffiveyears,afterwhichUkraine'sSupremeCouncilconfirmstheirpositionsforlife.Althoughtherearestillproblems,thesystemisconsideredtohavebeenmuchimprovedsinceUkraine'sindependencein1991.TheSupremeCourtisregardedasanindependentandimpartialbody,andhasonseveraloccasionsruledagainsttheUkrainiangovernment.TheWorldJusticeProjectranksUkraine66outof99countriessurveyedinitsannualRuleofLawIndex.[260] ProsecutorsinUkrainehavegreaterpowersthaninmostEuropeancountries,andaccordingtotheEuropeanCommissionforDemocracythroughLaw"theroleandfunctionsoftheProsecutor'sOfficeisnotinaccordancewithCouncilofEuropestandards".[261]Theconvictionrateisover99%,[262]equaltotheconvictionrateoftheSovietUnion,with[263]suspectsoftenbeingincarceratedforlongperiodsbeforetrial.[264] TheCabinetofMinistersbuilding On24March2010,PresidentYanukovychformedanexpertgrouptomakerecommendationsonhowto"cleanupthecurrentmessandadoptalawoncourtorganization".[264]Onedaylater,hestated"Wecannolongerdisgraceourcountrywithsuchacourtsystem."[264]ThecriminaljudicialsystemandtheprisonsystemofUkraineremainquitepunitive.[265] Since2010courtproceedingscanbeheldinRussianbymutualconsentoftheparties.CitizensunabletospeakUkrainianorRussianmayusetheirnativelanguageortheservicesofatranslator.[266][267]PreviouslyallcourtproceedingshadtobeheldinUkrainian.[265] LawenforcementagenciesarecontrolledbytheMinistryofInternalAffairs.TheyconsistprimarilyofthenationalpoliceforceandvariousspecialisedunitsandagenciessuchastheStateBorderGuardandtheCoastGuardservices.Lawenforcementagencies,particularlythepolice,facedcriticismfortheirheavyhandlingofthe2004OrangeRevolution.Manythousandsofpoliceofficerswerestationedthroughoutthecapital,primarilytodissuadeprotestersfromchallengingthestate'sauthoritybutalsotoprovideaquickreactionforceincaseofneed;mostofficerswerearmed.[268] Foreignrelations Mainarticles:ForeignrelationsofUkraine,InternationalmembershipofUkraine,Ukraine–EuropeanUnionrelations,andUkraineandtheWorldBank PresidentofGeorgiaSalomeZurabishvili,PresidentofMoldovaMaiaSandu,UkrainianPresidentVolodymyrZelenskyyandEuropeanCouncilPresidentCharlesMichelduringthe2021InternationalConferenceinBatumi.In2014,theEUsignedassociationagreementswithallthreecountries. From1999to2001,Ukraineservedasanon-permanentmemberoftheUNSecurityCouncil.Historically,SovietUkrainejoinedtheUnitedNationsin1945asoneoftheoriginalmembersfollowingaWesterncompromisewiththeSovietUnion.[269]Ukrainehasconsistentlysupportedpeaceful,negotiatedsettlementstodisputes.IthasparticipatedinthequadripartitetalksontheconflictinMoldovaandpromotedapeacefulresolutiontotheconflictinthepost-SovietstateofGeorgia.UkrainealsohasmadecontributionstoUNpeacekeepingoperationssince1992.[270] UkraineconsidersEuro-Atlanticintegrationitsprimaryforeignpolicyobjective,[271]butinpracticeithasalwaysbalanceditsrelationshipwiththeEuropeanUnionandtheUnitedStateswithstrongtiestoRussia.TheEuropeanUnion'sPartnershipandCooperationAgreement(PCA)withUkrainewentintoforcein1998.TheEuropeanUnion(EU)hasencouragedUkrainetoimplementthePCAfullybeforediscussionsbeginonanassociationagreement,issuedattheEUSummitinDecember1999inHelsinki,recognizesUkraine'slong-termaspirationsbutdoesnotdiscussassociation.[271] In1992,Ukrainejoinedthethen-ConferenceonSecurityandCooperationinEurope(nowtheOrganizationforSecurityandCooperationinEurope(OSCE)),andalsobecameamemberoftheNorthAtlanticCooperationCouncil.Ukraine–NATOrelationsarecloseandthecountryhasdeclaredinterestineventualmembership.[271] UkraineisthemostactivememberofthePartnershipforPeace(PfP).AllmajorpoliticalpartiesinUkrainesupportfulleventualintegrationintotheEuropeanUnion.[272]TheAssociationAgreementbetweenUkraineandtheEuropeanUnionwassignedin2014.[273] Ukrainelonghadclosetieswithallitsneighbours,butRussia–Ukrainerelationsrapidlydeterioratedin2014duetotheannexationofCrimea,energydependenceandpaymentdisputes.InJanuary2016,UkrainejoinedtheDeepandComprehensiveFreeTradeArea(green)withtheEU(blue),establishedbytheUkraine–EuropeanUnionAssociationAgreement,openingitspathtowardsEuropeanintegration.TheDeepandComprehensiveFreeTradeArea(DCFTA),whichenteredintoforceinJanuary2016followingtheratificationoftheUkraine–EuropeanUnionAssociationAgreement,formallyintegratesUkraineintotheEuropeanSingleMarketandtheEuropeanEconomicArea.[274][275]UkrainereceivesfurthersupportandassistanceforitsEU-accessionaspirationsfromtheInternationalVisegrádFundoftheVisegrádGroupthatconsistsofCentralEuropeanEUmemberstheCzechRepublic,Poland,HungaryandSlovakia.[276] In2020,inLublin,Lithuania,PolandandUkrainecreatedtheLublinTriangleinitiative,whichaimstocreatefurthercooperationbetweenthethreehistoricalcountriesofthePolish–LithuanianCommonwealthandfurtherUkraine'sintegrationandaccessiontotheEUandNATO.[277] In2021,theAssociationTriowasformedbysigningajointmemorandumbetweentheForeignMinistersofGeorgia,MoldovaandUkraine.TheAssociationTrioisatripartiteformatforenhancedcooperation,coordination,anddialoguebetweenthethreecountries(thathavesignedtheAssociationAgreementwiththeEU)withtheEuropeanUniononissuesofcommoninterestrelatedtoEuropeanintegration,enhancingcooperationwithintheframeworkoftheEasternPartnership,andcommittingtotheprospectofjoiningtheEuropeanUnion.[278]Asof2021,UkrainewaspreparingtoformallyapplyforEUmembershipin2024,inordertojointheEuropeanUnioninthe2030s,[279]however,withtheRussianinvasionofUkrainein2022,UkrainianpresidentVolodymyrZelenskyyrequestedthatthecountrybeadmittedtotheEUimmediately.[280] Armedforces Mainarticle:ArmedForcesofUkraine HenadiiLachkov,commanderoftheUkrainiancontingentinMulti-NationalForce–Iraq,kisseshiscountry'sflag AfterthedissolutionoftheSovietUnion,Ukraineinheriteda780,000-manmilitaryforceonitsterritory,equippedwiththethird-largestnuclearweaponsarsenalintheworld.[281][282]In1992,UkrainesignedtheLisbonProtocolinwhichthecountryagreedtogiveupallnuclearweaponstoRussiafordisposalandtojointheNuclearNon-ProliferationTreatyasanon-nuclearweaponstate.By1996thecountryhadbecomefreeofnuclearweapons.[281] Ukrainetookconsistentstepstowardreductionofconventionalweapons.ItsignedtheTreatyonConventionalArmedForcesinEurope,whichcalledforreductionoftanks,artillery,andarmouredvehicles(armyforceswerereducedto300,000).Thecountryplanstoconvertthecurrentconscript-basedmilitaryintoaprofessionalvolunteermilitary.[283][better source needed]Ukraine'scurrentmilitaryconsistof196,600activepersonnelandaround900,000reservists.[284] TheUkrainianfrigateHetmanSahaydachniy(U130) Ukraineplayedanincreasingroleinpeacekeepingoperations.In2014,theUkrainianfrigateHetmanSagaidachniyjoinedtheEuropeanUnion'scounterpiracyOperationAtalantaandwaspartoftheEUNavalForceoffthecoastofSomaliafortwomonths.[285]UkrainiantroopsweredeployedinKosovoaspartoftheUkrainian-PolishBattalion.[286] AUkrainianunitwasdeployedinLebanon,aspartofUNInterimForceenforcingthemandatedceasefireagreement.TherewasalsoamaintenanceandtrainingbattaliondeployedinSierraLeone.In2003–05,aUkrainianunitwasdeployedaspartofthemultinationalforceinIraqunderPolishcommand.[287] MilitaryunitsofotherstatesparticipatedinmultinationalmilitaryexerciseswithUkrainianforcesinUkraineregularly,includingU.S.militaryforces.[288] Followingindependence,Ukrainedeclareditselfaneutralstate.[17]ThecountryhadalimitedmilitarypartnershipwithRussianFederationandotherCIScountriesandhashadapartnershipwithNATOsince1994.Inthe2000s,thegovernmentwasleaningtowardsNATO,anddeepercooperationwiththealliancewassetbytheNATO-UkraineActionPlansignedin2002.ItwaslateragreedthatthequestionofjoiningNATOshouldbeansweredbyanationalreferendumatsomepointinthefuture.[283]DeposedPresidentViktorYanukovychconsideredthecurrentlevelofco-operationbetweenUkraineandNATOsufficient,andwasagainstUkrainejoiningNATO.Duringthe2008Bucharestsummit,NATOdeclaredthatUkrainewouldeventuallybecomeamemberofNATOwhenitmeetsthecriteriaforaccession. AspartofmodernizationafterthebeginningoftheRusso-UkrainianWarin2014,juniorofficerswereallowedtotakemoreinitiativeandaterritorialdefenseforceofvolunteerswasestablished.[289]Variousdefensiveweaponsincludingdronesweresuppliedbymanycountries,butnotfighterjets.[290]Duringthefirstfewweeksofthe2022Russianinvasionthemilitaryfounditdifficulttodefendagainstshelling,missilesandhighlevelbombing;butlightinfantryusedshoulder-mountedweaponseffectivelytodestroytanks,armouredvehiclesandlow-flyingaircraft.[291] Administrativedivisions Mainarticles:AdministrativedivisionsofUkraineandUkrainianhistoricalregions Furtherinformation:PoliticalstatusofCrimeaandSevastopolandAnnexationofCrimeabytheRussianFederation Ukraine(2021)—majorcitiesandadjacentcountries ThesystemofUkrainiansubdivisionsreflectsthecountry'sstatusasaunitarystate(asstatedinthecountry'sconstitution)withunifiedlegalandadministrativeregimesforeachunit. IncludingSevastopolandtheAutonomousRepublicofCrimeathatwereannexedbytheRussianFederationin2014,Ukraineconsistsof27regions:twenty-fouroblasts(provinces),oneautonomousrepublic(AutonomousRepublicofCrimea),andtwocitiesofspecialstatus—Kyiv,thecapital,andSevastopol.The24oblastsandCrimeaaresubdividedinto136[292]raions(districts)andcitymunicipalitiesofregionalsignificance,orsecond-leveladministrativeunits. PopulatedplacesinUkrainearesplitintotwocategories:urbanandrural.Urbanpopulatedplacesaresplitfurtherintocitiesandurban-typesettlements(aSovietadministrativeinvention),whileruralpopulatedplacesconsistofvillagesandsettlements(agenerallyusedterm).Allcitieshaveacertaindegreeofself-ruledependingontheirsignificancesuchasnationalsignificance(asinthecaseofKyivandSevastopol),regionalsignificance(withineachoblastorautonomousrepublic)ordistrictsignificance(alltherestofcities).Acity'ssignificancedependsonseveralfactorssuchasitspopulation,socio-economicandhistoricalimportanceandinfrastructure.  Volyn  Rivne  Zhytomyr  Kyiv  Khmeln-ytsky  Ternopil  Ivano-Frankivsk  Zakarpattia  Chernivtsi  Vinnytsia  Cherkasy  Kirovohrad  Mykolaiv  Poltava  Chernihiv  Sumy  Kharkiv  Dnipropetrovsk  Odesa  Kherson  Zaporizhzhia  Donetsk  Crimea  Luhansk Kyiv Sevastopol  Lviv • • Oblasts Cherkasy Chernihiv Chernivtsi Dnipropetrovsk Donetsk Ivano-Frankivsk Kharkiv Kherson Khmelnytskyi Kyiv Kirovohrad Luhansk Lviv Mykolaiv Odesa Poltava Rivne Sumy Ternopil Vinnytsia Volyn Zakarpattia Zaporizhzhia Zhytomyr Autonomousrepublic Citieswithspecialstatus AutonomousRepublicofCrimea CityofKyiv CityofSevastopol Economy Mainarticle:EconomyofUkraine Kyiv,thefinancialcentreofUkraine. In2021agriculturewasthebiggestsectoroftheeconomyandUkrainewastheworld'slargestwheatexporter.[293]However,UkraineremainsamongthepoorestcountriesinEurope,[294]andcorruptionremainsawidespreadissue;thecountrywasrated122ndoutof180intheCorruptionPerceptionsIndexfor2021,thesecond-lowestresultinEuropeafterRussia.[295][296]In2021Ukraine'sGDPpercapitabypurchasingpowerparitywasjustover$14,000.[297]Despitesupplyingemergencyfinancialsupport,theIMFexpectedtheeconomytoshrinkconsiderablyin2022duetoRussia'sinvasion.[298]One2022estimatewasthatpost-warreconstructioncostsmightreachhalfatrilliondollars.[299] In2021,theaveragesalaryinUkrainereacheditshighestlevelatalmost₴14,300(US$525)permonth.[300]About1%ofUkrainianslivedbelowthenationalpovertylinein2019.[301]UnemploymentinUkrainewas4.5%in2019.[302]In20195–15%oftheUkrainianpopulationwerecategorizedasmiddleclass.[303]In2020Ukraine'sgovernmentdebtwasroughly50%ofitsnominalGDP.[304][293] In2021mineralcommoditiesandlightindustrywereimportantsectors.[293]Ukraineproducesnearlyalltypesoftransportationvehiclesandspacecraft.[305][306][307]AntonovairplanesandKrAZtrucksareexportedtomanycountries.TheEuropeanUnionisthecountry'smaintradepartner,andremittancesfromUkrainiansworkingabroadareimportant.[293]Kamianets-PodilskyiCastle,oneoftheSevenWondersofUkraine BeforetheRusso-UkrainianwarthenumberoftouristsvisitingUkrainewaseighthinEurope,accordingtotheWorldTourismOrganizationrankings.[308]Ukrainehasnumeroustouristattractions:mountainrangessuitableforskiing,hikingandfishing:theBlackSeacoastlineasapopularsummerdestination;naturereservesofdifferentecosystems;churches,castleruinsandotherarchitecturalandparklandmarks;variousoutdooractivitypoints.Kyiv,Lviv,OdesaandKamyanets-PodilskyiwereUkraine'sprincipaltouristcentreseachofferingmanyhistoricallandmarksaswellasformidablehospitalityinfrastructure.TourismusedtobethemainstayofCrimea'seconomy,buttherewasamajorfallinvisitornumbersfollowingtheRussianannexationin2014.[309] TheSevenWondersofUkraineandSevenNaturalWondersofUkrainearetheselectionofthemostimportantlandmarksofUkraine,chosenbythegeneralpublicthroughanInternet-basedvote. Agriculture Ukraineisamongtheworld'stopagriculturalproducersandexportersandisoftendescribedasthe“breadbasketofEurope”.Duringthe2020/21internationalwheatmarketingseason(July–June),itrankedasthesixthlargestwheatexporter,accountingforninepercentofworldwheattrade.[310]Thecountryisalsoamajorglobalexporterofmaize,barleyandrapeseed.In2020/21,itaccountedfor12percentofglobaltradeinmaizeandbarleyandfor14percentofworldrapeseedexports.Itstradeshareisevengreaterinthesunfloweroilsector,withthecountryaccountingforabout50percentofworldexportsin2020/2021.[310] AccordingtotheFoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations(FAO),furthertocausingthelossoflivesandincreasinghumanitarianneeds,thelikelydisruptionscausedbytheRusso-UkrainianWartoUkraine'sgrainandoilseedsectors,couldjeopardizethefoodsecurityofmanycountries,especiallythosethatarehighlydependentonUkraineandRussiafortheirfoodandfertilizerimports.[311]SeveralofthesecountriesfallintotheLeastDevelopedCountry(LDC)group,whilemanyothersbelongtothegroupofLow-IncomeFood-DeficitCountries(LIFDCs).[312][313]ForexampleEritreasourced47percentofitswheatimportsin2021fromUkraine.Overall,morethan30nationsdependonUkraineandtheRussianFederationforover30percentoftheirwheatimportneeds,manyoftheminNorthAfricaandWesternandCentralAsia.[310] Transport Mainarticle:TransportinUkraine HRCS2multipleunit.RailtransportisheavilyutilisedinUkraine. Manyroadsandbridgesweredestroyed,andinternationalmaritimetravelwasblockedbythe2022RussianinvasionofUkraine.[298]BeforethatitwasmainlythroughthePortofOdesa,fromwhereferriessailedregularlytoIstanbul,VarnaandHaifa.ThelargestferrycompanyoperatingtheserouteswasUkrferry.[314]Thereareover1,600 km(1,000 mi)ofnavigablewaterwayson7rivers,mostlyontheDanube,DnieperandPripyat.AllUkraine'sriversfreezeoverinwinter,limitingnavigation.[315] Ukraine'srailnetworkconnectsallmajorurbanareas,portfacilitiesandindustrialcentreswithneighbouringcountries.[citationneeded]TheheaviestconcentrationofrailwaytrackistheDonbasregion.[316]Althoughrailfreighttransportfellinthe1990s,Ukraineisstilloneoftheworld'shighestrailusers.[317] UkraineInternationalAirlines,istheflagcarrierandthelargestairline,[318]withitsheadofficeinKyiv[319]anditsmainhubatKyiv'sBoryspilInternationalAirport.ItoperateddomesticandinternationalpassengerflightsandcargoservicestoEurope,theMiddleEast,theUnitedStates,[280]Canada,[320]andAsia. Energy Mainarticle:EnergyinUkraine Electricityproductionbysource,Ukraine EnergyinUkraineismainlyfromgasandcoal,followedbynuclearthenoil.[228]Thecoalindustryhasbeendisruptedbyconflict.[321]Mostgasandoilisimported,butsince2015energypolicyhasprioritiseddiversifyingenergysupply.[322] Abouthalfofelectricitygenerationisnuclearandaquartercoal.[228]ThelargestnuclearpowerplantinEurope,theZaporizhzhiaNuclearPowerPlant,isinUkraine.FossilfuelsubsidieswereUS$2.2billionin2019.[323]Untilthe2010sallofUkraine'snuclearfuelcamefromRussia,butnowmostdoesnot.[324] Althoughgastransitisdeclining,over40billioncubicmetres(bcm)ofRussiangasflowedthroughUkrainein2021,[325]whichwasaboutathirdofRussianexportstootherEuropeancountries.[326]Someenergyinfrastructurewasdestroyedinthe2022RussianinvasionofUkraine.[327][328] Inearly2022UkraineandMoldovadecoupledtheirelectricitygridsfromtheIntegratedPowerSystemofRussiaandBelarus;andtheEuropeanNetworkofTransmissionSystemOperatorsforElectricitysynchronizedthemwithcontinentalEurope.[329][330] Informationtechnology Mainarticles:EconomyofUkraine§ Informationtechnology,andInternetinUkraine Theinternetinthecountryisrobustbecauseitisdiverse.[331]KeyofficialsmayuseStarlinkasbackup.[331]TheITindustrycontributedalmost5percenttoUkraine'sGDPin2021[332]andin2022continuedbothinsideandoutsidethecountry.[333] Demographics Mainarticles:DemographicsofUkraineandUkrainians CompositionofUkrainebyethnicity Ukrainians   77.8% Russians   17.3% RomaniansandMoldovans   0.8% Belarusians   0.6% Crimean Tatars   0.5% Bulgarians   0.4% Hungarians   0.3% Poles   0.3% Others   1.7% Source:EthniccompositionofthepopulationofUkraine,2001Census Beforethe2022RussianinvasionofUkrainethecountryhadover41millionpeople,andwastheeighth-mostpopulouscountryinEurope.Itisaheavilyurbanizedcountry,anditsindustrialregionsintheeastandsoutheastarethemostdenselypopulated—about67%ofitstotalpopulationlivesinurbanareas.[334]AtthattimeUkrainehadapopulationdensityof69.5inhabitantspersquarekilometre(180persquaremile),andtheoveralllifeexpectancyinthecountryatbirthwas73years(68yearsformalesand77.8yearsforfemales).[335] FollowingthedissolutionoftheSovietUnion,Ukraine'spopulationhitapeakofroughly52millionin1993.However,duetoitsdeathrateexceedingitsbirthrate,massemigration,poorlivingconditions,andlow-qualityhealthcare,[336][337]thetotalpopulationdecreasedby6.6million,or12.8%fromthesameyearto2014. Accordingtothe2001census,ethnicUkrainiansmadeuproughly78%ofthepopulation,whileRussianswerethelargestminority,atsome17.3%ofthepopulation.Smallminoritypopulationsincluded:Belarusians(0.6%),Moldovans(0.5%),CrimeanTatars(0.5%),Bulgarians(0.4%),Hungarians(0.3%),Romanians(0.3%),Poles(0.3%),Jews(0.3%),Armenians(0.2%),Greeks(0.2%)andTatars(0.2%).[2]Itwasalsoestimatedthattherewereabout10–40,000KoreansinUkraine,wholivedmostlyinthesouthofthecountry,belongingtothehistoricalKoryo-saramgroup.[338][339] OutsidetheformerSovietUnion,thelargestsourceofincomingimmigrantsinUkraine'spost-independenceperiodwasfromfourAsiancountries,namelyChina,India,PakistanandAfghanistan.[340] Inthelate2010s1.4millionUkrainianswereinternallydisplacedduetothewarinDonbas,[341]andinearly2022over4.1millionfledthecountryintheaftermathoftheRussianinvasion.[342] Language Mainarticles:Ukrainianlanguage,RussianlanguageinUkraine,LanguagesofUkraine,andNameofUkraine Accordingtotheconstitution,thestatelanguageofUkraineisUkrainian.[343]Russianiswidelyspoken,especiallyineasternandsouthernUkraine.[343]MostnativeUkrainianspeakersknowRussianasasecondlanguage.[343]RussianwasthedefactodominantlanguageoftheSovietUnionbutUkrainianalsoheldofficialstatus[344]andintheschoolsoftheUkrainianSSRlearningUkrainianwasmandatory.[343] LinguisticmapofUkraineshowingmostcommonnativelanguagebycity,townorvillagecouncilaccordingto2001census EffectiveinAugust2012,anewlawonregionallanguagesentitledanylocallanguagespokenbyatleasta10 percentminoritybedeclaredofficialwithinthatarea.[345]Withinweeks,Russianwasdeclaredaregionallanguageofseveralsouthernandeasternoblasts(provinces)andcities.[346]Russiancouldthenbeusedintheadministrativeofficeworkanddocumentsofthoseplaces.[347][348] On23February2014,followingtheRevolutionofDignity,theUkrainianParliamentvotedtorepealthelawonregionallanguages,makingUkrainianthesolestatelanguageatalllevels;however,therepealwasnotsignedbyactingPresidentTurchynovorbyPresidentPoroshenko.[349][350][351]InFebruary2019,thelawallowingforofficialuseofregionallanguageswasfoundunconstitutional.[352]AccordingtotheCouncilofEurope,thisactfailstoachievefairprotectionofthelinguisticrightsofminorities.[353] UkrainianistheprimarylanguageusedinthevastmajorityofUkraine(see"LinguisticmapofUkraine"above.)67%ofUkrainiansspeakUkrainianastheirprimarylanguage,while30%speakRussianastheirprimarylanguage.[354]IneasternandsouthernUkraine,Russianistheprimarylanguageinsomecities,whileUkrainianisusedinruralareas.HungarianisspokenintheZakarpattiaOblast.[355] ForalargepartoftheSovietera,thenumberofUkrainianspeakersdeclinedfromgenerationtogeneration,andbythemid-1980s,theusageoftheUkrainianlanguageinpubliclifehaddecreasedsignificantly.[356]Followingindependence,thegovernmentofUkrainebeganrestoringtheuseoftheUkrainianlanguageinschoolsandgovernmentthroughapolicyofUkrainisation.[357][358]Today,mostforeignfilmsandTVprograms,includingRussianones,aresubtitledordubbedinUkrainian.[359]Ukraine's2017educationlawbarsprimaryeducationinpublicschoolsingradefiveandupinanylanguagebutUkrainian.[360][361]TheUnianreportedthat"Abanontheuseofculturalproducts,namelymovies,books,songs,etc.,intheRussianlanguageinthepublichasbeenintroduced"intheLvivOblastinSeptember2018.[362] Diaspora TheseparagraphsareanexcerptfromUkrainiandiaspora.[edit] TheUkrainiandiasporacomprisesUkrainiansandtheirdescendantswholiveoutsideUkrainearoundtheworld,especiallythosewhomaintainsomekindofconnection,evenifephemeral,tothelandoftheirancestorsandmaintaintheirfeelingofUkrainiannationalidentitywithintheirownlocalcommunity.TheUkrainiandiasporaisfoundthroughoutnumerousregionsworldwideincludingotherpost-SovietstatesaswellasinothercountriessuchasPoland,[363]theUnitedStates,[364]Canada,andBrazil.[365] Religion Mainarticle:ReligioninUkraine TheSaintSophiaCathedralinKyiv,aUNESCOWorldHeritageSite,[366]isoneofthemainChristiancathedralsinUkraine Ukrainehastheworld'ssecond-largestEasternOrthodoxpopulation,afterRussia.[367][368]A2021surveyconductedbytheKyivInternationalInstituteofSociology(KIIS)foundthat82%ofUkrainiansdeclaredthemselvestobereligious,while7%wereatheists,andafurther11%founditdifficulttoanswerthequestion.[369]ThelevelofreligiosityinUkrainewasreportedtobethehighestinWesternUkraine(91%),andthelowestintheDonbas(57%)andEasternUkraine(56%).[370] In2019,82%ofUkrainianswereChristians;outofwhich72.7%declaredthemselvestobeOrthodox,8.8%GreekRiteCatholics,2.3%Protestantsand0.9%LatinRiteCatholics.OtherChristianscomprised2.3%.Judaism,Islam,andHinduismwerethereligionsof0.2%ofthepopulationeach.AccordingtotheKIISstudy,roughly58.3%oftheUkrainianOrthodoxpopulationweremembersoftheOrthodoxChurchofUkraine,and25.4%weremembersoftheUkrainianOrthodoxChurch(MoscowPatriarchate).[371] Accordingtoa2018surveybytheRazumkovCentre,9.4%ofUkrainianswereByzantineRiteCatholicsand0.8%wereLatinRiteCatholics.[372]ProtestantsareagrowingcommunityinUkraine,whomadeup1.9%ofthepopulationin2016,[372]butroseto2.2%ofthepopulationin2018. Health Mainarticle:HealthinUkraineThissectionneedstobeupdated.Pleasehelpupdatethisarticletoreflectrecenteventsornewlyavailableinformation.(March2022) Ukraine'shealthcaresystemisstatesubsidisedandfreelyavailabletoallUkrainiancitizensandregisteredresidents.However,itisnotcompulsorytobetreatedinastate-runhospitalasanumberofprivatemedicalcomplexesdoexistnationwide.[373]Thepublicsectoremploysmosthealthcareprofessionals,withthoseworkingforprivatemedicalcentrestypicallyalsoretainingtheirstateemploymentastheyaremandatedtoprovidecareatpublichealthfacilitiesonaregularbasis.[374] Themunicipalchildren'shospitalinKremenchuk,PoltavaOblast AllofUkraine'smedicalserviceprovidersandhospitalsaresubordinatetotheMinistryofHealthcare,whichprovidesoversightandscrutinyofgeneralmedicalpracticeaswellasbeingresponsiblefortheday-to-dayadministrationofthehealthcaresystem.Despitethis,standardsofhygieneandpatient-carehavefallen.[375] Ukrainefacesanumberofmajorpublichealthissuesandisconsideredtobeinademographiccrisisbecauseofitshighdeathrateandlowbirthrate(theUkrainianbirthrateis11births/1,000population,andthedeathrateis16.3deaths/1,000population).Afactorcontributingtothehighdeathrateisahighmortalityrateamongworking-agemalesfrompreventablecausessuchasalcoholpoisoningandsmoking.[376]Inaddition,obesity,systemichighbloodpressureandtheHIVendemicareallmajorchallengesfacingtheUkrainianhealthcaresystem. ActivereformationofUkraine'shealthcaresystemwasinitiatedrightaftertheappointmentofUlanaSuprunasaheadoftheMinistryofHealthcare.[377]AssistedbydeputyPavloKovtoniuk,Suprunfirstchangedthedistributionoffinancesinhealthcare.[378]Fundsmustfollowthepatient.Generalpractitionerswillprovidebasiccareforpatients.Thepatientwillhavetherighttochooseone.Emergencymedicalserviceisconsideredtobefullyfundedbythestate.EmergencyMedicineReformisalsoanimportantpartofthehealthcarereform.Inaddition,patientswhosufferfromchronicdiseases,whichcauseahightollofdisabilityandmortality,areprovidedwithfreeorlow-pricemedicine.[379] Education Mainarticle:EducationinUkraine TheUniversityofKyivisoneofUkraine'smostimportanteducationalinstitutions.TheResidenceofBukovinianandDalmatianMetropolitansbyJosefHlávka,1882,nowChernivtsiUniversity AccordingtotheUkrainianconstitution,accesstofreeeducationisgrantedtoallcitizens.Completegeneralsecondaryeducationiscompulsoryinthestateschoolswhichconstitutetheoverwhelmingmajority.Freehighereducationinstateandcommunaleducationalestablishmentsisprovidedonacompetitivebasis.[380] BecauseoftheSovietUnion'semphasisontotalaccessofeducationforallcitizens,whichcontinuestoday,theliteracyrateisanestimated99.4%.[47]Since2005,aneleven-yearschoolprogrammehasbeenreplacedwithatwelve-yearone:primaryeducationtakesfouryearstocomplete(startingatagesix),middleeducation(secondary)takesfiveyearstocomplete;uppersecondarythentakesthreeyears.[381]Studentsinthe12thgradetakeGovernmenttests,whicharealsoreferredtoasschool-leavingexams.Thesetestsarelaterusedforuniversityadmissions. AmongtheoldestisalsotheLvivUniversity,foundedin1661.Morehighereducationinstitutionsweresetupinthe19thcentury,beginningwithuniversitiesinKharkiv(1805),Kyiv(1834),Odesa(1865)andChernivtsi(1875)andanumberofprofessionalhighereducationinstitutions,e.g.:NizhynHistoricalandPhilologicalInstitute(originallyestablishedastheGymnasiumofHigherSciencesin1805),aVeterinaryInstitute(1873)andaTechnologicalInstitute(1885)inKharkiv,aPolytechnicInstituteinKyiv(1898)andaHigherMiningSchool(1899)inKaterynoslav.RapidgrowthfollowedintheSovietperiod.By1988thenumberofhighereducationinstitutionsincreasedto146withover850,000students.[382] TheUkrainianhighereducationsystemcompriseshighereducationalestablishments,scientificandmethodologicalfacilitiesundernational,municipalandself-governingbodiesinchargeofeducation.[383]TheorganisationofhighereducationinUkraineisbuiltupinaccordancewiththestructureofeducationoftheworld'shigherdevelopedcountries,asisdefinedbyUNESCOandtheUN.[384] Ukraineproducesthefourthlargestnumberofpost-secondarygraduatesinEurope,whilebeingrankedseventhinpopulation.[385]Highereducationiseitherstatefundedorprivate.Mostuniversitiesprovidesubsidisedhousingforout-of-citystudents.Itiscommonforlibrariestosupplyrequiredbooksforallregisteredstudents.Ukrainianuniversitiesconfertwodegrees:thebachelor'sdegree(4 years)andthemaster'sdegree(5–6th year),inaccordancewiththeBolognaprocess.Historically,Specialistdegree(usually5years)isstillalsogranted;itwastheonlydegreeawardedbyuniversitiesinSoviettimes.[386]Ukrainewasranked49thintheGlobalInnovationIndexin2021[387] Regionaldifferences Seealso:DemographicsofUkraine§ Regionaldifferences,CentralUkraine,EasternUkraine,SouthernUkraine,andWesternUkraine Theresultsofthe2014parliamentaryelectionwithPeople'sFrontinyellow,OppositionBlocinblueandPetroPoroshenkoBlocinred UkrainianisthedominantlanguageinWesternUkraineandinCentralUkraine,whileRussianisthedominantlanguageinthecitiesofEasternUkraineandSouthernUkraine.IntheUkrainianSSRschools,learningRussianwasmandatory;inmodernUkraine,schoolswithUkrainianasthelanguageofinstructionofferclassesinRussianandintheotherminoritylanguages.[343][388][389][390] OntheRussianlanguage,onSovietUnionandUkrainiannationalism,opinioninEasternUkraineandSouthernUkrainetendstobetheexactoppositeofthoseinWesternUkraine;whileopinionsinCentralUkraineonthesetopicstendbelessextreme.[389][391][392][393] Similarhistoricalcleavagesalsoremainevidentatthelevelofindividualsocialidentification.Attitudestowardthemostimportantpoliticalissue,relationswithRussia,differedstronglybetweenLviv,identifyingmorewithUkrainiannationalismandtheUkrainianGreekCatholicChurch,andDonetsk,predominantlyRussianorientatedandfavourabletotheSovietera,whileincentralandsouthernUkraine,aswellasKyiv,suchdivisionswerelessimportantandtherewaslessantipathytowardpeoplefromotherregions(apollbytheResearch&BrandingGroupheldMarch2010showedthattheattitudeofthecitizensofDonetsktothecitizensofLvivwas79%positiveandthattheattitudeofthecitizensofLvivtothecitizensofDonetskwas88%positive).[394] However,allwereunitedbyanoverarchingUkrainianidentitybasedonsharedeconomicdifficulties,showingthatotherattitudesaredeterminedmorebycultureandpoliticsthanbydemographicdifferences.[394][395]SurveysofregionalidentitiesinUkrainehaveshownthatthefeelingofbelongingtoa"Sovietidentity"isstrongestintheDonbas(about40%)andtheCrimea(about30%).[396] DuringelectionsvotersofWesternandCentralUkrainianoblasts(provinces)votemostlyforparties(OurUkraine,Batkivshchyna)[397][398]andpresidentialcandidates(ViktorYuschenko,YuliaTymoshenko)withapro-Westernandstatereformplatform,whilevotersinSouthernandEasternoblastsvoteforparties(CPU,PartyofRegions)andpresidentialcandidates(ViktorYanukovych)withapro-Russianandstatusquoplatform.[399][400][401][402]However,thisgeographicaldivisionisdecreasing.[403][404][405] Culture Mainarticle:Ukrainianculture AcollectionoftraditionalUkrainianEastereggs—pysanky.ThedesignmotifsonpysankydatebacktoearlySlaviccultures. UkrainiancustomsareheavilyinfluencedbyOrthodoxChristianity,thedominantreligioninthecountry.[406]Genderrolesalsotendtobemoretraditional,andgrandparentsplayagreaterroleinbringingupchildren,thanintheWest.[407]ThecultureofUkrainehasalsobeeninfluencedbyitseasternandwesternneighbours,reflectedinitsarchitecture,musicandart.[408] TheCommunisterahadquiteastrongeffectontheartandwritingofUkraine.[409]In1932,StalinmadesocialistrealismstatepolicyintheSovietUnionwhenhepromulgatedthedecree"OntheReconstructionofLiteraryandArtOrganisations".Thisgreatlystifledcreativity.Duringthe1980sglasnost(openness)wasintroducedandSovietartistsandwritersagainbecamefreetoexpressthemselvesastheywanted.[410] Asof2022[update],UNESCOinscribedsevenpropertiesinUkraineontheWorldHeritageList.[411]UkraineisalsoknownforitsdecorativeandfolktraditionssuchasPetrykivkapainting,Kosivceramics,andCossacksongs.[412][413][414] ThetraditionoftheEasteregg,knownaspysanky,haslongrootsinUkraine.Theseeggsweredrawnonwithwaxtocreateapattern;then,thedyewasappliedtogivetheeggstheirpleasantcolours,thedyedidnotaffectthepreviouslywax-coatedpartsoftheegg.Aftertheentireeggwasdyed,thewaxwasremovedleavingonlythecolourfulpattern.Thistraditionisthousandsofyearsold,andprecedesthearrivalofChristianitytoUkraine.[415]InthecityofKolomyianearthefoothillsoftheCarpathianMountains,themuseumofPysankawasbuiltin2000andwonanominationasthemonumentofmodernUkrainein2007,partoftheSevenWondersofUkraineaction. Literature Mainarticle:Ukrainianliterature TechnicallythehistoryofUkrainianliteraturedatesallofthewaybacktothe11th century,followingtheChristianisationofKievanRus',howevertheseearliestwritingswereliturgicalandwerewrittenintheOldChurchSlavoniclanguage,notintrueUkrainian.Historicalaccountsofthetimewerereferredtoaschronicles,themostsignificantofwhichwasthePrimaryChronicle.[416][417][g]LiteraryactivityfacedasuddendeclineduringtheMongolinvasionofRus'.[416] TarasShevchenko,self-portraitLesyaUkrainka,oneoftheforemostUkrainianwomenwriters Ukrainianliteratureagainbegantodevelopinthe14th century,andwasadvancedsignificantlyinthe16th centurywiththeinventionoftheprintingpressandwiththebeginningoftheCossackera,underbothRussianandPolishdominance.[416]TheCossacksestablishedanindependentsocietyandpopularizedanewkindofepicpoem,whichmarkedahighpointofUkrainianoralliterature.[417]Theseadvanceswerethensetbackinthe17thandearly18th centuries,whenpublishingintheUkrainianlanguagewasoutlawed.Nonetheless,bythelate18th centurymodernliteraryUkrainianfinallyemerged.[416]In1798themoderneraoftheUkrainianliterarytraditionbeganwithIvanKotlyarevsky'spublicationofEneidaintheUkrainianvernacular.[418] Bythe1830s,aUkrainianromanticliteraturebegantodevelop,andthenation'smostrenownedculturalfigure,romanticistpoet-painterTarasShevchenkoemerged.WhereasIvanKotliarevskyisconsideredtobethefatherofliteratureintheUkrainianvernacular;Shevchenkoisthefatherofanationalrevival.[419] Then,in1863,theuseoftheUkrainianlanguageinprintwaseffectivelyprohibitedbytheRussianEmpire.[70]Thisseverelycurtailedliteraryactivityinthearea,andUkrainianwriterswereforcedtoeitherpublishtheirworksinRussianorreleasetheminAustriancontrolledGalicia.Thebanwasneverofficiallylifted,butitbecameobsoleteaftertherevolutionandtheBolsheviks'comingtopower.[417] UkrainianliteraturecontinuedtoflourishintheearlySovietyearswhennearlyallliterarytrendswereapproved.Thesepoliciesfacedasteepdeclineinthe1930s,whenprominentrepresentativesaswellasmanyotherswerekilledbytheNKVDduringtheGreatPurge.Ingeneralaround223writerswererepressedbywhatwasknownastheExecutedRenaissance.[420]TheserepressionswerepartofStalin'simplementedpolicyofsocialistrealism.ThedoctrinedidnotnecessarilyrepresstheuseoftheUkrainianlanguage,butitrequiredthatwritersfollowacertainstyleintheirworks. Literaryfreedomgrewinthelate1980sandearly1990salongsidethedeclineandcollapseoftheUSSRandthereestablishmentofUkrainianindependencein1991.[416] Architecture Mainarticle:Ukrainianarchitecture St.Michael'sGolden-DomedCathedralinKyiv,foremostexampleofCossackBaroqueandoneofUkraine'smostrecognizablelandmarks UkrainianarchitectureincludesthemotifsandstylesthatarefoundinstructuresbuiltinmodernUkraine,andbyUkrainiansworldwide. TheseincludeinitialrootswhichwereestablishedintheEasternSlavicstateofKievanRus'.SincetheChristianizationofKievanRus'forseveralagesUkrainianarchitecturewasinfluencedbytheByzantinearchitecture.Afterthe12thcentury,thedistinctarchitecturalhistorycontinuedintheKingdomofGalicia-Volhynia.[421] AftertheunionwiththeTsardomofRussia,architectureinUkrainebegantodevelopindifferentdirections,withmanystructuresinthelargereastern,Russian-ruledareabuiltinthestylesofRussianarchitectureofthatperiod,whilstthewesternregionofGaliciadevelopedunderPolishandAustro-Hungarianarchitecturalinfluences.UkrainiannationalmotifswouldeventuallybeusedduringtheperiodoftheSovietUnionandinmodernindependentUkraine.[421]Amajorproject,whichmaytakeupmostofthe21stcentury,istheconstructionoftheKyivCity-CentreontheRybalskyiPeninsula,which,whenfinished,willincludeadenseskyscraperparkamidthepicturesquelandscapeoftheDnieper.[422]However,muchofthecontemporaryarchitecturalskylineofUkraineisdominatedbySoviet-styleKhrushchyovkas,orlow-costapartmentbuildings.[423] Weavingandembroidery Rushnyk,Ukrainianembroidery ArtisantextileartsplayanimportantroleinUkrainianculture,[424]especiallyinUkrainianweddingtraditions.Ukrainianembroidery,weavingandlace-makingareusedintraditionalfolkdressandintraditionalcelebrations.Ukrainianembroideryvariesdependingontheregionoforigin[425]andthedesignshavealonghistoryofmotifs,compositions,choiceofcoloursandtypesofstitches.[426]UseofcolourisveryimportantandhasrootsinUkrainianfolklore.EmbroiderymotifsfoundindifferentpartsofUkrainearepreservedintheRushnykMuseuminPereiaslav. Nationaldressiswovenandhighlydecorated.WeavingwithhandmadeloomsisstillpractisedinthevillageofKrupove,situatedinRivneOblast.Thevillageisthebirthplaceoftwofamouspersonalitiesinthesceneofnationalcraftsfabrication.NinaMyhailivna[427]andUlianaPetrivna[428]withinternationalrecognition. Music Mainarticle:MusicofUkraine CossackMamayplayingakobza MusicisamajorpartofUkrainianculture,withalonghistoryandmanyinfluences.Fromtraditionalfolkmusic,toclassicalandmodernrock,UkrainehasproducedseveralinternationallyrecognisedmusiciansincludingKirillKarabits,OkeanElzyandRuslana.ElementsfromtraditionalUkrainianfolkmusicmadetheirwayintoWesternmusicandevenintomodernjazz.Ukrainianmusicsometimespresentsaperplexingmixofexoticmelismaticsingingwithchordalharmony.ThemoststrikinggeneralcharacteristicofauthenticethnicUkrainianfolkmusicisthewideuseofminormodesorkeyswhichincorporateaugmentedsecondintervals.[429] DuringtheBaroqueperiod,musichadaplaceofconsiderableimportanceinthecurriculumoftheKyiv-MohylaAcademy.MuchofthenobilitywaswellversedinmusicwithmanyUkrainianCossackleaderssuchas(Mazepa,Paliy,Holovatyj,Sirko)beingaccomplishedplayersofthekobza,banduraortorban. MykolaLysenkoiswidelyconsideredtobethefatherofUkrainianclassicalmusic[430] ThefirstdedicatedmusicalacademywassetupinHlukhivin1738andstudentsweretaughttosingandplayviolinandbandurafrommanuscripts.Asaresult,manyoftheearliestcomposersandperformerswithintheRussianempirewereethnicallyUkrainian,havingbeenbornoreducatedinHlukhivorhavingbeencloselyassociatedwiththismusicschool.[431]UkrainianclassicalmusicdiffersconsiderablydependingonwhetherthecomposerwasofUkrainianethnicitylivinginUkraine,acomposerofnon-UkrainianethnicitywhowasacitizenofUkraine,orpartoftheUkrainiandiaspora.[432] Sincethemid-1960s,Western-influencedpopmusichasbeengrowinginpopularityinUkraine.FolksingerandharmoniumplayerMarianaSadovskaisprominent.UkrainianpopandfolkmusicarosewiththeinternationalpopularityofgroupsandperformerslikeVopliVidoplyasova,DakhDaughters,DakhaBrakha,IvanDornandOkeanElzy. Media Mainarticle:MediaofUkraine TheUkrainianlegalframeworkonmediafreedomisdeemed"amongthemostprogressiveineasternEurope",althoughimplementationhasbeenuneven.[433]Theconstitutionandlawsprovideforfreedomofspeech[434]andpress.ThemainregulatoryauthorityforthebroadcastmediaistheNationalTelevisionandRadioBroadcastingCouncilofUkraine(NTRBCU),taskedwithlicensingmediaoutletsandensuretheircompliancewiththelaw.[435] KyivdominatesthemediasectorinUkraine:NationalnewspapersDen,DzerkaloTyzhnia,tabloids,suchasTheUkrainianWeekorFocus,andtelevisionandradioarelargelybasedthere,[citationneeded]althoughLvivisalsoasignificantnationalmediacentre.TheNationalNewsAgencyofUkraine,Ukrinformwasfoundedherein1918.BBCUkrainianstarteditsbroadcastsin1992.[436]Asof2022[update]75%ofthepopulationusetheinternet,andsocialmediaiswidelyusedbygovernmentandpeople.[437] Sport Mainarticle:SportinUkraine UkrainianfootballerAndriyShevchenkocelebratesagoalagainstSwedenatEuro2012 UkrainegreatlybenefitedfromtheSovietemphasisonphysicaleducation.ThesepoliciesleftUkrainewithhundredsofstadia,swimmingpools,gymnasiaandmanyotherathleticfacilities.[438]Themostpopularsportisfootball.ThetopprofessionalleagueistheVyschaLiha("premierleague"). ManyUkrainiansalsoplayedfortheSovietnationalfootballteam,mostnotablyBallond'OrwinnersIhorBelanovandOlehBlokhin.ThisawardwasonlypresentedtooneUkrainianafterthedissolutionoftheSovietUnion,AndriyShevchenko.Thenationalteammadeitsdebutinthe2006FIFAWorldCup,andreachedthequarterfinalsbeforelosingtoeventualchampions,Italy. VitaliKlitschkoandhisbrother,Wladimir Ukrainianboxersareamongstthebestintheworld.[439]Sincebecomingtheundisputedcruiserweightchampionin2018,OleksandrUsykhasalsogoneontowintheunifiedWBA(Super),IBF,WBOandIBOheavyweighttitles.Thisfeatmadehimoneofonlythreeboxerstohaveunifiedthecruiserweightworldtitlesandbecomeaworldheavyweightchampion.[440]ThebrothersVitaliandWladimirKlitschkoareformerheavyweightworldchampionswhoheldmultipleworldtitlesthroughouttheircareers.AlsohailingfromUkraineisVasylLomachenko,a2008and2012Olympicgoldmedalist.Heistheunifiedlightweightworldchampionwhotiestherecordforwinningaworldtitleinthefewestprofessionalfights;three.AsofSeptember2018,heisrankedastheworld'sbestactiveboxer,poundforpound,byESPN.[441] SergeyBubkaheldtherecordinthePolevaultfrom1993to2014;withgreatstrength,speedandgymnasticabilities,hewasvotedtheworld'sbestathleteonseveraloccasions.[442][443] BasketballhasgainedpopularityinUkraine.In2011,UkrainewasgrantedarighttoorganizeEuroBasket2015.TwoyearslatertheUkrainenationalbasketballteamfinishedsixthinEuroBasket2013andqualifiedtoFIBAWorldCupforthefirsttimeinitshistory.EuroleagueparticipantBudivelnykKyivisthestrongestprofessionalbasketballclubinUkraine. ChessisapopularsportinUkraine.RuslanPonomariovistheformerworldchampion.Thereareabout85Grandmastersand198InternationalMastersinUkraine.RugbyleagueisplayedthroughoutUkraine.[444] Cuisine Mainarticle:Ukrainiancuisine Varenykytoppedwithfriedonion ThetraditionalUkrainiandietincludeschicken,pork,beef,fishandmushrooms.Ukrainiansalsotendtoeatalotofpotatoes,grains,fresh,boiledorpickledvegetables.Populartraditionaldishesvarenyky(boileddumplingswithmushrooms,potatoes,sauerkraut,cottagecheese,cherriesorberries),nalysnyky(pancakeswithcottagecheese,poppyseeds,mushrooms,caviarormeat),kapusnyak(cabbagesoupmadewithmeat,potatoes,carrots,onions,millet,tomatopaste,spicesandfreshherbs),borscht(soupmadeofbeets,cabbageandmushroomsormeat)andholubtsy(stuffedcabbagerollsfilledwithrice,carrots,onionandmincedmeat).[445]AmongtraditionalbakedgoodsaredecoratedkorovaisandpaskaEasterbread.[446]UkrainianspecialtiesalsoincludeChickenKievandKyivcake. Ukrainiansdrinkstewedfruitcompote,juices,milk,buttermilk,mineralwater,teaandcoffee,beer,wineandhorilka.[447] Seealso Ukraineportal Europeportal OutlineofUkraine Notes a.^AmongtheUkrainiansthatrosetothehighestofficesintheRussianEmpirewereAlekseyRazumovsky,AlexanderBezborodkoandIvanPaskevich.AmongtheUkrainianswhogreatlyinfluencedtheRussianOrthodoxChurchinthisperiodwereStephenYavorsky,FeofanProkopovichandDimitryofRostov. b.^Estimatesonthenumberofdeathsvary.OfficialSovietdataisnotavailablebecausetheSovietgovernmentdeniedtheexistenceofthefamine.SeetheHolodomorarticlefordetails.SourcesdifferoninterpretingvariousstatementsfromdifferentbranchesofdifferentgovernmentsastowhethertheyamounttotheofficialrecognitionoftheFamineasGenocidebythecountry.Forexample,afterthestatementissuedbytheLatvianSejmon13March2008,thetotalnumberofcountriesisgivenas19(accordingtoUkrainianBBC:"ЛатвіявизналаГолодоморґеноцидом"),16(accordingtoKorrespondent,Russianedition:"ПослепродолжительныхдебатовСеймЛатвиипризналГолодоморгеноцидомукраинцев"),"morethan10"(accordingtoKorrespondent,Ukrainianedition:"ЛатвіявизналаГолодомор1932–33рр.геноцидомукраїнців")Retrieved27January2008. c.12Thesefiguresarelikelytobemuchhigher,astheydonotincludeUkrainiansofothernationalitiesorUkrainianJews,butonlyethnicUkrainians,fromtheUkrainianSSR. d.^ThisfigureexcludesPOWdeaths. e.^SeveralcountrieswithterritoryinEuropehavealargertotalarea,butallofthosealsoincludeterritoryoutsideofEurope.OnlyRussia'sEuropeanterritoryislargerthanUkraine. f.123Accordingtotheofficial2001censusdata(bynationality;[448]bylanguage[449])about75 percentofKyiv'spopulationresponded'Ukrainian'tothenativelanguage(ridnamova)censusquestion,androughly25 percentresponded'Russian'.Ontheotherhand,whenthequestion'Whatlanguagedoyouuseineverydaylife?'wasaskedinthe2003sociologicalsurvey,theKyivans'answersweredistributedasfollows:'mostlyRussian':52 percent,'bothRussianandUkrainianinequalmeasure':32 percent,'mostlyUkrainian':14 percent,'exclusivelyUkrainian':4.3 percent."WhatlanguageisspokeninUkraine?".WelcometoUkraine.February2003.Archivedfromtheoriginalon11October2017.Retrieved11July2008. g.^SuchwritingswerealsothebaseforRussianandBelarusianliterature. ^IncludingthedisputedterritoryofCrimea(27,000km2). ^IncludingthedisputedterritoryofCrimea(2,416,856) ^UkrainealsohasdefactoborderstoitssouthwithCrimea,whichRussiaannexedfromitin2014.Ukrainestillcontinuestoclaimthepeninsulaasitsintegralpartandissupportedinternationallyontheissue.SeepoliticalstatusofCrimeafordetails. ^PartlycontrolledbytheunrecognisedbreakawaystateTransnistria References ^"LawofUkraine"OnensuringthefunctioningofUkrainianasthestatelanguage":ThestatusofUkrainianandminoritylanguages".20October2020. ^abc"Populationbyethnicnationality,1January,year".ukrcensus.gov.ua.UkrainianOfficeofStatistics.Archivedfromtheoriginalon17December2011.Retrieved17April2010. ^ОсобливостіРелігійногоІЦерковно-РелігійногоСамовизначенняУкраїнськихГромадян:Тенденції2010-2018[FeaturesofReligiousandChurch-ReligiousSelf-DeterminationofUkrainianCitizens:Trends2010-2018](PDF)(inUkrainian),Kyiv:RazumkovCenterincollaborationwiththeAll-UkrainianCouncilofChurches,22April2018,pp. 12,13,16,31,archived(PDF)fromtheoriginalon26April2018Sampleof2,018respondentsaged18yearsandover,interviewed23–28March2018inallregionsofUkraineexceptCrimeaandtheoccupiedterritoriesoftheDonetskandLuganskregions. ^"Ukraine".TheWorldFactbook.CentralIntelligenceAgency.23March2022. ^Jhariya,M.K.;Meena,R.S.;Banerjee,A.(2021).EcologicalIntensificationofNaturalResourcesforSustainableAgriculture.SpringerSingapore.p. 40.ISBN 978-981-334-203-3.Retrieved31March2022. ^"Population(byestimate)asof1January2022".ukrcensus.gov.ua.Archivedfromtheoriginalon6March2021.Retrieved20February2022. ^abcd"WORLDECONOMICOUTLOOK(APRIL2022)".IMF.org.InternationalMonetaryFund. ^"GINIindex(WorldBankestimate)-Ukraine".data.worldbank.org.WorldBank.Retrieved12August2021. ^HumanDevelopmentReport2020TheNextFrontier:HumanDevelopmentandtheAnthropocene(PDF).UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme.15December2020.pp. 343–346.ISBN 978-92-1-126442-5.Retrieved16December2020. ^РішенняРади:Україна30жовтняперейденазимовийчас[RadaDecision:Ukrainewillchangetowintertimeon30October](inUkrainian).korrespondent.net.18October2011.Retrieved31October2011. ^"Ukrainecountryprofile".BBCNews.1March2022.Retrieved25March2022. ^"UNrefugeeagency:1millionfleeUkraineinunderaweek".APNEWS.3March2022.Retrieved3March2022. ^"SituationUkraineRefugeeSituation".data2.unhcr.org.Retrieved25March2022. ^Armitage,Susie(8April2022)."'Ukrainianhasbecomeasymbol':interestinlanguagespikesamidRussiainvasion".TheGuardian.Retrieved18April2022. ^YakovenkoNataliia.AnoutlineofthehistoryofUkrainefromtheearliesttimestotheendofthe18thcentury.—Kyiv:Geneza,1997. ^УІНП."ІнформаційніматеріалиУкраїнськогоінститутунаціональноїпам'ятідоДняУкраїнськоїДержавності".УІНП(inUkrainian).Retrieved28July2022. ^ab"DeclarationofStateSovereigntyofUkraine".VerkhovnaRadaofUkraine.Archivedfromtheoriginalon27September2007.Retrieved24December2007. ^ab"Ukraine-Trade-EuropeanCommission".ec.europa.eu. ^"WhatiswrongwiththeUkrainianeconomy?".AtlanticCouncil.26April2019.Retrieved23August2020. ^"TrackingchangestoUkraine'seconomy".TheEconomist.ISSN 0013-0613.Retrieved8July2022. ^"RussianInvasiontoShrinkUkraineEconomyby45PercentThisYear".WorldBank.Retrieved8July2022. ^"Ukrainebecomesworld'sthirdbiggestgrainexporterin2011–minister"(Pressrelease).BlackSeaGrain.20January2012.Archivedfromtheoriginalon31December2013.Retrieved31December2013. ^"WorldTradeReport2013".WorldTradeOrganization.2013.Retrieved26January2014. ^"Linguisticdivides:Johnson:IsthereasingleUkraine?".TheEconomist.5February2014.Retrieved12May2014. ^"Ukraine–Definition".Merriam-WebsterOnlineDictionary.Retrieved4May2012. ^"WhyDid"TheUkraine"BecomeJust"Ukraine"?".www.mentalfloss.com.3January2013. ^"UkraineortheUkraine:Whydosomecountrynameshave'the'?".BBCNews.7June2012. ^"The"the"isgone".TheUkrainianWeekly.8December1991.Archivedfromtheoriginalon14October2017.Retrieved21October2015. ^AdamTaylor(9December2013)."WhyUkraineIsn't'TheUkraine,'AndWhyThatMattersNow".BusinessInsider.Retrieved21October2015. ^"'Ukraine'or'theUkraine'?It'smorecontroversialthanyouthink".WashingtonPost.25March2014.Retrieved11August2016. ^Geoghegan,Tom(7June2012),"UkraineortheUkraine:Whydosomecountrynameshave'the'?",BBCNewsMagazine,BBC ^SandrinePrat;StéphaneC.Péan;LaurentCrépin;DorothéeG.Drucker;SimonJ.Puaud;HélèneValladas;MartinaLázničková-Galetová;JohannesvanderPlicht;AlexanderYanevich(17June2011)."TheOldestAnatomicallyModernHumansfromFarSoutheastEurope:DirectDating,CultureandBehavior".PLOSONE.6(6):e20834.Bibcode:2011PLoSO...620834P.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0020834.PMC 3117838.PMID 21698105. ^JenniferCarpenter(20June2011)."EarlyhumanfossilsunearthedinUkraine".BBC.Retrieved21June2011. ^"Mysteryofthedomesticationofthehorsesolved:Competingtheoriesreconciled".sciencedaily(sourcedfromtheUniversityofCambridge).7May2012.Retrieved12June2014. ^MatossianShapingWorldHistoryp.43 ^"WhatWeTheorize–WhenandWhereDidDomesticationOccur".InternationalMuseumoftheHorse.Archivedfromtheoriginalon23July2013.Retrieved12December2010. ^"Horsey-aeology,BinaryBlackHoles,TrackingRedTides,FishRe-evolution,WalkLikeaMan,FactorFiction".QuirksandQuarksPodcastwithBobMacdonald.CBCRadio.7March2009.Archivedfromtheoriginalon7October2014.Retrieved18September2010. ^"Scythian".EncyclopædiaBritannica.Retrieved21October2015. ^"Scythian:AncientPeople".OnlineBritannica.20July1998.Archivedfromtheoriginalon27March2017.Retrieved26October2017. ^"Khazar|Origin,History,Religion,&Facts".EncyclopædiaBritannica. ^Magocsi,PaulRobert(16July1996).AHistoryofUkraine.UniversityofTorontoPress.ISBN 9780802078209.Retrieved16July2018–viaGoogleBooks. ^Belyayev,A.RusandVarangians.Eurasianhistoricalperspective(Русьиваряги.Евразийскийисторическийвзгляд).LevGumilevCenter.13September2012 ^abc"KievanRus".TheColumbiaEncyclopedia(6 ed.).2001–2007.Archivedfromtheoriginalon19August2000.Retrieved8January2014. ^AGeographyofRussiaandItsNeighborsISBN 978-1-606-23920-9p.69 ^Kubicek,Paul(2008).TheHistoryofUkraine.Westport:GreenwoodPress.pp. 20–22.ISBN 9780313349201. ^Martin(2009),pp. 37–40. ^abc"Ukraine".CIAWorldFactbook.13December2007.Retrieved24December2007. ^TheDynastyofChernigov,1146–1246ISBN 978-0-521-82442-2pp.117–118 ^PowerPoliticsinKievanRus':VladimirMonomakhandHisDynasty,1054-1246ISBN 0-888-44202-5pp.195–196 ^"TheDestructionofKiev".UniversityofToronto'sResearchRepository.Archivedfromtheoriginalon27April2011.Retrieved3January2008. ^"RomanMstyslavych".encyclopediaofukraine.com. ^Ougrin,Dennis;Ougrin,Anastasia(2020).OneHundredYearsinGalicia:EventsThatShapedUkraineandEasternEurope.NewcastleuponTyne:CambridgeScholarsPublishing.p. 11.ISBN 9781527558816. ^Rowell,C.S.(1994).LithuaniaAscending:APaganEmpireWithinEast-CentralEurope,1295-1345.CambridgeStudiesinMedievalLifeandThought:FourthSeries.CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN 9780521450119. ^"ГенуэзскиеколониивОдесскойобласти-Бизнес-порталИзмаила".5February2018.Archivedfromtheoriginalon5February2018.Retrieved17November2020. ^Plokhy,Serhii(2017).TheGatesofEurope:AHistoryofUkraine.NewYork:BasicBooks.ISBN 9780465050918. ^Lemberg,Radio."AHISTORYOFUKRAINE.EPISODE33.THECRIMEANKHANATEANDITSPERMANENTINVASIONSOFUKRAINE".radiolemberg.com. ^DarjuszKołodziejczyk,asreportedbyMikhailKizilov(2007)."Slaves,MoneyLenders,andPrisonerGuards:TheJewsandtheTradeinSlavesandCaptivesintheCrimeanKhanate".TheJournalofJewishStudies.58(2):189–210.doi:10.18647/2730/JJS-2007. ^İnalcik,Halil(1979)."ServileLabourintheOttomanEmpire".InAscher,Abraham;Király,BélaK.;Halasi-Kun,Tibor(eds.).TheMutualEffectsoftheIslamicandJudeo-ChristianWorlds:TheEastEuropeanPattern.coursesa.matrix.msu.edu.NewYork,NY:BrooklynCollegePress.pp. 25–43.ISBN 978-0-93088800-8.Archivedfromtheoriginalon4May2017. ^Subtelny,pp.92–93 ^KrupnytskyB.andZhukovskyA."Zaporizhia,The".EncyclopediaofUkraine.Retrieved16December2007. ^ab"Ukraine–TheCossacks".EncyclopædiaBritannica.Retrieved21October2015. ^Matsuki,Eizo(2009)."TheCrimeanTatarsandtheirRussian-CaptiveSlaves"(PDF).econ.hit-u.ac.jp.HitotsubashiUniversity(MediterraneanStudiesGroup).Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)on5June2013. ^"Poland".EncyclopædiaBritannica(feerequired).Archivedfromtheoriginalon11October2007.Retrieved12September2007. ^Subtelny,pp.123–124 ^Okinshevych,Lev;ArkadiiZhukovsky(1989)."Hetmanstate".EncyclopediaofUkraine.Vol. 2. ^abcMagocsi,PaulRobert(2010).AHistoryofUkraine:TheLandandItsPeoples,SecondEdition.Toronto:UniversityPress.pp. 255–263.ISBN 9781442640856. ^Hardaway,Ashley(2011).Ukraine.US:OtherPlacesPublishing.p. 98.ISBN 9781935850045. ^Skinner,Barbara(2005)."BorderlandsofFaith:ReconsideringtheOriginsofaUkrainianTragedy".SlavicReview.64(1):88–116.doi:10.2307/3650068.JSTOR 3650068.S2CID 111387049. ^UkraineunderdirectimperialRussianrule.EncyclopædiaBritannica. ^abRemy,Johannes(March–June2007)."TheValuevCircularandCensorshipofUkrainianPublicationsintheRussianEmpire(1863–1876):IntentionandPractice".CanadianSlavonicPapers.47(1/2):87–110.doi:10.1080/00085006.2007.11092432.JSTOR 40871165.S2CID 128680044. ^RainerMünz,RainerOhliger(2003)."DiasporasandEthnicMigrants:German,Israel,andPost-SovietSuccessorStatesinComparativePerspective".Routledge.p.164.ISBN 0-7146-5232-6 ^Subtelny,Orest(2000)."Ukraine:ahistory.".UniversityofTorontoPress.p.262.ISBN 0-8020-8390-0 ^JonathanD.Smele(2015).HistoricalDictionaryoftheRussianCivilWars,1916–1926.Rowman&Littlefield.p.476.ISBN 1-4422-5281-2 ^MAGOCSI,PAULROBERT(16July2018).TheRootsofUkrainianNationalism:GaliciaasUkraine'sPiedmont.UniversityofTorontoPress.doi:10.3138/9781442682252.ISBN 9781442682252. ^"TheFirstUkrainianPoliticalProgram:MykhailoDrahomanov'sIntroductiontoHromadaurl".www.ditext.com.Retrieved26March2021. ^"Shevchenko,Taras".encyclopediaofukraine.com.Retrieved1November2017. ^Subtelny,Orest(2000).Ukraine:AHistory.UniversityofTorontoPress.pp. 340–344.ISBN 978-0-8020-8390-6. ^Nahylo,Bohdan(1999).TheUkrainianResurgence.London:Hurst.p. 8.ISBN 9781850651680.OCLC 902410832. ^"Ukraine-WorldWarIandthestruggleforindependence".EncyclopædiaBritannica. ^"TheFamineof1920–1924".TheNorka–aGermanColonyinRussia.Archivedfromtheoriginalon9March2015.Retrieved4March2015. ^"Famineof1921–3".EncyclopediaofUkraine.Retrieved3March2015. ^Revyuk,Emil(8July1931)."PolishAtrocitiesinUkraine".SvobodaPress–viaGoogleBooks. ^Skalmowski,Wojciech(8July2003).ForEastisEast:LiberAmicorumWojciechSkalmowski.PeetersPublishers.ISBN 9789042912984–viaGoogleBooks. ^Subtelny,p.380 ^Service,Robert(1997).AHistoryofTwentieth-CenturyRussia.Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress.pp. 124–125.ISBN 0674403487. ^ChristopherGilley,‘The“ChangeofSignposts”intheUkrainianemigration:MykhailoHrushevskyiandtheForeignDelegationoftheUkrainianPartyofSocialistRevolutionaries’,JahrbücherfürGeschichteOsteuropas,Vol.54,2006,No.3,pp.345-74 ^"Ukraineremembersfaminehorror".BBCNews.24November2007. ^StephenG.Wheatcroft,"AgencyandTerror:YevdokimovandMassKillinginStalin'sGreatTerror."AustralianJournalofPoliticsandHistory200753(1):20–43.ISSN 0004-9522FulltextinEbsco;RobertConquest,TheHarvestofSorrow:Sovietcollectivizationandtheterror-famine(1986).MarkB.Tauger,"The1932HarvestandtheFamineof1933"SlavicReview,Vol.50,No.1(Spring,1991),pp.70–89,notestheharvestwasunusuallypoor.onlineinJSTOR;R.W.Davies,MarkB.Tauger,S.G.Wheatcroft,"Stalin,GrainStocksandtheFamineof1932–1933,"SlavicReview,Vol.54,No.3(Autumn,1995),pp.642–657onlineinJSTOR;MichaelEllman."StalinandtheSovietfamineof1932–33Revisited",Europe-AsiaStudies,Volume59,Issue4June2007,pages663–693. ^Wilson,p.17 ^Subtelny,p.487 ^Roberts,p.102 ^Boshyk,p.89 ^ab"Worldwars".EncyclopediaofUkraine.Retrieved20December2007. ^Subtelny,Orest(1988)."Ukraine:AHistory.".p410 ^Vedeneyev,D.MilitaryFieldGendarmerie-specialbodyoftheUkrainianInsurgentArmy."VoyennaIstoriya"magazine.2002. ^TimothySnyder.AfascistheroindemocraticKiev.NewYorkReviewofBooks.24February2010 ^Motyka,Grzegorz(2002)."PolskareakcjanadziałaniaUPA–skalaiprzebiegakcjiodwetowych"[PolishreactiontotheactionsoftheUPA–thescaleandcourseofretaliation].InMotyka,Grzegorz;Libionka,Dariusz(eds.).AntypolskaAkcjaOUN-UPA,1943–1944,FaktyiInterpretacje[Anti-PolishActionOUN-UPA,1943–1944,FactsandInterpretations](PDF).Warsaw:InstytutPamięciNarodowej.Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)on19August2014. ^Snyder,Timothy(2003)."TheCausesofUkrainian-PolishEthnicCleansing1943".Past&Present.179(179):197–234.doi:10.1093/past/179.1.197.ISSN 0031-2746.JSTOR 3600827. ^Piotrowskipp.352–354 ^Weinerpp.127–237 ^MarvinKalb(21September2015).ImperialGamble:Putin,Ukraine,andtheNewColdWar.BrookingsInstitutionPress.ISBN 978-0-8157-2665-4.OCLC 1058866168. ^"LossesoftheUkrainianNation,p.2".Peremoga.gov.ua(inUkrainian).Archivedfromtheoriginalon15May2005.Retrieved16December2007. ^Subtelny,p.476 ^Magocsi,p.635 ^"UkrainianInsurgentArmy".EncyclopediaofUkraine.Retrieved20December2007. ^ab"Ukraine–WorldWarIIanditsaftermath".EncyclopædiaBritannica.Archivedfromtheoriginalon27February2010.Retrieved28December2007. ^KarelCornelisBerkhoff.Harvestofdespair:lifeanddeathinUkraineunderNazirule,HarvardUniversityPress:April2004.p.164 ^Weinberg,p.264 ^Rozhnov,Konstantin,"WhowonWorldWarII?",BBC.CitingRussianhistorianValentinFalin.Retrieved5July2008. ^"LossesoftheUkrainianNation,p.1".Peremoga.gov.ua(inUkrainian).Archivedfromtheoriginalon25October2007.Retrieved16December2007. ^abStanislavKulchytskyi(1October2004)."ДемографічнівтратиУкраїнивххстолітті"[DemographiclossesofUkraineinthe20century](inUkrainian).Kyiv,Ukraine:DzerkaloTyzhnia.Retrieved20January2021. ^Smale,Alison(27January2014)."SheddingLightonaVastTollofJewsKilledAwayFromtheDeathCamps".TheNewYorkTimes. ^ab"LossesoftheUkrainianNation,p.7".Peremoga.gov.ua(inUkrainian).Archivedfromtheoriginalon15May2005.Retrieved16December2007. ^Overy,p.518 ^abКривошеевГ.Ф.,РоссияиСССРввойнахXXвека:потеривооруженныхсил.Статистическоеисследование(KrivosheevG.F.,RussiaandtheUSSRinthewarsofthe20thcentury:lossesoftheArmedForces.AStatisticalStudy)(inRussian) ^"Holidays".MinistryofForeignAffairsofUkraine.Archivedfromtheoriginalon20April2006.Retrieved24August2008. ^"УкраїнськаСпілкаветеранівАфганістану(воїнів-інтернаціоналістів)-УкраїнціуДругійсвітовій".usva.org.ua.Retrieved13May2021. ^"Ukraine:WorldWarIIanditsaftermath".EncyclopædiaBritannica(feerequired).Archivedfromtheoriginalon29September2007.Retrieved12September2007. ^"ActivitiesoftheMemberStates–Ukraine".UnitedNations.Retrieved17January2011. ^"UnitedNations".U.S.DepartmentofState.Retrieved22September2014.VotingproceduresandthevetopowerofpermanentmembersoftheSecurityCouncilwerefinalizedattheYaltaConferencein1945whenRooseveltandStalinagreedthatthevetowouldnotpreventdiscussionsbytheSecurityCouncil.RooseveltagreedtoGeneralAssemblymembershipforUkraineandByelorussiawhilereservingtheright,whichwasneverexercised,toseektwomorevotesfortheUnitedStates. ^"UnitedNations".U.S.DepartmentofState.Retrieved22September2014.VotingproceduresandthevetopowerofpermanentmembersoftheSecurityCouncilwerefinalizedattheYaltaConferencein1945whenRooseveltandStalinagreedthatthevetowouldnotpreventdiscussionsbytheSecurityCouncil.InApril1945,newU.S.PresidentTrumanagreedtoGeneralAssemblymembershipforUkraineandByelorussiawhilereservingtheright,whichwasneverexercised,toseektwomorevotesfortheUnitedStates. ^abMalynovska,Olena(14June2006)."MigrationandmigrationpolicyinUkraine".Archivedfromtheoriginalon23September2013. ^"TheTransferofCrimeatoUkraine".InternationalCommitteeforCrimea.July2005.Retrieved25March2007. ^"Ukraine–ThelastyearsofStalin'srule".EncyclopædiaBritannica(feerequired).Archivedfromtheoriginalon15January2008.Retrieved28December2007. ^Magocsi,p.644 ^Remy,Johannes(1996)."'Sombreanniversary'ofworstnucleardisasterinhistory–Chernobyl:10thanniversary".UNChronicle.Findarticles.Archivedfromtheoriginalon28June2012.Retrieved16December2007. ^"Geographicallocationandextentofradioactivecontamination".Chernobyl.info.SwissAgencyforDevelopmentandCooperation.Archivedfromtheoriginalon30June2007.Retrieved8January2014. ^"IAEAReport".InFocus:Chernobyl.Retrieved31May2008. ^Subtelny,Orest(2000).Ukraine:AHistory.UniversityofTorontoPress.p. 576.ISBN 0-8020-8390-0. ^"DeclarationofStateSovereigntyofUkraine".VerkhovnaRadaofUkraine.16July1990.Archivedfromtheoriginalon27September2007.Retrieved12September2007. ^"Пророзглядвимогстудентів,якіпроводятьголодування…|від17October1990№ 402-XII". ^"VerkhovnaRadaofUkraineResolutionOnDeclarationofIndependenceofUkraine".VerkhovnaRadaofUkraine.24August1991.Archivedfromtheoriginalon30September2007.Retrieved12September2007. ^Nohlen&Stöver,p1985 ^"SovietLeadersRecall'Inevitable'BreakupOfSovietUnion".RadioFreeEurope.8December2006.Retrieved12September2007. ^Solodkov,A.(Периодраспада:последнийдекабрьСоюза.26декабря1991года).RBC.26December2016. ^""УкраїнінепотрібновиходитиізСНД–вонаніколинебулаінеєзаразчленомцієїструктури"".–КлімкінПавлоАнатолійович|ПавлоКлімкін ^Shen,p.41 ^"UkrainianGDP(PPP)".WorldEconomicOutlookDatabase,October2007.InternationalMonetaryFund(IMF).Retrieved10March2008. ^"CanUkraineAvertaFinancialMeltdown?".WorldBank.June1998.Archivedfromtheoriginalon12July2000.Retrieved16December2007. ^Figliuoli,Lorenzo;Lissovolik,Bogdan(31August2002)."TheIMFandUkraine:WhatReallyHappened".InternationalMonetaryFund.Retrieved16December2007. ^Aslund,Anders;Aslund,Anders(Autumn1995)."EurasiaLetter:Ukraine'sTurnaround".ForeignPolicy.100(100):125–143.doi:10.2307/1149308.JSTOR 1149308. ^"MacroeconomicIndicators".NationalBankofUkraine.Archivedfromtheoriginalon21October2007. ^"Ukraine.Countryprofile"(PDF).WorldBank.Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)on7June2007.Retrieved16December2007. ^Wines,Michael(1April2002)."Leader'sPartySeemstoSlipInUkraine".TheNewYorkTimes.Retrieved24December2007. ^"Ukraine–CountryProfiles–NTI".Archivedfromtheoriginalon29August2014.Retrieved2August2014. ^"TheSupremeCourtfindings"(inUkrainian).SupremeCourtofUkraine.3December2004.Retrieved7July2008. ^"Yushchenko:'LiveAndCarryOn'".CBSNews.30January2005.Archivedfromtheoriginalon25October2012.Retrieved17April2020. ^"Study:DioxinthatpoisonedYushchenkomadeinlab".KyivPost.London.AssociatedPress.5August2009.Retrieved29January2022. ^"YushchenkotoRussia:Handoverwitnesses".KyivPost.28October2009.Retrieved11February2010. ^"Ukraine-IndependentUkraine".EncyclopædiaBritannica(feerequired).Archivedfromtheoriginalon15January2008.Retrieved14January2008. ^Ukrainecomebackkidinnewdeal,BBCNews(4August2006) ^"TymoshenkopickedforUkrainePM",BBCNews(18December2007) ^RomanOlearchyk(31July2013)."LacklustreGDPdatapushUkrainetowardsfreshIMFbailout".FinancialTimes.Kyiv.Retrieved3March2014. ^RussiashutsoffgastoUkraine,BBCNews(1January2009) ^"Q&A:Russia-Ukrainegasrow",BBCNews(20January2009) ^"Ukraineelection:YanukovychurgesTymoshenkotoquit",BBCNews(10February2010).Initsfinalreportontheelection,theOrganizationforSecurityandCo-operationinEuropesaidthattheelection"metmostrequirements"forfairnessandthattheelectionprocesswas"transparent.""Ukraine:PresidentialElection17Januaryand7February2010:OSCE/ODIHRElectionObservationMissionFinalReport"(PDF).OSCE.Warsaw.28April2010.Retrieved20October2015. ^"Q&A:Stand-offinUkraineoverEUagreement".BBCNews.17December2013.Archivedfromtheoriginalon18December2013. ^Balmforth,Richard(11December2013)."Kievprotestersgather,EUdanglesaidpromise".Reuters.Archivedfromtheoriginalon20April2014.Retrieved17October2018. ^Johnson,Juliet;Köstem,Seçkin(May2016)."FrustratedLeadership:Russia'sEconomicAlternativetotheWest".GlobalPolicy.7(2):207–216.doi:10.1111/1758-5899.12301.hdl:11693/36455.Infact,theUkrainiancrisisbrokeoutinNovember2013whenformerPresidentViktorYanukovychannouncedunderRussianpressurethathewouldnolongerpursueanEUAssociationAgreement ^"UkraineRadicalsSteerViolenceasNationalistZealGrows".BloombergNews.11February2014. ^LinaKushch(3December2013)."Donetskview:Ukraine'otherhalf'resentsKievprotests".BBCNews. ^"AUkraineCitySpinsBeyondtheGovernment'sReach".TheNewYorkTimes.15February2014. ^RichardBalmforth(12December2013)."Kievprotestersgather,EUdanglesaidpromise".Reuters.Archivedfromtheoriginalon20April2014.Retrieved20October2015. ^Независимоебюроновостей."ЗадобувзіткненняхуКиєвіпоранено1,5тисячосіб,100зниклибезвісти".nbnews.com.ua.Archivedfromtheoriginalon25February2014. ^Інформаціяпропостраждалихусутичках:Прес-службаМОЗУкраїни[Informationaboutthevictimsofclashes:PressServiceoftheMinistryofHealthofUkraine](inUkrainian).moz.gov.ua.22February2014.Archivedfromtheoriginalon24July2014.Retrieved25September2014. ^"МВСУКРАЇНИ".МіністерствовнутрішніхсправУкраїни.Archivedfromtheoriginalon24September2014.Retrieved25September2014. ^""списокзагиблихпідчаскривавихподійвКиєві" —tsn.ua".ТСН.ua.21February2014. ^ShaunWalker(27January2014)."Ukrainethreatensstateofemergencyafterprotestersoccupyjusticeministry".TheGuardian.Retrieved12May2014. ^Krasnolutska,Daryna."UkraineclashesresumeinKievasforeignmediationurged".Businessweek.com.Archivedfromtheoriginalon6July2014.Retrieved12May2014. ^"OppositionleaderssigndealwithpresidenttoendcrisisinUkraine".FoxNewsChannel.21February2014.Retrieved19November2017. ^Mearsheimer,JohnJ.(2014)."WhytheUkraineCrisisIstheWest'sFault:TheLiberalDelusionsThatProvokedPutin".ForeignAffairs.CouncilonForeignRelations.93(5):77–89.JSTOR 24483306.Retrieved3March2022. ^"PutinaccusesUSoforchestrating2014'coup'inUkraine".AlJazeera.22June2021.Retrieved3March2022. ^"UkrainianMPsvotetooustPresidentYanukovych".BBC.22February2014.Retrieved3March2022. ^Keating,Dave(25February2014)."Ukrainesetsdateforpresidentialelection".Europeanvoice.com.Retrieved12May2014. ^"UkrainianMPsvotetooustPresidentYanukovych",BBCNews,22February2014,accessed1January2016 ^"VladimirPutindescribessecretmeetingwhenRussiadecidedtoseizeCrimea".TheGuardian.AgenceFrance-Presse.9March2015.Retrieved20October2015. ^"PutinrevealsthemomenthegavethesecretorderforRussia'sannexationofCrimea".telegraph.co.uk.9March2015.Archivedfromtheoriginalon9March2015.Retrieved20October2015. ^abTheNewYorkTimes,"DozensofSeparatistsKilledinUkraineArmyAttack",BySABRINATAVERNISEandANDREWROTH,27May2014 ^abDavidM.Herszenhorn(24May2014)."ElectionofPresidentSeenasaBeginningtoRepairingUkraine".NYT.Retrieved12January2015. ^abRTVi,News-scriptforBroadcastof25May2014,EkaterinaAndreeff. ^DavidM.Herszenhorn(27October2014)."UkrainianVotersAffirmEmbraceofEuropeandRejectFarRight;ArseniyYatsenyukandPetroPoroshenkoSolidifyStances".TheNewYorkTimes.Retrieved16April2015. ^"Putin:RussiaPreparedRaisingNuclearReadinessOverCrimea".NewYorkTimes.AssociatedPress.15March2015.Archivedfromtheoriginalon20June2015. ^NeilMacFarquhar(16March2015)."PutinSaysHeWeighedNuclearAlertOverCrimea".nytimes.com.Retrieved20October2015. ^ShaunWalker(9March2015)."RussianspressureUkrainianforcesinCrimeatodisarm".TheGuardian.Retrieved20October2015. ^OlenaGoncharova;KyivPoststaff(16March2015)."Ayearafterreferendum,PutintalksaboutYanukovychrescue,nuclearreadinessoverCrimea".kyivpost.com.Retrieved20October2015. ^"RussianRoulette:TheInvasionofUkraine(DispatchOne)".vicenews.com.5March2014.Retrieved20October2015. ^"Officialresults:97percentofCrimeavotersbackjoiningRussia".cbsnews.com.17March2014.Retrieved20October2015. ^"VotebyU.N.GeneralAssemblyIsolatesRussia,"27March2014,NewYorkTimesretrieved31January2022 ^AlexFelton;Marie-LouiseGumuchian(27March2014)."U.N.GeneralAssemblyresolutioncallsCrimeanreferenduminvalid".cnn.com.Retrieved20October2015. ^ab"Ukraine'sBestPitchMightComeFromtheSidelines,"in"UnitedNationsGeneralAssembly,"23September2014,NewYorkTimesretrieved31January2022 ^abReuters:"Explainer-CantheU.N.DoMoreThanJustTalkAboutRussia,UkraineCrisis?,"31January2022,U.S.News&WorldReport,retrieved31January2022 ^"RussiaVetoesU.N.ResolutiononCrimea,"15March2014,NewYorkTimesretrieved31January2022 ^"Донецькісепаратистиготуютьсясформувати"народнуоблраду"таприєднатисядоРФ".Українськаправда.Retrieved15December2017. ^"RussiaKeepsItsDistanceAfterUkraineSecessionReferendums".TheNewYorkTimes.12May2014. ^AnnaDolgov(21November2014)."Russia'sIgorStrelkov:IAmResponsibleforWarinEasternUkraine".TheMoscowTimes.Retrieved21October2015. ^RomanOlearchyk(7August2014)."RebelleaderquitsDonetskamidinfighting".FinancialTimes.Retrieved21October2015. ^SabrianTavernise;NoahSneider(13July2014)."ForaWeekend,UkraineRebelsMakeLove,NotWar".TheNewYorkTimes.Retrieved21October2015. ^"Ukrainecrisis:War,sicknessandloveinrebel-heldUkraine".BBCNews.21February2022. ^TextofJointDiplomaticStatementonUkraine,17April2014,TheNewYorkTimes,retrieved30April2014 ^"Poroshenkopromisescalm'inhours'amidbattletocontrolDonetskairport".TheGuardian.26May2014.Archivedfromtheoriginalon26May2014.Retrieved29May2014. ^abUriFriedman(26August2014)."A24-StepPlan".TheAtlantic.Retrieved21October2015. ^UkraineratifiesEUassociationagreement.DeutscheWelle.Published16September2014. ^RichardBalmforthandNataliaZinets.Ukrainepresidentsets2020asEUtargetdate,defendspeaceplan.Reuters.Publishedon25September2014. ^JonathanWilkenfeld;KyleBeardsley;DavidQuinn,eds.(2019).ResearchHandbookonMediatingInternationalCrises.EdwardElgarPublishing.pp. 137–.ISBN 978-1-78811-070-9.OCLC 1090728172. ^IanTraynor(13February2015)."Ukraineceasefire:Europeanleadersscepticalpeaceplanwillwork".TheGuardian.Retrieved18June2015. ^